Planning of Small Water Diversions PDF
Planning of Small Water Diversions PDF
Planning of Small Water Diversions PDF
FOR
UR E
DE P
A RT
MENT OF AGRIC U L T
National Technology & Development Program • 2500—Watershed, Soil & Air Mgmt • 1325 1801—SDTDC • March 2013
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PLANNING AND
LAYOUT OF SMALL-
STREAM DIVERSIONS
by
Dan S. Axness
McMillen LLC, Boise, ID
with
Kim Clarkin
San Dimas Technology and Development Center,
San Dimas CA
The Forest Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), has developed
this information for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal
and State agencies. The Forest Service assumes no responsibility for the interpretation or use
of this information by anyone except its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or corporation
names is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an
official endorsement or approval of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may
be suitable.
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activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex,
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disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille,
large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice
and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights,
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1—Introduction
1.1 Purpose of the guide............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Anatomy of a diversion............................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Why are we concerned about diversions?.............................................................................. 4
Chapter 3—Headgates....................................................................................................................... 35
3.1 Headgate types..................................................................................................................... 36
3.2 Headgate sizing .................................................................................................................... 44
v
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Glossary/Bibliography..................................................................................................................... 153
vi
Acknowledgements
This guide owes its existence to Dave Gloss, hydrologist on the Medicine
Bow National Forest. In 2006, as a result of his work with irrigation
diversions and their effects, he suggested the need for a technical
guide to structures “capable of achieving desired stream flows below
diversions.” The guide attempts to accomplish that objective by sharing
experience with the diversion components that can, when properly
designed and managed, regulate flows and protect stream and riparian
resources. Other people with years of experience in diversion design
also saw the need and engaged in the project. Rob Sampson and
Clare Prestwich (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service [NRCS]); Jeanine Castro (U.S. Department of the
Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service); and Bob Kenworthy and Tim
Page (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service) helped define
the initial focus and organization. Rob Sampson’s review improved the
guide’s handling of “nature-like” versus hydraulic design. Clare Prestwich
coauthored appendix B, with additional help on that appendix from
Stephen Smith and Peter Robinson. Kozmo Ken Bates also offered
perspective on common diversion problems.
vii
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
viii
Chapter 1—Introduction
This guide serves as a reference for Forest Service personnel and water
users evaluating options for diversion infrastructure and management on
Chapter 1—Introduction
streams less than about 50 feet wide. Topics include layout, operation,
and maintenance of structures for water diversion; water control and
measurement; and structures for fish protection (fishways, ladders,
screens). We will describe the pros and cons of different structure types,
their maintenance requirements, relative construction costs, and common
failure modes. The guide should give Forest Service field staff and water
users the information they need to plan diversion systems that meet
users’ water needs while protecting aquatic and riparian habitats and
organisms to the greatest possible degree.
Figure 1.1—Jerry Bird, Forest Service Intermountain Region Ditch Bill program
manager, and Peter Frick, diverter, discussing an existing diversion and possible
upgrades. Wise River Ranger District, Beaverlodge National Forest, 2009.
1
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Forest Service staff should keep in mind that diversions entail several
levels of authority and responsibility, both private and governmental.
In the West, the water-rights holder, the local water master, and the
State water resources agency are always involved. Other State and/or
Federal regulatory and land management agencies may be involved,
depending on the diversion’s location. For example, State wildlife
management authorities; U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service; and U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic
Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service may all
have authority in different situations.
It has long been Forest Service policy that special use permits
authorizing water diversion facilities located on National Forest System
lands incorporate stipulations to protect aquatic habitat and/or maintain
stream channel stability (Witte 2001). In fact, the Forest Land Policy
and Management Act of 1976 requires such stipulations. The act states
that before issuing an authorization for facilities to impound, store,
transport, or distribute water on public lands, the Forest Service and
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management must
impose terms and conditions that…”minimize damage to scenic and
esthetic values and fish and wildlife habitat and otherwise protect the
environment” (43 U.S.C. 1765). In addition, the Endangered Species
Act requires Federal agencies to ensure that any action they authorize
“...is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered
species or threatened species or result in the destruction or adverse
modification of [designated critical] habitat.”
