Ottoman Architecture in The Republic of PDF
Ottoman Architecture in The Republic of PDF
Ottoman Architecture in The Republic of PDF
ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN OTTOMAN MACEDONIA, 1383‐1520
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OTTOMAN ARCHITECTURE IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA: A
CRITICAL SURVEY OF KEY MONUMENTS FROM THE FIFTEENTH
THROUGH NINETEENTH CENTURIES
MAXIMILIAN HARTMUTH
Located in what has been described as the core area of the Ottoman realm in Europe, a region once
known as Rumelia or “Rûm‐İli,”1 the modern Republic of Macedonia is a country relatively privileged in
its share of well‐preserved monuments from the more than five centuries of Ottoman rule (ca. 1385‐
1912). Ottoman‐Islamic culture being largely one of cities, it was in this period that a number of urban
settlements were revived and incorporated into a regional network of administrative and economic
centres. They were equipped with an infrastructure that included large and small houses of worship,
educational institutions, water supply systems, public bathhouses, bridges, hostels and hospices for
merchants, travellers, and dervishes, and sometimes also clock towers. The vast majority of these
structures were not built by the Ottoman sultan or the state he represented but by military and civil
administrators, theologians, affluent women, local strongmen, craftsmen, and merchants. They chose
to invest in the construction of monuments and infrastructures for reasons that were – as far as we
are able to reconstruct them – as varied as the group of patrons.
Both the limited research undertaken about these buildings thus far and the limited scope of
this chapter permit that only a small selection of works is discussed in sufficient detail. I have still
attempted to include in this survey monuments from all periods and in multiple locations: not only in
Skopje and Bitola, which stand out for the large number of preserved monuments, but also in Ohrid,
Tetovo, and Štip. Several remarkable buildings in these places, as we shall see, have not withstood the
tests of time. The absence of buildings in other towns, such as Kumanovo, is certainly a shortcoming.
Debatable is also the absence of Christian Ottoman‐period buildings.
In spite of all these deficiencies, this survey aims to be a critical one. It seeks to contextualize
formal phenomena with broader developments in Ottoman society and the architecture it produced.
This survey also suggests a system of presentation along four broad periods, however uneven. It seeks
to identify and analyse their characteristics and the position of individual monuments in them.
Notwithstanding its incompleteness and the gravity of certain omissions, I hope that the resulting
narrative is conclusive enough to bring forth a more nuanced understanding of this architectural
heritage – not as a the quasi‐automatic product of an essentialized ‘culture’ present in a given area at
a given time, but as the consequence of a complex set of interactions between people and groups
with different interests, agendas, and points of reference. It is the logic of their resolution to alter,
through sponsoring architecture, Macedonian cities’ monumental topography that I shall seek to
reconstruct.
1 Literally, “the province of [Eastern] Rome,” i.e. Byzantium. The author would like to express his gratitude to Grigor Boykov,
Zeynep Oğuz, and Suzanne Compagnon for their constructive comments on earlier versions of this paper.
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I. THE EARLY OTTOMAN PERIOD: URBAN LIFE RECONSTITUTED
I.1. The Mosque of Murâd II in Skopje (1436/7)
Although the Macedonian region came under Ottoman sway in the last two decades of the fourteenth
century, the available evidence suggests that it was not before the 1430s that truly significant
architectural projects were undertaken. Prime among these, and a harbinger of the eventual
developments, was the large congregational mosque Murâd II (r. 1421‐44 and 1446‐51) built there on
a hill, possibly on the foundations of the derelict church of St George.2 The mosque completed in
1436/7 has been altered so often as a result of natural or man‐induced catastrophes that to ascertain
its original appearance is no easy assignment: inscriptions report of no less than three major
interventions (1539‐42, 1711/2, and 1911). 3 Most conspicuous is perhaps that this mosque,
patronized by a sultan, is covered with a roof rather than a dome [ill. 1]. It is generally assumed that
the building’s original dome was replaced by the roof in the wake of the destruction caused by the
Habsburgs’ invasion of Skopje in 1689/90. More recently, it has also been suggested that the roof may
reflect its original covering, for the walls of the mosque are too thin to be able to support a large
dome.4
To this could be added that also the size required for a single dome to cover the space in
question is roughly 24m diameter – a size attained in the period of Murâd II only by the Üç Şerefeli
mosque in his capital Edirne, which was completed only in 1447/8, i.e., a decade after his mosque in
Skopje. Considering moreover the strict geometry employed in (even early) Ottoman mosques, the
fact that the window axes do not communicate with the arcade in the interior, which supports the flat
ceiling and divides the space into three naves, makes it very unlikely that this was the original
arrangement. More research is needed to bring forth a reconstruction that is anything more than
speculative. It might also not be entirely implausible to suggest that the fifteenth‐century building was
covered with a pyramid roof with an internal wooden dome – much like the one the same patron
sponsored, in the same decade, when the Great Mosque at Didymoteichon was renovated.5
Irrespective of the form, the fact that Murâd II committed to build a large congregational
mosque in Skopje cannot be underestimated. It probably must be taken to equal a decision to upgrade
its standing to a regional metropolis. At that time, comparable buildings were only found in the
Thracian twin residences of Edirne and Didymoteichon.
I.2. The Marcher Lords’ Contribution: Zâviye and Hân of İshâk Beğ
A similarly important impetus to the development of Skopje as an urban centre below the old fortress
(kale) was given by the frontier lord İshâk Beğ (d. 1445) and, eventually, his son İsâ Beğ. The former
sponsored, also in the 1430s, a cluster of buildings that included a zâviye‐type hospice (dated to
2 This is suggested in Machiel Kiel, “Un héritage non désiré: le patrimoine architectural islamique ottoman dans l’Europe du
Sud‐Est, 1370–1912,” in: Études balkaniques, XII (2005), pp. 15‐82, cit. p. 62. See also Mihailo Popović, “Die Topographie der
mittelalterlichen Stadt Skopje zwischen byzantinischem und serbischem Reich (13.‐14. Jh.),” in: Inicijal: Časopis za
srednjovekovne studije, III (2015), pp. 35‐55.
3 For these inscriptions, see Lidiya Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp’te Osmanlı mimarî eserleri. Istanbul: ENKA, 2008, pp. 44‐51,
which is the lavishly illustrated Turkish edition of a fundamental work originally published as Lidija Kumbaradži‐Bogojević,
Osmanliski spomenici vo Skopje. Skopje: IZRM, 1998.
4 Kiel, “Un héritage non désiré,” p. 63.
5 For a section drawing of this building closed to the public, see Ottoman architecture in Greece. Ed. Ersi Brouskari. Athens:
Hellenic Ministry of Culture, 2008, pp. 330‐332. The dating to 1420 is erroneous, however. For the most likely building
chronology, see Machiel Kiel, “The quatrefoil plan in Ottoman architecture reconsidered in light of the ‘Fethiye Mosque’ of
Athens,” in: Muqarnas, XIX (2002), pp. 109‐122, here p. 112, 120.
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1438/9 by inscription), a medrese (not extant), a hammâm (not extant), and two hâns.6 Of the latter
category survives the Sulu Hân, a utilitarian two‐storied structure set around a courtyard [ill. 2]. Once
serving merchants, it today houses a museum and an arts faculty.
İshâk Beğ’s zâviye [ills. 3‐4] lost its original function already during the Ottoman period: once
intended to accommodate and feed travellers (including dervishes) and probably his institution’s staff,
it was converted into a congregational mosque before 1519.7 This conversion, possibly the result of
sixteenth‐century policies seeking to enforce the regular attendance of congregational prayer by
populations believed to have had heterodox leanings,8 necessitated serious structural interventions to
the building: two dividing walls were torn down to facilitate communal prayer by a larger congregation.
Moreover, a minaret was built, and so may have been the portico. The traces of these interventions
are still observable today, especially on the interior of the building, where they are evoked by the
unbalanced location of the arches between the various spaces. To the interior was moreover added a
pulpit (minber) from which the preacher (hatîb) addressed the congregation on Fridays.9
Initially not meant to serve a large congregation for communal prayer, İshâk Beğ’s T‐shaped
zâviye was located not in the centre of the developing commercial district (today’s “Čaršija”), where
he had built his hâns and the hammâm (and the revenues from which were funding the zâviye and the
medrese), but in its periphery. The fact alone that he chose to build a high‐level educational institution
in a town that was in the 1430s still on a warring frontier is interesting enough. His vakfîye reveals that
the medrese students received somewhat inflated stipends for studying at this school. 10 Quite
evidently, İshâk Beğ was intent on developing ‘his’ Skopje, that is, the town in which his hegemony
(and, eventually, the hegemony of his family) was acknowledged, into an urban centre of some repute.
Unforgiving in the battlefield, at home he promoted commerce and culture.
I.3. The Marcher Lords’ Contribution: İshâkoğlu İsâ Beğ’s Legacy
İshâk Beğ’s policy was continued by his favourite son, İsâ Beğ, whom he appointed not only the
manager (mütevellî) of his endowments in Skopje – a prestigious as well as lucrative position – but
who also became a frontier lord (ucbeği) in his own right. İsâ Beğ expanded the Ottoman domain
northward into Bosnia, where he became the founder of a new town later known as Sarajevo. He also
sponsored a number of important buildings in Skopje.
A zâviye was built only posthumously, in 1475/6 (inscription)11, in accordance with his
stipulations. Like his father’s, it was located outside the commercial centre of town and followed a T‐
shaped plan. The major difference is that İsâ Beğ’s building is characterized by two domed main units.
This and other features remind of the contemporaneous Has Murâd Paşa Câmii (1471/2) in Istanbul‐
6 The vakfîye is published in Hasan Kaleši, Najstariji vakufski dokumenti u Jugoslaviji na arapskom jeziku. Priština: Zajednica
Naučnih Ustanova: Kosova 1972, pp. 89‐109. The document, composed in February 1445, reveals that İshâk actually died
before legalizing a vakfîye himself. Four Muslims, all converts to Islam, testified before the court that İshâk had willed his son
İsâ to become his vakf’s administrator after his death.
7 This is the date given in an inscription that refers to the building as a câmi – that is, as a full‐fledged mosque in which Friday
sermons are held. For these inscriptions and further information, see Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, pp. 61‐75.
8 On this point, see Gülru Necipoğlu, Age of Sinan: architectural culture in the Ottoman Empire. London: Reaktion, 2005, p.
48f.
9 The minber, again, is a feature not found in prayer‐houses (mescids) or zâviyes.
10 According to the vakf stipulations (cf. Kaleši, Najstariji vakufski dokumenti, p. 108), the head teacher (müderris) received 12
dirhems (silver coins) daily and students received 8. Food and lodging were provided and no taxes had to be paid. The vakf
moreover paid salaries to the şeyh of the imâret (5 dirhem per day), the imâm (4), the mü’ezzin (3), an accountant (2), a
courier (1), a porter (1), and ten recitors connected to the imâret (1). Moreover, the kadı of Skopje was to receive 1 dirhem
daily for keeping an eye on the proper management of the vakf.
11 For this building and its inscriptions, see also Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, pp. 90‐101.
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Aksaray. Perhaps the manager of the family’s endowment requisitioned someone from the capital to
plan this building and oversee its construction. Like İsâ’s father’s zâviye, this building, too, was
converted into a mosque, possibly around the same time.
In addition to the zâviye, two more remarkable structures built by this patron survive: the
Kapan Hân, a fairly typical (if early) representative of this type, and the so‐called Çifte Hammâm [ill. 2,
5a] (“double bathhouse,” used by both males in females in separate sections), which is presently used
as a museum gallery. Looking massive but ultimately utilitarian from the outside, the interior is of an
almost palatial quality [ill. 6]. There are preserved large sections of elaborate and stylish stucco
detailing. Later bathhouses usually display more reserved ornamentation, 12 and it is very fortunate
that in Skopje the interiors of two stunning fifteenth‐century bathhouses are preserved. Beyond
hygiene, at the time they were built these hammâms must have played an important social function,
and this seems to be echoed in the attention devoted to their embellishment.
The mausoleum (türbe) behind the İshâk Beğ İmâreti was probably built for İsâ Beğ’s brother,
Paşa Beğ (not to be confused with his İshâk Beğ’s father, Paşa Yiğid Beğ).13 This hexagonal structure
lacks an inscription, but a date in the second half of the fifteenth century seems reasonable on stylistic
and other grounds. For the Balkans, this türbe [ill. 3] is unique: on the exterior are found blue and
turquoise tiles, arranged as a geometrically patterned frieze around the dome’s drum. Below the drum,
on all of the structure’s six sides, we find triangular tile pieces arranged in flower and star‐like patterns.
I am inclined to speculate that this türbe and İsâ Beğ’s zâviye may date to the same time, the 1470s,
and that men dispatched from Istanbul or Edirne are to be credited for both. This would better explain
the unusual tiles and other ‘eastern’ motifs, which were available in Istanbul in a decade that also saw
the construction of Mahmûd Paşa’s tiled mausoleum and the so‐called Tiled Kiosk (Çinili Köşk).
Between the 1430s and the 1490s, at which time a new class of patrons entered the stage, the
development of Skopje was to a considerable extent due to three generations of the aforementioned
family of frontier gentry. Skopje began to develop along, in broad terms, a North‐South axis in the
depression between the fortress and the Gazi Baba hill. This axis was emphasized by a number of
important monuments aligned along a representative thoroughfare, which began at the stone bridge
(ill. 7) over the river Vardar built by Murâd II or Mehmed II. After a while one passed by at least four
buildings sponsored by Paşa Yiğid Beğ,14 his son İshâk Beğ, and his grandson İsâ Beğ: two hâns, a
monumental double bathhouse, and two zâviyes, as well as a number of shops built to support the
maintenance of the charitable institutions and other buildings known to have existed. This
‘monumental axis’ was reinforced in the last quarter of the century by the construction of the Dâvûd
Paşa bathhouse [Il. 5b] (which, like that built by İsâ Beğ, is generously ornamented internally) and the
Burmalı mosque (see below). These latter buildings also announce the end of Skopje as a ‘frontier
metropolis’ and its integration into a developing Ottoman urban network, in which it was to become a
major cultural, economic, and administrative centre.
12 The key study on the architecture and ornamentation of type of buildings is Machiel Kiel, “The Ottoman hamam in the
Balkans,” in: Art and archaeology research papers, IX (1976), pp. 87‐97.
13 For a brief discussion, see Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, p. 74.
14 For the (not extant) buildings of Paşa Yiğid Beğ in Skopje, see Grigor Boykov, “Reshaping urban space in the Ottoman
Balkans: a study on the architectural development of Edirne, Plovdiv, and Skopje (14th‐15th centuries),” in: Centres and
peripheries in Ottoman architecture: rediscovering a Balkan heritage. Ed. Maximilian Hartmuth. Sarajevo/Stockholm: Cultural
Heritage without Borders, 2010, pp. 32‐45, cit. pp. 41‐5. For two more buildings built by Paşa Yiğid Beğ’s sons, see
Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, pp. 84‐9.
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II. THE MIDDLE OTTOMAN PERIOD: TRIUMPH OF THE SINGLE‐DOMED MOSQUE
In a relatively short period around the year 1500, the cities of Macedonia were equipped with a
considerable number of large mosques. In Skopje, then a town of maybe 4‐5,000 inhabitants, were
built within a mere decade three new large mosques intended for congregational worship – all by
military governors with the titles of paşa or beğ. Oddly, this came at a time of demographic stagnation
in Skopje, even decrease.15 Rather than to demographic development, they seem to have owed their
construction to the fact that a certain class of patrons had ascended and desired to have that
represented through sponsoring a type of building whose patronage was previously restricted to
sultans: the Friday mosque.
II.1. Domes on Pendentives: Mustafâ Paşa Câmii in Skopje and Forebears
Securely dated by inscription to 1492, when its construction on a slope below the fortress was
completed, this building [ill. 2, 8] is one of the oldest and best‐preserved Friday mosques built by
Ottoman military governors anywhere. Like the Murâdiye, similarly towering over the bazaar district, it
makes use of the area’s topography so as to achieve a high degree of visibility.16 With its tall and
slender minaret and three‐bay portico fronting a large single‐domed space, it is an early example of a
type that came to be dominant thereafter.
Remarkable is the similarity with the nearby precedent of the mosque of Mehmed II in
Prishtina. Dated by inscription to 1460/1,17 that building was entirely built of cut stone blocks.
However, the Mustafâ Paşa mosque uses ashlar and marble for the portico, while the remainder is
constructed of cloisonné masonry (i.e., stones framed with thin red bricks). The latter one may
consider the traditional – and presumably less costly – building technique in the area. Otherwise the
two buildings are remarkably similar; they also may be understood as more than formal relatives.