2
Chapter 1—Introduction
Forest Service staff and water users can use this guide to assess
existing diversions, identify problems at a site, and identify possible
types of structural and operational improvements that might solve
those problems. The guide is intended to facilitate interactions with a
professional engineer/designer by familiarizing readers with diversion
components and issues. It is not a substitute for an engineer experienced
in diversion design. Diversions that provide the appropriate amount of
water without burdensome operation and maintenance requirements
AND adequately protect the aquatic system will almost always require
design tailored to the site by an experienced engineer.
3
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Diversions that are not well designed and operated can damage
streams, aquatic and riparian habitats, and aquatic organisms in very
important ways. None, one, or any combination of the following types of
effects may be important at any specific site.
Stream channel ■ A diversion dam backwaters streamflow and can cause sediment
morphology and stability deposition, especially if the dam is not removed or if sediment is not
sluiced during high flows (figure 1.3). Upstream of the dam in the
depositional area, the stream may be locally shallower and more
prone to flood adjacent lands. The riparian water table may be higher.
This could have two different effects: it could lengthen the duration of
saturated, anaerobic conditions in the root zone, stunting growth, and
diminishing the vitality of the riparian vegetation; or it could improve
water availability, increasing the vigor of riparian vegetation (Bohn
and King 2000). Local streambed material may be finer and more
uniform than in the undisturbed channel, burying diverse, formerly
aerobic habitats. In unentrenched reaches, where streambanks are
not heavily vegetated, or where riparian shrubs have lost their ability
to armor the banks, the channel may widen and/or shift position
across the valley floor.
4
Chapter 1—Introduction
5
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
6
Chapter 1—Introduction
Figure 1.5—Push-up wing dam, Salmon River, ID. Runoff from a wildfire area
upstream is causing the turbidity here.
7
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Water and aquatic ■ Dams can be undermined by downcutting or piping, or toppled by the
habitat quality at risk pressure of water. Dam failure, together with the headcutting likely
to occur afterward, can produce enough sediment to affect aquatic
habitat and water quality for some distance downstream.
■ Summer water temperatures can increase in slow-moving backwaters
upstream of diversion dams. In the main channel downstream of the
point of diversion, water temperature can increase dramatically when
flow is so low that the exposed streambed heats up.
■ The decrease in instream flow due to water diversion reduces the
area and depth of instream aquatic habitats (figure 1.6). It may also
decrease the water available to downstream riparian vegetation,
potentially affecting its vigor and productivity.
B
Figure 1.6—(A) Diversion for small hydropower project dramatically reduces
flow in the channel at the right. Trail Creek, Middle Fork Ranger District, Salmon
Challis National Forest, 2007. (B) Idaho’s Beaver Creek, dewatered by multiple
irrigation diversions upstream, August 2001.
8
Chapter 1—Introduction
Aquatic organisms ■ Where flow into the ditch was not well controlled in the past, there
are cases where most streamflow now flows in the former ditch and the
headgate has been moved downstream. This isolates a section of the
natural channel, leaving it with little or no water at low flows (figure 1.7).
9
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
■ Where high flows are not prevented from entering the diversion ditch,
the ditch may overtop and breach. This also can occur when debris
obstructs the ditch or the ditch bank ruptures and is not noticed in time.
Where the ditch runs along the valley sideslope, such a breach can
cause gullying and landsliding (figure 1.8).
Figure 1.8—Massive slope failure along diversion ditch. The failure was caused
by poorly controlled flows at the headgate and debris accumulation in ditch,
causing the ditch berm to fail by overtopping or percolation through root or small
animal holes. Soldier Creek, Medicine Bow National Forest, WY. Figure 3.8
shows the headgate.
10
Chapter 1—Introduction
11
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
■ Fish can enter or be swept into the ditch and may be unable to return
to the main channel (Gale et al. 2008) (figure 1.10).
Figure 1.10—(A) The unscreened Cross Cut Canal in the Henry’s Fork Snake
River watershed entrains both game and nongame fish. Before the headgate is
closed at the end of the crop season, the Henry’s Fork Foundation sweeps the
ditch to salvage fish that would otherwise be stranded. In 2009, 116 rainbow,
brook, and brown trout as well as 593 whitefish were salvaged from the first 100
meters below the headgate and returned to the river. (B) Juvenile salmonids
were entrained in this ditch and stranded when the headgate was closed for the
season, Salmon River, ID.