Their entrance portals do not feature intricately carved stalactite/honeycomb ornamentation (which
can be surveyed, for instance, at the Yahyâ Paşa mosque, discussed below). Instead, Mustafâ Paşa
mosque’s marble portal [ill. 9] impresses with elegantly simple forms: a multi‐foil arch is set inside a
pointed arch. The wooden door with geometric mouldings is one of the most remarkable in the region.
The interior [ill. 10] moreover preserves a marble pulpit (minber) and prayer niche (mihrâb).
II.2. Domes on Squinches: The Mosques of Yahyâ Paşa (Skopje) and İshâk Çelebi (Bitola)
Dated by inscription to 1503/4, the lavishly ornamented mosque of Yahyâ Paşa in Skopje [ill. 11] lost
what must once have been its principal attraction: a large dome, ca. 18m in diameter. This was a
considerable feat, for even the domes of mosques built by the reigning sultan in Edirne and Istanbul
(main dome of Bâyezîd mosque) were smaller. At the time of its building, at least for half a century,18 it
appears to have been the largest Ottoman mosque dome in Europe outside Istanbul (Fâtih mosque)
15 According to data provided by Metodije Sokoloski (“Le développement de quelques villes dans le sud des Balkans au XVe et
XVIe siècles,” in: Balcanica, I [1970], pp. 81‐106, cit. p. 83), Skopje’s population can be estimated to ca. 4,900 in 1467/8,
around two thirds of which were Muslims. In 1519 the population may have sunk to ca. 4,600, with a slightly higher Muslim
percentage. The downward trend actually continues until 1528, when the population may have dropped to ca. 4,400, with
now three quarters Muslims. All of these figures must be considered very approximate; they can only serve as an indicator
for Skopje’s actual population and are based on the assumption that the average Ottoman household had five members.
16 This was not always the case. None of the sixteenth‐century domed mosques of Sarajevo, for instance, are in elevated
locations.
17 Cf. Nimetullah Hafız & Mücahit Asim, “Priştine kitâbeleri,” in: Vakiflar Dergisi, XI (1977), pp. 205‐15, cit. p. 206.
18 A half‐century later, comparably sized domes were built at mosques in Trikkala and Sofia attributed to Mimâr Sinân. Cf.
Necipoğlu, Age of Sinan, pp. 558‐60.
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and Edirne (Üç Şerefeli). Its minaret, exceeding 55 meters (including the spire),19 must have been the
tallest in the Balkans outside Edirne. A further degree of monumentality was added by the fact that
the mosque, exceptionally, was built not of cloisonné but of finely‐cut ashlar.
The probably Albanian‐born convert Yahyâ Paşa, who sponsored the building, was a successful
military governor. He was also the son‐in‐law of Bâyezîd II, which may explain his confidently
ambitious patronage. Passing away in Edirne in 1509, he had his body brought to Skopje in order to be
buried next to his mosque.20 Unfortunately, the monument lost its prominent dome as a result of the
Habsburg invasion of 1689/90. It was consequently replaced with a rather unseemly, if
architectonically remarkable, pyramidal roof. The mosque of Yahyâ Paşa remains an interesting
monument for its ornamentation: in the portico are found some of the best examples of
stalactite/honeycomb ornament (mukarnas) in the region and lavish epigraphs using calligraphy [ill.
12].
In Bitola, the so‐called İshâkiye, sponsored by the kadı İshâk Efendi/Çelebi (d. 1512/3) in
21
1506/7, is traditionally seen as that city’s most prominent Muslim house of worship. Here, the
ambition of the İshâkiye’s patron was not expressed in its ornamentation, which cannot rival
contemporary buildings in Skopje, but in its large dome (14.5m in diameter at a height of 26m) and a
minaret around 45m tall.22 While superseded by those of the Yahyâ Paşa mosque in Skopje, on whose
original architecture it may have been modelled, the İshâkiye’s minaret and dome, resting not on
pendentives but on squinches, still belong to the most ambitious of their type in the Balkans.
The background to this remarkable enterprise in a town that had thus far largely lacked a
monumental Islamic infrastructure is likely to be sought in Bitola’s demographic growth in the
previous decades. Both its population and its Muslim community double between 1467/8 and 1519, at
which point tax registers indicate a figure of maybe around 4,500 inhabitants (72% Muslims).23 This
rapid development had actually made Bitola an equal to Skopje in terms of population;24 yet virtually
all of the area’s truly remarkable monuments were built in the (demographically stagnating) city on
the Vardar. The İshâkiye must have been built in recognition of Bitola’s growth and the perceived
necessity of a more iconic monument, confirming the town’s rise to an Islamic centre of regional
importance. While the paşas and beğs preferred to build in Skopje, which by 1500 had become an
architectural showcase for the region, in the case of the Bitola İshâkiye a kadı, himself the son of a kadı,
assumed responsibility to correct that discrepancy.25
II.3. Prominent question marks: İmâret Câmii in Ohrid and Burmalı Câmi in Skopje
These two buildings also count among the earliest examples of Friday mosques in Macedonia built by
non‐sultanic patrons. Unfortunately, neither has survived the test of time. The former was built at
19 Cf. Ekrem Hakkı Ayverdi, Avrupa'da Osmanlı mimârî eserleri, III. Istanbul: İstanbul Fetih Cemiyeti, 1981, p. 270.
20 For a detailed biography of Yahyâ Paşa, see Hedda Reindl, Männer um Bāyezīd: eine prosopographische Studie über die
Epoche Sultan Bāyezīds II. (1481 ‐ 1512). Berlin: Schwarz, 1983, pp. 336‐45.
21 Mudžaid Asimov, “Bitolski arapski zapisi od XVI vek,” in: Bitola niz vekovite, IV (2001), pp. 33‐42, p. 36 for the tombstone
inscription (which names him İshâk Çelebi, son of İsâ) and a minor inscription from 1843/4 on the mosque’s minaret; p. 37 for
the building inscription.
22 Cf. Krum Tomovski, “Džamii vo Bitola,” in: Godišen zbornik na Tehničkiot Fakultet 1956/7 (1957), pp. 29‐60, cit. p. 38.
23 Sokoloski, “Développement,” p. 89.
24 Ibid., p. 83.
25 Unlike the other three mosques of Bitola discussed in this paper, the İshâkiye continues to serve the city’s Muslim
community. The closed and roofed porch we see today is due to a later intervention. Initially, the building had a semi‐open
three‐bay portico, as most other mosques of this type. The vakfîye of İshâk Çelebi is published in Kaleši, Najstariji vakufski
dokumenti, pp. 89‐110.
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some point in the late fifteenth century on the site of a large medieval church previously converted to
function as a mosque.26 Its portico, still visible in the nineteenth century, when the so‐called İmâret
Câmii (a.k.a. Hünkâr Câmii)27 was already ruined, made use of spoliated columns and capitals, perhaps
originating from the former church on site.28 According to the Ottoman traveller Evliyâ Çelebi, who
visited Ohrid in 1670, shortly before the town was hit by a devastating earthquake, a plate over the
portal’s lintel featured a calligraphic inscription of the Islamic profession of faith, or şehâdet (“there is
no god but God and Muhammad is his messenger”). He moreover specified the inscription to be in the
(large‐lettered) celî style of calligraphy.29 This traveller also related that the İmâret Câmii had another
attraction: as the mosque’s elevated location must have indeed made problematic water supply – a
requisite for the mandatory ablution before prayers – an engineer had been hired to bore a channel
through the rocks and, using water wheels, bring up water from the lake.30 The well‐preserved ruins of
this mosque, which had once featured a dome on pendentives, were demolished as recently as 2001.
Harshly criticized by international commentators,31 the mosque’s ruins had to make place for the
speculative reconstruction of the medieval church of St Panteleimon, on whose site the mosque had
been built.
Unfortunately, little conclusive research has been conducted on the so‐called Burmalı Câmi,
once located just behind Skopje’s landmark stone bridge [ill. 7]. It was demolished in 1925 in order to
make place for the Officers’ Club and the‘King Peter Square (the later ‘Macedonia Square’, or Ploštad
Makedonija). Built in cloisonné masonry, its Arabic inscription yielded the date 1495 and credited its
construction to a certain Mehmed Beğ.32 Though not stated on the inscription, he appears to have
belonged to the then influential Karlı‐zâde (formerly Tocco) family.33 Aside from the typical five‐bayed
portico, old photographs show a curious architecture: three lead‐covered tunnel vaults appear to have
divided the interior into naves of the same height. This unprecedented form most likely reflected a
rebuilding in the wake of the 1689 catastrophe, not its fifteenth‐century appearance. The original
26 As whitewash detected over the excavated remains of the medieval frescoes seem to prove, that church was first
converted into a mosque and then demolished in order to be replaced by a mosque built ex novo. See Dimče Kočo,
“Clement's monastery ‘Sv. Pantelejmon’ and the excavations at ‘Imaret’ in Ohrid,” in: Climent of Ohrid. Ed. Ljube Isaiev.
Skopje: Makedonska Knjiga, 1968, pp. 63‐97, cit. p. 80. The circumstances under which the church was converted and
eventually demolished are not entirely clear. For a mosque, the exposed and isolated site far from the Muslim quarters of
town, which (at least at some point) tended to be located outside the walls in the lower town, is somewhat unusual.
27 The mosque is traditionally connected to a certain Yûsuf/Sinân Çelebi, who was buried in 1493 next to the mosque.
However, his 1491 vakfîye (published in Kaleši, Najstariji vakufski dokumenti, pp. 111‐41) does not actually mention a
mosque. It is likely that the mosque acquired its name from the soup kitchen (imâret in late Ottoman Turkish) which he had
built next to it. Its other name might refer to a sultanic sponsorship of its conversion or rebuilding as an Ottoman structure.
28 Johann Georg von Hahn, Reise durch die Gebiete des Drin und Wardar, im Auftrage der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften
unternommen im Jahre 1863. Vienna: Kaiserlich‐Königliche Hof‐ und Staatsdruckerei, 1867, p. 121.
29 Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi, VIII. Eds. Seyit Ali Kahraman, Yücel Dağlı, and Robert Dankoff. Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları,
2003, p. 328. The same formula carved onto a marble plate found on a contemporary mosque in the Macedonian town of
Serres, the Mehmed Beğ Câmii (1492). For this mosque and the inscription, see Heath Lowry, The shaping of the Ottoman
Balkans: 1350‐1500; the conquest, settlement & infrastructural development of Northern Greece. Istanbul: Bahçeşehir Univ.,
2010, p. 158.
30 Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi, VIII, p. 330.
31 See Gianclaudio Macchiarella et al. Cultural Heritage in South‐East Europe: Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Republic of):
mission report, 14‐23 November 2004. Venice: UNESCO, 2005, p. 43: “The building is the result of an almost total and
arbitrary reconstruction of St. Clement’s Byzantine church … The intervention, understandable under the patriotic fervour of
Macedonian nationalism and devotion to St. Clement’s thaumaturgical figure, cannot be justified either from a scientific
point of view or in relation to international standards ‐ clearly defined by international restoration charts.”
32 For this inscription, cf. Gliša Elezović, “Turski Spomenici u Skoplju [II],” in: Glasnik skopskog naučnog društva, II (1929), pp.
243‐61, cit. p. 252.
33 On this family see also note 39.
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34 These developments are masterfully described in Gülru Necipoğlu, “A kanun for the state, a canon for the arts: the classical
Üniversitesi (Erzurum), 1995, p. 63. The population of Skopje in the last quarter of the sixteenth century thus roughly
matched that of European towns like Dresden, Leipzig, or Bamberg. Cf. Jan De Vries, European urbanization, 1500‐1800.
London: Methuen & Co., 1984, pp. 272‐3 (app. 1). In the Ottoman context, Skopje in the 1570s was still larger than Sofia,
perhaps almost twice the size of Bitola, but already half that of Sarajevo, and three times smaller than the old Ottoman
capital Edirne. For these numbers, cf. Ömer Lutfi Barkan, “Essai sur les données statistiques des registres de recensement
dans l’Empire ottoman aux XVe et XVIe siècles,” in: Journal of the economic and social history of the Orient, I/1 (1957), pp. 9‐
36, cit. p. 27.
36 For these mines under Ottoman rule, see Robert Anhegger, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Bergbaus im Osmanischen Reich, I.
Istanbul: Marmara Basımevi, 1943, pp. 151‐2.
37 This is at least suggested in Kaleši, Najstariji vakufski dokumenti, p. 222.
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the fortress‐like structure projects from its main body. This hân is one of the most impressive and
best‐preserved example of premodern secular architecture in the Balkans.38
III.2. Mosque of Hüseyin Şâh Beğ and Mausoleum of Alî Beğ in Saraj
Another interesting monument, built a few years later, is the mosque of Hüseyin Şâh Beğ (1553/4, by
inscription), located not in Skopje proper but in the village of Saraj on the Vardar along the road to
Tetovo. Its nobly descended patron appears to have been the offspring of the Ottoman princess Hümâ
Şâh Sultân and, on the father’s side, a member of the Karlı‐zâde family (mentioned above).39 The
village later known as Saraj seems to have been founded by him. Hüseyin Şâh Beğ built there not only
a mosque, but also a medrese, a bridge over the Vardar, and a mill, and had himself buried there in
1566/7. The very name of the village also suggests that there had once been located his palace, or
sarây. Also Hüseyin Şâh’s son Alî Beğ was buried in the mosque’s cemetery in 1583, which may
suggest that the family, or a branch of it, was to some extent based here in the vicinity of Skopje, the
son probably installed as the manager (mütevellî) of his father’s endowment (vakf).40
The mosque is fairly typical single‐domed mosque with flattened corners on the exterior
underneath the dome, marking the location of the squinches in the interior. What is atypical is the size
of the domed hexagonal mausoleum, which almost rivals the mosque, and, overall, the relative
monumentality of both buildings in an esssentially peripheral setting. The mosque is largely devoid of
ornament, possibly the result of the events of 1689/90. Mihrâb and minber are modern fittings; some
large but restrained mukarnas‐type ornament is found below the dome and, in a smaller‐scale and
more intricate manner, under the minaret balcony.
III.3. Three Later Single‐Domed Mosques in Bitola
In Bitola were built in this period two more large domed mosques: the Yeni Câmi (New Mosque) of
1553/4 by Mahmûd Efendi, and the Haydar Kadı mosque of 1561/2.41 Curiously, both mosques were
again built by kadıs, as Bitola’s earliest preserved mosque, discussed above.42 Most interesting about
the Yeni Câmi is perhaps how closely it follows plan and design of the earlier İshâkiye on the other side
of the Dragor river; it is practically a downsized replica. Like at the İshâkiye the originally three‐bayed
porch was enlarged and closed in later centuries. Recent excavations on the site of the mosque have
revealed that it was built on the site of a medieval church as well as an earlier mosque.43 Unique in the
Balkan context, Bitola’s Yeni Câmi features a portal framed by faiences with cobalt blue and turquoise
decorative patterns on white ground. Their arrangement framing the portal is absolutely unusual; the
question over their date and provenance remains to be solved. While the walls of the Yeni Câmi are
38 Like the stone bridge and the aqueduct, this building was once wrongly believed to be a pre‐Ottoman work, though both
the architecture and the sources leave no doubt about these structures’ Ottoman provenance.
39 This family was founded by a convert from the Tocco family (in the generation of Carlo II Tocco, hence “son of Carlo,” Karlı‐
zâde) which, originally from southern Italy, had come to rule western parts of Greece (the “despotate” of Epirus) in the
fifteenth century. The historical data is far from conclusive. For the discussion so far, see Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, pp.
138‐42; Elezović, “Turski spomenici u Skoplju [II],” and Franz Babinger, Aufsätze und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte
Südosteuropas und der Levante, I. Munich: Südosteuropa‐Verlagsgesellschaft, 1962, pp. 370‐7.
40 For these inscriptions, see the sections in the works by Elezović and Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç cited in the preceding footnote.
41 Asimov, “Bitolski arapski zapisi od XVI vek,” p. 39f.
42 The interesting anomaly of Bitola’s major monuments having been built by kadıs is stressed in Machiel Kiel, “Die Rolle des
Kadı und der Ulema als Förderer der Baukunst in den Provinzzentren des Osmanischen Reiches," in: Frauen, Bilder und
Gelehrte: Studien zu Gesellschaft und Künsten im Osmanischen Reich, II. Ed. Sabine Prätor & Christoph K. Neumann. Istanbul:
Simurg, 2002, pp. 569‐601.
43 Robert Mihajlovski, “Bitolskata Jeni džamija vo svetlinata na najnovite arheološki otkritija,” in: Patrimonium, II/3‐6 (2009),
pp. 183‐8.