12
Chapter 1—Introduction
■ Small fish and other aquatic species can be swept onto and pinned
against the surface of some types of fish screens. Boreal toads, which
float downstream in summer, have been found dead in front of fish
screens in Montana (Adams et al. 2005).
Summary Some of the effects discussed above are direct, others are indirect,
and all may be cumulative. Whether they are important or not depends,
as always, on the situation. Where adverse effects are important,
planners should determine what is necessary to protect aquatic and
other resources, and then work with water users to achieve those goals.
The diversion may need upgrades to improve water control, water use
efficiency, or reduce effects on aquatic biota. Within the limits defined
by Federal law, regulation, and policy, planners should try to optimize
the Federal terms and conditions granting the access in a manner most
beneficial for all.
Diversions are more than just the dam or diversion structure. They are
interrelated systems of structures and management actions. General
best management practices for protection of water quality at diversions
and conveyances are outlined in “The Forest Service National Core Best
Management Practices” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
2009). Each site, however, will have its own set of stream/site/water user
characteristics and needs, and best practices will be to some degree site
specific. Planning the best solution for each site requires understanding
the aquatic, riparian, hydraulic, and management contexts. Then, an
interdisciplinary team including the water user can select the structures,
identify objectives, design the layout, and devise an operating plan that
achieves the objectives. Again, for most diversions, an experienced
diversion engineer on the team will be essential.
13
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
15
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
2. What is the general geology and soil type (especially the soil
texture—sandy, silty, clayey, rocky) in the area of the diversion?
3. What is the hydrologic regime (amount and timing of high and low
flows, diversion flows)?
4. How frequently does the stream overflow onto its flood plain. If it
does, risks, such as inundating the ditch headworks and eroding fill
around the headgate, may become design considerations.
16
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
5. Does the stream transport large amounts of bed material that can
deposit upstream of a dam?
2. What is the amount and timing of the diversion’s water use, and
who owns the right?
4. What other diversions and water rights exist upstream and down-
stream? How do they relate to each other (including land owner-
ship) and to conditions within the drainage and adjacent drainag-
es? Understanding the big picture of water use in the drainage is
17
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Keep in mind that streams may gain flow in some reaches (from natural
sources or irrigation returns, and so forth) and lose flow in other reaches.
A simple accounting of mean flow during the diversion season versus
diverted flow may not present a realistic picture of water availability at
any one point of diversion.
18
Table 2.1—Common problems observed at diversion structures
Problem Evidence
Sediment deposition. Silt, sand, and gravel form a bar upstream of the structure. Sediment fills the conveyance
ditch. Sediment buries the water control gates or stoplogs. Channel capacity may be low,
causing frequent overbank flooding.
Increased sediment loading Reconstruction of pushup dams or any other maintenance of instream structures with heavy
to downstream channel. equipment can cause an increase in sediment loading. Look for differences in sediment
deposition between upstream and downstream reaches. You may find larger or more active
bars along the banks or midchannel downstream of the diversion.
Lateral channel instability. Sometimes a midchannel gravel bar forms downstream of the diversion structure, causing
erosion on one or both banks.
Erosion/channel incision/ Downstream channel bottom is significantly lower than upstream channel bottom, indicating
headcuts/ streambed scour/ channel incision. Addition of stabilization rock, debris, or several concrete-slab lifts or pours
19
bed degradation. is an indication of maintenance activities to address this issue. Channel bed immediately
downstream of check structure may be coarser (i.e., larger rock) than unaffected stream
reaches. This can happen when a dam traps fine sediment upstream. By the time the dam
pool fills with sediment and sediment begins to move downstream, the downstream reach may
have scoured and deepened so much that fine sediment can no longer be retained.
Where the diversion structure is narrower than the bankfull channel, or where water falls from
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
an excessive height, a scour hole may have formed downstream (figure 2.1).
A headcut or nickpoint downstream that is migrating upstream can destabilize the diversion by
lowering streambed elevation and undermining the structure. Evidence of a headcut is a local
steepening of channel gradient. Depending on how consolidated or cohesive the bed material
is, a headcut may extend over a distance of several channel widths or it may be relatively
abrupt.