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again built employing the cloisonné technique, as did its model the İshâkiye, the smaller Haydar Kadı
mosque is built of bands of brick and stone. We again see the flattened corners, a three‐bay portico,
and a single dome.
Occasionally noted is the similarity between the Haydar Kadı mosque and the probably slightly
later mosque of Hüsâmeddîn Paşa in Štip.44 The latter was built on an exposed hilltop location at an
unspecified date, probably at the end of the 1560s; it lacks an inscription. While at first sight, Štip’s
only domed mosque appears like a typical Ottoman mosque of the period (if without its minaret,
which has been truncated), it is in fact unusually colourful. The patron had his mosque built of
yellowish stone quarried in northeast Macedonia; the portico’s arches, the central one slightly raised
in order to accentuate the entrance section, feature alternating stones in red and pale. Of the four
columns supporting the porch, it is noteworthy that three are of white and one is of green marble – a
material then much prized due its increased scarcity. The central columns’ capitals feature flat
‘honeycomb’ ornament and the other ones chevrons. Apparently some thought went into these
arrangements. Of an unusual shape is also the semi‐decagonal mihrâb projection on the south‐eastern
wall (facing Mecca).
The location of the mosque on an exposed hilltop across the river from the then centre of Štip,
sprawling in the plain below the abandoned fortress, marks the city’s southward expansion. It became
the nucleus of a new quarter in this part of town after Štip had experienced a considerable increase of
its Muslim population, which by mid‐century had become the settlement’s majority.45 Deliberate also
seems to have been its location next to the mausoleum of the dervish saint Muhyiddîn Baba, after
whom also the mosque is sometimes locally called.46
III.4. The Caravanserai at Štip and Related Buildings
While little of note was built in Skopje and Bitola after ca. 1575, much was still in store for Štip and, to
a lesser extent, Ohrid. After the completion of the stately mosque just discussed, Štip received a
sudden boost of development in the 1580s due to the collaborative effort of the Štip‐born Abdülkerîm
Efendi (d. 1605/6, a.k.a. [Küçük] Emîr Sultân and/or simply İstibî, i.e. “of Štip”) and the fabulously
wealthy Ottoman military governor Koca Sinân Paşa (d. 1595) – an Albanian born in a village halfway
between Skopje and Prishtina.47 Şeyh Abdülkerîm Efendi had made a steep career in Istanbul, where
he was a popular preacher (vâiz) at the exalted Süleymâniye mosque – a very prestigious and
influential post.48
44 The fundamental study of the mosque at Štip is Machiel Kiel, “Some little‐known monuments of Ottoman Turkish
architecture in the Macedonian province: Štip, Kumanovo, Prilep, Strumitsa,” Güney‐Doğu Avrupa Araştırmaları Dergisi, IV/V
(1976), pp. 153‐96, reprinted as art. 8 in his more widely available Studies on the Ottoman architecture of the Balkans.
Aldershot: Variorum, 1990.
45 The data provided by Sokoloski (“Développement,” pp. 98‐9) suggests a population of just over ca 2,300 (35% Muslim) in
1530 and a population of just below 4,000 (59%) in 1573. The number of Muslims in Štip tripled in this period.
46 According to legend, the mosque was built on the site of the church of St Elijah (Sv. Ilija). It is visited by Štip’s Christians
annually on August 2, the day of St Elijah. See Elizabeta Koneska, Zaednični svetilišta = Shared shrines. Skopje: Makedonski
Centar za Fotografija, 2009, n. p.
47 The Ottoman traveller Âşık Mehmed (cf. his Menâzırü'l‐avâlim. Ed. Mahmut Ak. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2007, p. 1004)
saw in Štip in 1590 a building he refers to as a “ribât‐ı ‘âlî,” which in all probability was the kervansarây built by Abdülkerîm
Efendi and Sinân Paşa (see below), in which case it would have been built prior to this date. Evliyâ Çelebi at least reports no
comparably exalted building in Štip serving the needs of travellers.
48 For the increased popularity of preachers in Istanbul around 1600, and Abdülkerîm Efendi specifically, see Baki Tezcan, The
second Ottoman Empire: political and social transformation in the early modern world. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2010, pp. 121‐5.
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In his name, though with (probably considerable) contributions by Sinân Paşa, was built in Štip
a vast caravanserai, a bathhouse, a bezzâzistân (or bedesten), a dervish convent (tekye), one or two
bridges, and a soup kitchen providing free food for gentleman and pauper alike. Of these buildings
only the bezzâzistân has survived. It is a bulky three‐spaced building presently serving as an exhibition
space.
However, most remarkable must have been the caravanserai: it was described by Evliyâ Çelebi
in 1662 as a fortress‐like two‐storied structure covered with lead. Fifty cells for travellers staying
overnight (free of charge) were located on both floors. They were set around a courtyard large enough
for “1000 camels, horses, or mules” – certainly an exaggeration. In the centre of the courtyard were
located a pool and a mescid. The caravanserai, the reported shape of which actually reminds more of a
hân, was located outside the bazaar, from which it was separated by a large square (meydân). In the
centre of this cobble‐stoned square (which must have been located in the eastern part of town, north
of the river) was a fountain pool with running water, serving man and animal alike.49
III.5. The Medrese of Siyâvuş Paşa in Ohrid
Probably roughly around the same time, that is, around 1590, was built in Ohrid, around then a town
of ca. 2,500‐3000, equally divided between non‐Muslims and Muslims, 50 a medrese under the
patronage of the three‐time grand vizier Siyâvuş Paşa (d. 1601/2).51 The colophons of two manuscripts
in the collection of National and University Library at Skopje, which were produced at that medrese in
the 1640s suggest that the institution had an active scriptorium.52
A rather detailed description of the medrese’s architecture is provided once more by Evliyâ
Çelebi, who saw it in 1670 and found it remarkable. The building was located on the lakeshore,
opposite the Hacı Kâsım mosque (not extant).53 It was evidently dominating enough to have the whole
quarter around it named after it. The building itself, surrounded by pleasant gardens, was an enclosed
49 It has not been established when the caravanserai and the other Ottoman buildings of Štip were demolished, but it may
have happened as early as during the invasion by the ‘Holy League’ in 1689.
50 Machiel Kiel, “Okhri,” in: Encyclopaedia of Islam [2], VIII. Leiden: Brill, 1995, pp. 164‐8, cit. p. 165.
51 For the career of this man, a native of Hungary or Croatia, as well as for a refutation of the hypothesis that this building
may never have existed (cf. Kiel, “Okhri,” p. 166), see Maksimilijan Hartmut [Maximilian Hartmuth], “Otomanskata
arhitektura vo Makedonija: kritički osvrt kon najvažnite spomenici od periodot megju XV i XIX vek,” in: Makedonija,
mileniumski kulturno‐istoriski fakti, IV. Eds. Srgjan Kerim & Jovan Donev. Skopje: Media Print Makedonija, 2013, pp. 2051‐
2092, here p. 2088f. The medrese is not mentioned in the defter of 1583 (cf. Kiel, “Okhri,” p. 166), which might suggest that it
was built after that date.
52 These manuscripts (interestingly, on philological rather than theological subjects) are mentioned in Marijana Kavčić,
“Arabic manuscripts of the National and University Library ‘St. Kliment Ohridski’, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia,” in: From
codicology to technology: Islamic manuscripts and their place in scholarship. Eds. Stefanie Brinkmann & Beate Wiesmüller.
Berlin: Frank & Timme, 2009, pp. 175‐95, cit. p. 183. Fehim Bajraktarević (“Turski spomenici u Ohridu,” in: Prilozi za
orijentalnu filologiju, VI‐VII [1957], pp. 111‐35, cit. p. 128) found an “ulica Kodža Sijavuš‐pašine medrese” in a register of
streets in Ohrid. The 1640s date of the manuscripts also proves that its patron was indeed the mentioned Siyâvuş Paşa, not a
later namesake (cf. Mehmed Süreyya, Sicill‐i ‘Osmânî. Ed. Nuri Akbayar & Ali Kahraman. Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı, 1996, p. 1517f.).