Table 2.1—Common problems observed at diversion structures (continued)
Problem Evidence
Stream channel dewatered. The diversion may remove most of the water from the stream channel, leaving the channel
downstream dewatered for miles. Vegetation may be encroaching in the downstream channel.
In some cases, substantial dewatering only occurs upstream of a wasteway or fish bypass
channel outlet. In this case, layout and/or headgate changes may make it possible to reduce
the amount of water diverted above the bypass to maintain habitat and aquatic species
passage.
Elevated water temperature. Removal of large amounts of water at a diversion can increase the effect of solar exposure
and bed heating on the remaining water, so that stream temperature progressively increases
downstream of the diversion. Also, backwatering may cause an increase in stream
temperature above a dam.
Lack of riparian vegetation. Bank disturbance, erosion, high water tables, or dewatering can all weaken bank vegetation.
This may contribute to poor security cover for fish, poor forage base (from insect and leaf
20
drop), and elevated water temperatures.
Accumulation of shrubs, Live or dead shrubs, trees, or debris obstructing flows or catching debris in ditch. Trees and
trees, and debris along ditch. deep-rooted shrubs can contribute to leaks or breaks in ditches through holes left when roots
die, treethrow, small animal burrows, and ice dams in shaded areas.
Aquatic animal passage Diversions can block swimming species passage in both upstream and downstream
directions. Upstream passage can be blocked by vertical drops that exceed the jumping ability
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Problem Evidence
Ditch failures. Poorly controlled diversion structures and headgates often allow excess water to run down the
ditch. The ditch may overtop the banks and erode a gully back to the stream channel (figure
3.1). Gullies that start at or below the ditch and repair work to ditch banks are strong indicators
that overtopping or piping has occurred or is ongoing.
Fish entrainment in ditch. Unscreened diversions are likely to entrain fish. Sometimes, particularly when a diversion is
being shut down, fish can be seen congregating just downstream of the headgate unable to
reenter the main channel (figure 1.10a).
Operation and Tarps, hay bales, plastic, and boards left in all year long are evidence of operation and
21
maintenance. maintenance problems. Spalled or eroded concrete, rotten wood, and corroded or bent metal
also are evidence of problems. Discussions with irrigators often reveal ongoing operation and
maintenance issues which may require frequent maintenance activities.
Inflatable bladder dams have occasionally been slashed. Diversion outlets are plugged by
Vandalism. debris and tarps.
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
22
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
Geology/Soils Bedrock is the most obvious site constraint. It is expensive to cut/excavate and
therefore controls the shape of the structures built on it. Boulder structures are
challenging to stabilize on bedrock. Sand, silt, and clay also offer engineering
challenges. Sandy and silty materials are susceptible to erosion and seepage,
while clayey soils can exert tremendous forces against walls. Ground water
returning to the surface can cause localized erosion around a diversion
structure or ditch, destabilizing the structures.
Stream Type A stream that is well connected to a wide flood plain (e.g., some Rosgen C
or E channels) may need a diversion structure that tolerates overtopping and
flooding. A diversion structure in a channel constrained in a steeper canyon
(Rosgen A or B) may not need to tolerate overtopping, but instream wood
and large amounts of sediment transported during flood events may influence
structure selection.
Structures Gauging stations, bridges, buildings, water control structures, fish screens,
and ladders all may constrain the footprint of the diversion system.
Land Ownership Land ownership may limit access for construction and/or maintenance.
Adjacent landowners may not allow moving a diversion structure onto their
land.
Archaeology Relocating a ditch or diversion structure may not be feasible where a historic
structure or site would be disturbed. In addition, certain irrigation supply
systems have historic importance, which may complicate permitting for
improvement projects.
Vegetation Weak vegetation (overgrazed, weed infested, no trees where needed) affects
diversion-system design where the area is susceptible to erosion from
overbank flooding and localized runoff. Such areas need a planting and/or
vegetation management plan to improve the vegetation’s ability to control
erosion.
Aquatic and Protecting habitat and security of threatened and endangered species and
Terrestrial Biota species of concern sometimes warrants methods that limit site access, timing
of work, and the diversion footprint.
23
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Channel bed and water surface elevations along the channel and ditch
are key pieces of data for this preliminary survey. When elevations are
plotted against distance along the channel, the resulting longitudinal
profile indicates slope, important changes in slope, and the direction
of waterflow (figure 2.2). The full range of flow conditions—low to
high—is important to document on the longitudinal profile and on a
plan view sketch. Use a nearby gauging station if available, a Stream
Stats estimate for ungauged sites, or enlist the help of the landowner/
diverter to estimate water surface elevations during low and very high
flows. Look for clues, such as sediment deposited during high flows, or
changes in vegetation type that might indicate a different frequency of
inundation. Even if the diversion is not operable during high flows, flood
elevations are important because the installation must be designed to
avoid floodwaters entering the diversion ditch. Measuring the elevation
of the stream bottom and the stream water surface elevation when the
diversion is operating provides the information needed to calculate the
control gate size capable of delivering the desired diversion flow.
In the main channel, the longitudinal profile connects points along the
thread of deepest flow (the thalweg). If possible, start and end the profile
at control points downstream and upstream of the diversion. Control
points are locations where streambed elevation is unlikely to change,
such as a rock outcropping, culvert, or another diversion structure.
Channel bed elevation data should be gathered for at least 10 channel
widths upstream and downstream or 200 feet, whichever is greater.
Sketch the surveyed section, and annotate survey points.
Table 2.3 describes what to measure and where, and figure 2.2 identifies
the survey points in a typical diversion. A site assessment form is
included in appendix A.
24
Table 2.3—Site survey measurements
Start Main Channel As a rule of thumb, begin longitudinal If possible, begin profile at a stable location (control point)
Profile profile at least 10 channel widths where elevation is not expected to change over lifetime of the
or 200 feet (whichever is greater) diversion.
upstream of the diversion intake. Measure the channel bed elevation at the deepest point across
Ensure this point is upstream of the the channel (thalweg) and the water surface at that point.
influence of the diversion.
Other Upstream Points Continue downstream toward For each point, measure distance along the channel length and
diversion, taking measurements elevations of the channel bed and water surface.
wherever there are substantial bed Observe and note bed material sizes and apparent mobility.
elevation changes or morphological Are there fresh surfaces on any gravels, cobbles, or boulders?
changes within the stream (pools, Or are visible surfaces weathered? Is the bed material
riffles, runs, etc.). Be sure to measure imbricated?
25
at fishway entrance, bypass outlet,
or other key points related to the At a cross section where bank height is representative of
installation. the reach, note the distance on the longitudinal profile, and
measure the top-of-bank elevation on both banks. Also
measure channel widths at these cross sections (top-of-bank to
top-of-bank).
Identify locations where high watermarks are visible on or near
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
Channel Thalweg and Frequently, the channel will be Measure distance along the channel length, and elevations of
Shallowest Point at aggraded because of sediment the channel bed and water surface. Also, measure the top of
Ditch/Pipe Inlet deposition upstream of diversion dam. bank elevation on both banks as well as the channel width.
On a cross section perpendicular
to flow and even with the point of
diversion, measure at deepest point
(thalweg) and shallowest point
Top of Dam Center of dam. Measure distance along the channel length, and elevation of
the dam crest.
Plunge Pool 1. Riffle crest or tailout downstream of For each point, measure distance along the channel length and
26
the plunge pool. elevations of the channel bed and water surface.
2. Deepest part of the plunge pool.
Other Downstream Continue downstream from diversion, For each point, measure distance along the channel length and
Thalweg Points measuring distance and bed and elevations of the channel bed and water surface.
water surface elevations wherever At a representative cross section, note the distance on the
there are substantial changes. longitudinal profile, and measure the top of bank elevation on
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
End Main Channel End longitudinal profile at least 10 Measure distance along the channel length and elevations of
Profile channel widths or 200 feet (whichever the channel bed and water surface.
is greater) downstream of the If possible, end profile at a stable location (control point)
diversion intake. Ensure this point is where elevation is not expected to change over lifetime of the
downstream of the influence of the diversion.
diversion (plunge pool, fish bypass
outlet, etc.).
Table 2.3—Site survey measurements (continued)
Diversion Ditch
Ditch Inlet Elevation that controls water entering Measure pipe or headgate invert or ditch bottom, water
the ditch or pipe. surface, and top of bank elevations.