53 It is unclear when this mosque, which vanished at some point in the twentieth century, was built, but it was already
mentioned in the 1583 defter (cf. Kiel, “Okhri,” p. 166), thus providing this project’s terminus ante quem. Bajraktarević still
saw it in 1934 (cf. his “Turski spomenici,” p. 114) and called it “allegedly the oldest of Ohrid’s preserved mosques,”
which means that it would predate the İmâret Câmii. Old photographs (cf. Zoran Pavlov, “Makedonya'da tek
kubbeli camiler,” Ph.D, dissertation, Gazi University (Ankara), 2001, plates CI, CII) show a single‐domed mosque
that initially had a three‐bay portico. The architecture may well date from the time of Bâyezîd II (r. 1481‐1512),
but is improbable to be earlier. The unusually high and many‐sided drum reminds one of the Alî Paşa mosque,
similarly in Ohrid, and may point to a major intervention during the nineteenth century.
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courtyard around which were located the cells of the students.54 The resolve to erect in Ohrid a
medrese, as opposed to any other type of building must be taken as a reflection of trends at the end of
the sixteenth century. The focus of monumental patronage was shifting from complexes centred on
Friday mosques to medrese‐centred ones, often with prominent water dispensers and mausoleums.55
IV. THE LATER OTTOMAN CENTURIES
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries constitute a gap in Ottoman Macedonia’s architectural
history. The period 1645 and 1739 was marred by violent conflicts between the Ottomans, the
Habsburgs, and Venice. The invasion of Macedonia by the ‘Holy League’ in 1689/90 saw Skopje and
Štip set ablaze.56 Building in this period often meant rebuilding.57 In Skopje, monumental structures
were staggeringly reconstructed, often in simplified forms. There, the most interesting preserved new
building of the eighteenth century seems to be a hexagonal domed mausoleum (türbe) of the ‘open’
type. It was commissioned by an Ottoman bureaucrat for his wife and daughter, who must have died
in Skopje in 1774/5 as a result of an accident or disease, probably while in transit.58 For this
representative of the central government, it must have seemed fitting to attach this türbe to Skopje’s
only mosque built by a sultan. Some low‐relief ornament on the structure, of which there may have
been more once, shows the flowery ‘Baroque’ style of Istanbul in that period.
The construction of more remarkable edifices eventually resumes in the nineteenth century. It
was then that a number of regional leaders who acted in compact areas of power without much
interference engaged in the mediation of their power position through architectural projects.59 This
was due to a number of factors that helped these individuals establish local power‐bases: economic
potency (made possible through a transformation of the traditional land regime), the successful
crafting of alliances, and the ability to efficiently curb crime and collect taxes.
IV.1. Harabâtî Baba Tekyesi and Alaca Câmi at Tetovo
Hıfzı Paşa of Skopje and his brother Abdurrahman Paşa of Tetovo were members of a family that
appears to have come to Macedonia from neighbouring northern Albania. Under (Koca) Receb Paşa,
the father of the aforementioned siblings, this family managed to establish itself as the most powerful
in Tetovo in the second half of the eighteenth century. In Tetovo and Skopje there are preserved three
remarkable monuments built under this family’s patronage. Probably at the end of the eighteenth
century (with interventions during the first half of the following century), Receb Paşa built in Tetovo a
large tekye (or tekke) complex dedicated to the (bektâşî) dervish saint Sersem Alî Baba, though it later
became known as the Harabâtî Baba Tekyesi [ill. 15]. The complex, perhaps the most interesting in the
region, is surrounded by high walls of stone. In the garden‐like interior is preserved a large number of
mostly timber‐built structures that have served the functions of this institution: cells for the dervishes,
54 Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi, VIII, p. 329.
55 Siyâvuş Paşa’s major foundation was a grand caravanserai (plus mosque) from the 1580s in the Bulgarian town of Harmanlı.
In 1590 he commissioned a medrese to be erected in Istanbul in commemoration of his recently deceased royal wife Fâtıma
Sultân from the royal head architect Dâvûd Ağa, whom Siyâvuş Paşa had installed in this post after Mi‘mâr Sinân’s death in
1588 (see Necipoğlu, Age of Sinan, pp. 506‐7, 556.) It is probable that Siyâvuş also had Dâvûd Ağa plan his medrese at Ohrid.
56 On this campaign, see most recently Nebojša Đokić, “Ratne operacije u južnoj i staroj Srbiji i Maćedoniji 1689‐1690.
godine,” in: Leskovački zbornik, 48 (2008), pp. 49‐78.
57 For a few documented interventions to older buildings, see Hartmuth, “Otomanskata arhitektura,” p. 2072f.
58 Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, p. 56f.; Mehmed Süreyya, Sicill‐i ‘Osmânî, p. 275f.
59 For structural and typological shifts in architectural patronage in the Ottoman Balkans in general, see Maximilian Hartmuth,
“The history of centre‐periphery relations as a history of style in Ottoman provincial architecture,” in: Centres and peripheries
in Ottoman architecture (cf. note 15), pp. 14‐25.
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guestrooms, ritual spaces, a refectory, etc. Several buildings’ façades and interiors are embellished
with decorative painting and woodcarving in the period style. The (undated) inscription on the
fountain makes clear that all this was possible thanks to the munificence of Receb Paşa, who is also
buried within the complex.60
His son Abdurrahman Paşa bequeathed to Tetovo another unique structure, widely known
beyond this region as Alaca Câmi or “coloured mosque” [ill. 16]. A lengthy inscription at the entrance
dates its completion to 1833/4. Like no other building it illustrates the individualism of this period on
one hand, the increased weight now given to the gaudy decoration of exteriors on the other. On the
interior, which is entirely covered with murals, we find, among other things, colourful representations
of cities and monuments. Interestingly, this mosque, which appears to have re‐used remains of an
older structure on site (such as the stone minaret), has a wooden dome on the interior concealed by a
roof on the outside. As otherwise no expenses seem to have been spared, this must have been a
deliberate choice.61 The patron may have thought that building a mosque with a dome were too
‘provocative’ in light of his standing.
IV.2. The Bardovci ‘Manor’ in the Outskirts of Skopje
In the early decades of the nineteenth century, Abdurrahman Paşa’s brothers Hıfzı and Hasan Paşa
finally managed to extend their family’s influence over the entire northern half of the present‐day
Republic of Macedonia and adjacent territories. This also included the city of Skopje, where Hıfzı Paşa
managed to establish himself between at least 1814/562 and 1845, when he was murdered.
Of his buildings in Skopje have survived the remains of a residential complex in the suburb of
Bardovci, known as the konak or çiftlik of Hıfzı Paşa [ill. 17]. The preservation of such complexes is very
rare, whereby it represents a prime historical artefact.63 Like no other building it enlightens us about
the lifestyle and ‘cosmos’ of a provincial elite family. Surrounded by stone walls with eight towers, this
complex is more than a mere konak. Hıfzı Paşa was evidently not only willing to display his wealth but
also to defend it. The enceinte is composed of three courtyard spaces, one of which contains the
stables. The central courtyard is entered through the main entrance. It houses the selâmlık, in which
Hıfzı would have received visitors, as well as a forge, a hearth, and spaces for the guards and a
gatekeeper at the entrance. The third space contains another residential structure (the ‘private’
haremlik), a kitchen, a well, places for the servants, and a garden. Selâmlık and haremlik are connected
through a tower (kulle), which served as the complex’s treasury and armoury. Channels, spanned by
wooden bridges, led water through the haremlik courtyard from the gardens outside the walls.
The architecture of the residential structures, well‐documented in drawings by an enthusiastic
architect from Belgrade half a century ago, betrays an acquaintance with contemporary trends in
Istanbul.64 They are symmetrical along a central axis, feature curved oriels on the first of the two floors,
and have an oval room in the centre. This was a very popular layout in mid‐nineteenth century
60 On this complex, see e.g. Mehmet İbrahimgil, “Kalkandelen’deki Harabâtî Baba (Sersem Ali Baba) Bektâşî Tekkesi,” in: Millî
Kültür, XLIX (1985), pp. 55‐60.
61 The most detailed study of this building is Mehmet İbrahimgil, “Kalkandelen (Tetovo) Alaca‐Paşa Camii,” in: Vakıflar Dergisi,
XXVI (1997), pp. 249‐66.
62 This is the date given by Salih Asim (Istorija na Skopje i negovata okolina [1932]. Tr. Dragi Ǵorgiev. Skopje: Muzej na grad
Skopje, 2005, p. 19) for an intervention to Skopje’s clock tower, which according to this author happened “during the time of
Alî Hıfzı Paşa.”
63 The only comparable example I am aware of is the complex known as “Aguševi konaci” in the village of Mogilica near
Smoljan in the Bulgarian Rhodopes. The “kula” of Hüseyin Paşa of Gradačac (northern Bosnia) falls into the same category.