Also measure average ditch width (top-of-bank to top-of-bank)
about 20 feet downstream of headgate or pipe outlet.
Ditch Inlet/Headgate Dimensions of headgate or ditch inlet. Length, height, diameter of headgate.
Ditch Slope 100 feet to 200 feet downstream of Measure ditch bottom, water surface, and top of bank
headgate. elevations.
Also measure ditch width (top-of-bank to top-of-bank).
27
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
28
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 2.2—Example plan and longitudinal profile of existing diversion structure. This plan view shows contour lines from a total-station survey,
but a careful sketch indicating survey points and any other important features is all that is needed at the planning stage. Add to the sketch
observations of high flow lines, erosion, sedimentation, and so forth.
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
29
Table 2.4—Examples of common objectives for diversions
In-Stream Flow Increase in-stream flow downstream Many streams in the Western United States are over-appropriated,
of diversion. meaning that the water users have water rights that exceed the
amount of flow in the stream during the low-flow season.
Reduce degree of dewatering in In some cases, excessive water diversion can be eliminated
affected stream reach by providing properly sized, locked, and operable headgates. A
simple change in water management, or replacing a ditch with a
pipe, may reduce the volume of water diverted.
Sediment Deposition Reduce sediment deposition in Sediment deposition upstream is caused by slowing the water and
the backwater pool by providing reducing the stream power available to transport sediment.
for sediment transport through the Alternatives that might improve sediment transport include
diversion reach. replacing the dam with a rock riffle, boulder step, or adjustable
30
weir.
Streambed Scour Limit scour downstream of diversion If scour is caused by clean water plunging over a permanent
structure to avoid undercutting the dam, add riprap at downstream toe of dam, or remove dam and
dam. construct rock riffle or boulder step to permit sediment movement
downstream of diversion. Alternatively, a hydraulic engineer may
be able to develop a site-specific solution.
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Fish Passage Provide downstream fish passage. Fish screens prevent significant numbers of fish from entering the
(Downstream) and irrigation ditch and being delayed or killed in the ditch system.
Fish Entrainment in
Ditch
Water Quality Reduce water temperature increase. Limit ponding upstream of the diversion: reduce height of dam or
replace with nature-like rock structure.
Reduce sediment loading to Replant banks for shade if vegetation has been modified.
downstream reaches from earthen
Reduce volume of water diverted.
(pushup) dam reconstruction/
maintenance. Construct permanent, adjustable dam of nonerodible materials, or
replace dam with nature-like rock structure.
Water Control Maintain diversion rate with daily or Control of the water flowing down the ditch can require significant
less input from operator.
31
effort from the operator. Too much water down the ditch may
breach the banks or flood others with high water. Likewise, it can
reduce the amount of water available to downstream water-rights
holders.
Remote-control or programmable headgates are in use in some
water districts.
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
Water Measurement Measure and record volume of water Measurement of water is essential to protecting water resources.
diverted. Water resource agencies in every Western State have
requirements that flows be measured with a “recognized” water-
measurement device. Work with the water user to determine how
and where water use should be measured.
See chapter 6.
Table 2.4—Examples of common objectives for diversions (continued)
Debris and/or Provide safe and economical Debris removal and sediment removal can be a significant impact
Sediment Removal approaches to remove debris and/or to the stream and the operator. Sediment removal requires
sediment. substantial hand labor or moving equipment to the site to excavate
and dispose of the excess sediment. In some locales these
operations will require permits, causing delays and additional
costs. Prevention/reduction of debris accumulation is a high priority.
Debris removal can be dangerous; it may require heavy equipment
and can be expensive.
Alternatives include modifying the diversion to pass sediment and
debris. Depending on other objectives, a rock weir or rock ramp
may serve this purpose.
Freezing Conditions Provide safe and economical Some diversions deliver water during the winter to fill reservoirs,
32
approach to operate diversion during deliver stock water, and deliver water to lower elevations, which
freezing conditions. may have irrigation needs.
Avoid installing devices susceptible to freezing or icing. Otherwise,
develop an operation and maintenance plan that includes seasonal
removal of screens or other portions of the structure that would be
damaged by freezing or icing.
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Diversion Durability Provide a diversion structure that is The diversion structure should be resistant to fire, vandalism,
flexible and can adjust to dynamic beavers, and the effect of tree roots and other vegetation.
stream conditions. Ideally, construct a diversion structure that mimics structures in the
natural channel, such as a boulder weir or rock riffle, OR
construct a permanent, adjustable dam structure.
Table 2.4—Examples of common objectives for diversions (continued)
Frequency of Provide a stable diversion that Concrete and steel diversion structures rarely need major
Required Operation requires adjustment as infrequently adjustment or repair if designed properly. Rock and wood (log/
and Maintenance as possible. tree) diversions are flexible structures that often need some yearly
Actions adjustment to fit the site or prevent leakage.
While the diversion structure (dam) itself may need infrequent
adjustment, the headgate and any fish protection devices will
need adjustment and/or cleaning at a frequency determined by the
stream’s water, sediment, and debris regime. Any diversion should
be checked for maintenance needs after a storm runoff event.
33
Chapter 2—Site Assessment and Objectives
Chapter 3—Headgates
Chapter 3—Headgates
Most headgates on small diversions are hand operated and, during
periods when main-channel flow is changing rapidly (e.g., spring in the
northern U.S.), they may need to be adjusted daily. During more stable
flow periods, however, the gate opening usually remains fixed even if
flow in the main channel increases, as during a summer storm. Figure
3.1 shows what can happen to a ditch when it overflows because the
headgate was not adjusted in time. Larger diversions, such as major
canals run by water districts, are increasingly moving toward automated
gates with electronically controlled actuators that open or close the gate
(see appendix B). The gates may be controlled remotely by an operator
looking at real-time flow data from a gauge in the main channel.
35
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 3.1—The ditch near the top of this slope overflowed a number of years
ago and eroded this gully. The eroded material filled the narrow valley bottom
and rerouted the stream, causing substantial damage to this salmon-bearing
stream (Moulton 2006). Fourth of July Creek, ID.
36
Chapter 3—Headgates
A B
Weirs are overflow structures (figure 3.2b) that are used commonly
as diversion structures in the main channel. They are uncommon as
headgates, however, because keeping the ditch flow as consistent
as possible is usually a high priority for operators. For that purpose,
the submerged orifice is the preferable type of gate. The submerged
orifice also enables a water-rights holder located downstream of other
water users to continue diverting even when flow in the main channel is
extremely low. The location of an orifice gate below the water surface
(figure 3.2a) increases the likelihood of sediment entering the ditch. If
sediment is a problem, a weir may be placed in front of the orifice gate to
limit the amount of sediment entering the orifice.
Weir gates often are placed at the head of a lateral wasteway to control
the volume of flow in the ditch. If ditch flow increases over a set water
surface elevation, water will overflow the weir, and a more constant flow
is maintained in the ditch. This setup might be used where, for example,
the ditch is long and receives runoff from hillslopes and small drainages
along its route (figure 3.3).
37
38
HILLSLOPE AND ROAD RUNOFF
DIVERTED INTO DITCH
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 3.3—Some ditches receive runoff water from upslope roads and ditches, and some intercept tributary channels. Here, a weir gate
maintains a consistent flow in the ditch by allowing overflow into a lateral wasteway that rejoins the tributary a short distance downstream.
Chapter 3—Headgates
Water Control Flow over the weir gate increases Flow through the orifice gate increases
rapidly with increases in water slowly with increases in water surface
surface elevation. This requires a elevation. A bypass or secondary gate to
bypass or wasteway and potentially control flow into the ditch generally is not
a downstream orifice in the ditch to needed.
control flow into the ditch.
Water The weir gate can be used to The orifice gate can be used to
Measurement measure/estimate the flow into the measure/estimate the flow into the ditch
ditch with one upstream measurement with two measurements of water surface
of water surface elevation. elevation: upstream and downstream of
the gate opening.
Ditch Capacity Fish screen and downstream ditch Fish screen and downstream ditch are
are at risk because of large increases protected by a mild increase in ditch
in ditch flows with increased stream flows with increased stream discharge.
discharge.