64 Branislav Kojić, “Konaci i čiflik Avzi‐paše u Bardovcu kod Skoplja,” in: Zbornik zaštite spomenika kulture, IV (1955), pp. 223‐
42.
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Istanbul, from where it was also exported to vibrant Balkan locales like Plovdiv. The decoration of
surfaces and the fittings of Hıfzı Paşa’s twin konaks follow the Baroque‐influenced elite style of the
period, shared across the confessional divide. It is also known that wooden interiors were
commissioned from a celebrated wood‐carver of the period, Petre Filipović (a.k.a. ‘Garkata’) from Gari
near Debar, whose speciality were iconostases.65
IV.3. Ohrid under Celâlüddîn Beğ
In Ohrid, the ‘man in charge’ from the early nineteenth century till 1830, when he was exiled and his
properties confiscated, was Celâlüddîn Beğ. Like his brother Mustafa Paşa (who, conveniently,
controlled nearby Shkodër), Celâlüddîn was the great grandson of Gâzî Mehmed Paşa (d. 1779/80),
who had established the hegemony of his family, the Buşatlı, over northern Albania. Celâlüddîn seems
to have taken control over Ohrid from his father, Âsaf Ahmed Paşa, who had begun a career at the
palace in Istanbul but was eventually appointed administrator (mutasârrıf) of Ohrid, probably upon his
request.66
Unfortunately for Ohrid, Celâlüddîn did not bequeath to this town an iconic monument of the
scope of his ancestor Mehmed Paşa’s Kurşumlu Câmii of (1773/4) in Shkodër;67 he did engage in some
construction activity, however. Ohrid’s fortifications were strengthened, apparently by use of forced
labour.68 As a good deed, duly commemorated on a lengthy and poetic fountain inscription that seems
to have disappeared in recent years, he renovated the town’s water supply and restored a number of
dysfunctional fountains (çeşme), thus solving a problem that had plagued the city since at least the
seventeenth century.69 Celâlüddîn commissioned the Istanbul‐born poet Süleymân Fehîm to compose
a poetic inscription for the fountain (1821/2) on Ohrid’s square with the plane tree (çınar), probably
making sure that the poet made clear in the inscription (which even invoked Alexander the Great) that
he, “Mîr Celâlüddîn,” was the son of a vezîr.70
In 1810 he also began building a new palace,71 probably the building still standing fifty years
later, when an interesting description of the complex then inhabited by Celâlüddîn’s youngest of
formerly three wives was provided by an Austrian consul. Most curiously, according to this account,
antique female statues’ heads were set on either side of the entrance portal. In the courtyard was
moreover placed a marble block, possibly the base of an altar, with tunica‐wearing female figures
joining hands. 72 Unfortunately, this testimony to Celâlüddîn’s appropriation of Ohrid’s Antique
heritage has not survived. More than an expression of antiquarianism, the female heads at the
entrance may have functioned as apotropaic device, that is to say, they continued a medieval Christian
65 Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, p. 424f.; Dimitar Ḱornakov, Petre Garkata. Skopje: Ǵurǵa, 1998, p. 16; Kojić, “Konaci.”
66 Cf. the (sometimes contradictory, but not inconsolable) data presented by Theodor A. Ippen, Skutari und die
nordalbanische Küstenebene. Sarajevo: Kajon, 1907, p. 25f.; Bajraktarević, “Turski spomenici,” p. 112, 126; Michael Ursinus,
“In search of the homo ottomanicus: the cases of Nikola Pop Stefanoff and Sheykh Shemsuddin from Ottoman Macedonia (ca.
1780‐1840),” in: Figures anonymes, figures d'élite: pour une anatomie de l'homo ottomanicus. Eds. Meropi Anastassiadou &
Bernard Heyberger. Istanbul: ISIS, 1999, pp. 21‐34, cit. p. 26f.; Halil İnalcık, “Arnawutluḳ [6.‐ History],” in: Encyclopaedia of
Islam, I. Leiden: Brill, 1986, pp. 653‐8); Mehmed Süreyya, Sicill‐i ‘Osmânî, p. 325, 926, 1050, 1592, the latter unfortunately
without an entry on Celâlüddîn Beğ.
67 For this remarkable monument, see Machiel Kiel, Ottoman architecture in Albania, 1385‐1912. Istanbul: IRCICA, 1990, pp.
231‐3.
68 Kiel, “Okhri,” p. 167.
69 Evliyâ Çelebi (Seyâhatnâme, VIII, p. 329) noted that most of Ohrid’s fountains were not functioning.
70 Semavi Eyice, “Ohri’nin Türk devrine ait eserleri,” in: Vakıflar Dergisi, VI (1956), 137‐45, cit. p. 144 (transcription).
71 Cf. Ursinus, “In search of the Homo Ottomanicus,” p. 27.
72 Hahn, Reise, p. 116.
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superstition according to which the figural representations left from pagan Antiquity helped avert
calamities.73
IV.4. Later Ottoman Bitola: Outpost of Empire
The story of Bitola in this period was somewhat different. While also here some administrative
functions were ‘outsourced’ to local power‐holders, the central authority was much more present. In
the eighteenth century Bitola was the occasional residence of the vâlî of Rumelia, that is, the highest
administrative representative of the capital in the European provinces. There was also a local official
named kaymakâm to locally represent the interests of the Rumelian vâlî, whose official seat was Sofia.
By 1800 it had become an increasingly important function of the vâlî to control the often hardly
dependable regional power‐holders, like the famous Alî Paşa of Iōannina or some of the
aforementioned.
Around 1830 it was from Bitola that the Rumelian vâlî and concomitant grand vizier Reşîd Paşa
launched the campaigns to subdue the disloyal lords of Shkodër, Ohrid, and even Bosnia. As a sign of
goodwill toward the local Christians, he then also permitted the construction of a large church that
year; he even donated some money toward its construction, possibly from the booty he had amassed
subduing the provincial strongmen (including the aforementioned Celâlüddîn Beğ of Ohrid). In 1836
Bitola was finally promoted to being the official administrative capital of Rumelia, which resulted in
many investments in its infrastructure: the town’s sewage system was improved, some streets were
cobbled, and military hospitals, barracks, and a prison were built. A new residential‐administrative
complex for the vâlî had already been completed in 1831, after an old one from 1814 had burned
down.74
These developments laid the foundation for Bitola’s becoming a ‘city of consuls’ around the
turn of the century. Its increasingly Europeanized architectural fabric was exemplified by the former
Hamîdiye Street, the present Širok Sokak, a European type High Street lined with elegant buildings.
IV.5. Late Ottoman Skopje: A Metropolis Regenerated
In 1839 began a period of modernization known as the Tanzîmât (“reordering”). Men like Hıfzı Paşa of
Skopje, Abdurrahman Paşa and Receb Paşa of Tetovo, or Celâlüddîn Beğ of Ohrid had no place in this
reinvigorated, centralist empire. Starting from the 1860s, Skopje began to benefit from an updated
infrastructure of education, administration, and communication, with functions modelled on
European examples.75 Highly significant for Skopje was also its incorporation into a rapidly developing
railway network, which greatly helped it reassume its role as a major regional centre. While in 1873
trains began only to commute between Skopje and Thessaloniki, in 1888 was made the connection
with the Serbian railway network. This facilitated fast and uninterrupted travel between Macedonia
and Central Europe via Serbia. Probably not coincidentally, it was in the same year that Skopje was
73 See Cyril Mango, “Antique statuary and the Byzantine beholder,” in: Dumbarton Oaks Papers, XVII (1963), pp. 53‐75; see
also Oya Pancaroğlu, “The itinerant dragon‐slayer: forging paths of image and identity in Medieval Anatolia,” in: Gesta, XLIII/2
(2004), pp. 151‐164.
74 Michael Ursinus, Regionale Reformen im Osmanischen Reich am Vorabend der Tanzimat: Reformen der rumelischen
Provinzialgouverneure im Gerichtssprengel von Manastir (Bitola) zur Zeit der Herrschaft Sultan Mahmuds II. (1808‐39). Berlin:
Schwarz, 1982, pp. 138‐152; Gergana Georgieva, “Administrative structure and government of Rumelia in the late eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries: the functions and activities of the vali of Rumelia,” in: Ottoman rule and the Balkans, 1760‐
1850: conflict, transformation, adaptation. Eds. Antonis Anastasopoulos & Elias Kolovos. Rethymno: University of Crete, 2007,
pp. 3‐19, esp. pp. 12‐5. Bernard Lory, “The vizier's dream: ‘seeing St. Dimitar’ in Ottoman Bitola,” in: History and
Anthropology, XX/3 (2009), pp. 309‐16.
75 For examples of such buildings, see Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, pp. 408‐16.
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upgraded to become the administrative capital of the Kosovo province (vilâyet), in which it already
was the biggest town.76
The fact that Skopje’s railway station was built across the river from the city’s traditional
centre helped develop that part of town, which houses the modern‐day centre. The present
Makedonska Street connected the railway station with the old centre across the bridge. Muslim
refugees that had come to Macedonia from ‘liberated’ Serbia and Bosnia were another factor in the
city’s growth and expansion south of the river. In 1880 their number amounted to around 8,000 in the
district (kazâ) of Skopje, or more than 10% of that administrative unit’s population.77 Just south of the
river Vardar was built a neighbourhood to accommodate these refugees: it is still known as “Madžir
Maalo,” a corruption of the Turkish muhacir/macır mahallesi (refugees’ quarter). The fact that this
state‐planned neighbourhood was built on an orthogonal grid exemplifies the extent to which
European ideals had permeated Ottoman administrative thinking by that time.
The new quarter also received a new mosque, sponsored by the mutasarrıf of the Skopje
sâncak, Fâik Paşa. Damaged in the 1963 earthquake and eventually demolished in 1989, the mosque
followed the conventional plan of a cubic structure with a hemispherical dome and a portico, flanked
by a slender minaret; only now the traditional pointed arches are replaced by semicircular ones.78 On
the whole, however, the construction of mosques, let alone monumental ones, had become rare. The
face of urban late Ottoman Macedonia was characterized by state‐sponsored multi‐storey
infrastructural buildings and representative mixed‐use buildings in the international style of the turn‐
of‐the‐century.
New were also the clock‐towers rising in many a Macedonian town following the lifting of the
restrictions on church construction. This new demand, accelerated by newly wealthy Christian elites,
gave rise to a new type of builder up to this task. In the Western Balkans this type was represented by
the Macedonian‐born Andreja Damjanov and his tayfa (team). Their buildings were wildly eclectic,
mixing the Byzantine with the Baroque and other occidental stimuli. The monastery church of Sveti
Joakim Osogovski, completed in 1851 near Kriva Palanka, with its arcaded porch with bays
surmounted by lead‐covered cupolas on octagonal drums shows that he was also no foreigner to the
country’s Ottoman tradition.
CONCLUSION
Considering the numerous structural changes occurring throughout this long period, it is hardly
warranted to continue to treat these five centuries as one monolith (‘the Ottoman period’). This is not
least exemplified by the different contexts of architectural production throughout this period, which
gave rise to buildings very different in form and function.
The foundations of an Ottoman architectural tradition were laid in the 1430s, when the
Ottoman state was still different from what it became decades later. This is maybe best demonstrated
by the fifteenth‐century development of Skopje, which was to a considerable extent engineered by
several generations of a single family operating in the Western Balkans. The functions of the buildings
they sponsored were indicative of their situation as an outpost of culture and trade on the warring
frontier.
76 See Fikret Adanır,“Skopje: Eine Balkan‐Haupstadt,” in: Hauptstädte in Südosteuropa: Geschichte ‐ Funktion ‐ Nationale
Symbolkraft. Ed. Harald Heppner. Vienna: Böhlau, 1994, pp. 149‐70, cit. p. 167.
77 Cf. Osmanlı arşiv belgelerinde Kosova vilayeti = Vilajeti i Kosovës në dukumentet arkivore Osmane. Ed. H. Yıldırım Ağanoğlu.
Istanbul: T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü, 2007, p. 333.
78 For this building, see Kumbaracı‐Bogoyeviç, Üsküp, pp. 210‐3.
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The monuments from around 1500 – chiefly the congregational mosques built by non‐sultanic
patrons – are very different already. They are examples of the art of Istanbul, the capital of an
increasingly centralized empire rather than a polycentric late medieval principality, and the place
where these patrons had received their formation (even if they hailed, as they often did, from the
Balkans). Both in terms of these monuments’ architecture and their ornamentation, high levels of
sophistication were achieved. These trends continue throughout the sixteenth century, at the end of
which the monumental infrastructural development of Macedonian cities reached a peak not to be
surpassed until the nineteenth century.
The two following centuries were characterized by stagnation, however, which was largely due
to the effects of warfare with Venice and the Habsburg Empire. This bore heavy not only on the
physical condition of the architectural monuments, many of which were damaged or even lost in this
period, but also on the coffers of the state and its representatives.
In the first half of the nineteenth century we then see a number of interesting structures built
under the patronage of strongmen of a provincial background. To the extent that these have survived
or are sufficiently documented, it is perhaps their relative individualism that qualifies their inclusion in
a survey.
The final decades of Ottoman rule, at last, witnessed a structural change on many levels. The
now reform‐minded imperial state became a major investor in the infrastructure of education,
communication, and administration of Macedonian cities, its European orientation expressed in the
form and function of the new buildings. 79 It is perhaps better discussed in tandem with the
architecture of the first half of the twentieth century than with the Ottoman architecture of the
sixteenth century, with which it has little in common.
79 On this point, see also Alexandra Yerolympos, Urban transformations in the Balkans (1820‐1920): aspects of Balkan town
planning and the remaking of Thessaloniki. Thessaloniki: University Studio Press, 1996.
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rumelischen Provinzialgouverneure im Gerichtssprengel von Manastir (Bitola) zur Zeit der Herrschaft
Sultan Mahmuds II. (1808‐39). Berlin: Schwarz, 1982.
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Ill. 1. Skopje, Friday mosque of Murâd II, 1436/7, with interventions in 1539‐42, 1711/2, and 1911.
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Ill. 2. Skopje, panorama with 1430s Sulu Hân, Çifte Hammâm (1460s‐70s?) and Mustafâ Paşa Mosque (1492).
Ill. 3. Skopje, former zâviye of İshâk Beğ, 1438/9 (converted to mosque before 1519), and türbe attributed to
Paşa Beğ (1470s?).
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Ill. 4. Skopje, former zâviye of İshâk Beğ, 1438/9, section and ground plan (Mahmoudian after Ayverdi), lacking
the (later added) minaret.
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CENTRE AND PERIPHERY? ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN OTTOMAN MACEDONIA, 1383‐1520
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Ill. 5. Skopje, ground plans of [a] Çifte Hammâm and [b] hammâm of Davûd Pasha, 1460s‐90s (?), illustrating
difference in plan types (Mahmoudian after Özer and Ayverdi).
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Ill. 6. Skopje, Çifte Hammâm, stucco detailing in interior, 2nd half 15th ct.
Ill. 7. Skopje, Stone Bridge, 15th and 16th cts.
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CENTRE AND PERIPHERY? ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN OTTOMAN MACEDONIA, 1383‐1520
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Ill. 8. Skopje, Mustafâ Paşa Câmii, 1492, view from the northwest.
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CENTRE AND PERIPHERY? ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN OTTOMAN MACEDONIA, 1383‐1520
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Ill. 9. Skopje, Mustafâ Paşa Câmii, 1492, view of portico with marble portal.
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CENTRE AND PERIPHERY? ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN OTTOMAN MACEDONIA, 1383‐1520
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Ill. 10. Skopje, Mustafâ Paşa Câmii, 1492, interior view with pulpit, prayer niche, and domical pendentive.
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ll. 11. Skopje, Yahyâ Paşa Câmii, 1503/4, ground plan (Mahmoudian after Ayverdi).
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Ill. 12. Skopje, Yahyâ Paşa Câmii, 1503/4, portal with ornament and calligraphic epitaphs.
Ill. 13. Skopje, Kurşumlu (or Kurşunlu) Hân, 1540s, panoramic view.
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Ill. 14. Skopje, Kurşumlu (or Kurşunlu) Hân, 1540s, view toward courtyard.
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Ill. 15. Tetovo, Harabâtî Baba Tekyesi, mostly 1st half 19th ct, fountain pavilion.
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Ill. 16. Tetovo, Alaca Câmi, 1833/4, painted interior with balconies and ‘blind’ dome.
Ill. 17. Bardovci, so‐called konak/çiftlik of Hıfzı Paşa, 1st half 19th ct., plan and elevation (Kojić, translations
Hartmuth).
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