Sediment Intake These gates limit the amount of These gates typically entrain a larger
sediment entering the ditch because amount of coarse sediment because
they remove water from the top of the they remove water from the lower
water column. portion of the water column where the
majority of the bedload is transported.
Debris Intake Floating debris catches on the weir Floating debris does not generally move
blade at low flows, but passes over through the orifice. However, when it
the weir easily at moderate and higher accumulates at the opening, it is not
flows. Debris is easily removed from easily removed because it is below the
the gate. water surface.
In-Stream Flow Both gates may be constructed to leave a set amount of flow in the stream by
setting the minimum gate elevation higher than the diversion structure crest or
overflow.
Portability Virtually all metal or wood gates can be constructed offsite, in multiple pieces if
necessary, and transported to the site
39
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Cost Generally, the gate must be bolted The gate can be bolted directly to a
directly to a wall, which results in a diversion intake pipe for a much lower
higher cost. cost.
Availability Weir gates are readily available Orifice gates are available off-the-shelf
through gate fabricators. Stoplog very economically up to approximately
boards are available at hardware 24 inches in diameter (canal gates)
stores and lumber yards. from manufacturers such as Waterman,
Fresno, and Golden Harvest.
40
Chapter 3—Headgates
There are many styles of orifice headgates. Usually, the gates are
bolted to a smooth vertical wall (concrete or steel, figures 3.4 and 3.5).
They can be sealed quite adequately with gaskets, caulking, or grout.
Mounting an orifice headgate on the end of a pipe, however, is the least
expensive and easiest way to install a headgate (figure 3.6). In smaller
sizes, commercial orifice headgates are relatively inexpensive. Several
manufacturers make durable cast iron gates that bolt onto pipes or walls
in standard pipe sizes.
Figure 3.4—Measuring the height of water above the invert of an orifice gate on
North Brush Creek, Medicine Bow National Forest, WY.
Figure 3.5—
Modular headgate
on Fourth of July
Creek, Salmon
River watershed,
ID.
41
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
42
Chapter 3—Headgates
43
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Radial gates are discussed in the next chapter. They can be used
as headgates as seen in figure 1.10a, as diversion gates in the main
channel, and even as water measurement structures. We mention them
here to warn readers about their potential harm to fish, especially when
used as a diversion gate. In figure 1.10a, you can see the metal bars
across the back of the gate. If fish are trying to move upstream, they
may try to jump the barrier. Frequently, they land on these bars and die.
Table 3.2—Flow and velocity through round and rectangular orifice gates of
various sizes
Water Depth
Measured
From The
Bottom Of
The Orifice
Round Rectangular Headgate
Headgate Headgate Opening Flow Velocity
Height/ Cubic Feet
Diameter width Depth feet per
(inches) (inches) (inches) per second second
8 4 by 12 17 1.7 5.0
12 9 by 12 13 2.9 3.7
15 8 by 24 24 6.9 5.6
18 12 by 24 27 10.4 5.9
24 12 by 36 33 20.0 6.4
44
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
4.1 Weirs
● Logs/timbers.
Figure 4.1—Permanent
concrete weir drop
structure on Fall River,
tributary of Henry’s Fork
Snake River, ID. Photo
courtesy of Henry’s Fork
Foundation, Ashton, ID.
45
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
46
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Figure 4.3—Very high velocity water running down this concrete apron caused
substantial local scour where the apron met the stream, and another flatter
apron was added. Now, the channel has downcut below the second apron. This
site is also affected by system-wide channel incision, which has been stopped
by the diversion structure. Lower Cub River diversion, Bear Lake watershed, ID.
47
the table vary depending on how easy the weir is for operators to adjust. Likewise, effects on fish passage outside the diversion
season also depend on whether the water level controls are actually removed after diversion ends.
Table 4.1—Comparison of environmental effects and other characteristics of permanent and adjustable weirs and engineered rock riffles
Headcut Migration Permanent weirs and adjustable weirs with permanent sills can prevent Can be designed to limit local
headcuts from migrating upstream past the diversion, thereby protecting scour and stop headcuts using
any valuable habitat and/or structures from stream channel incision. large (sometimes very large)
Structures may require several steps/weirs to provide upstream aquatic foundation rocks embedded
organism passage. in well-sorted interlocking rock
matrix.
Channel Stability: Can cause downstream scour Have less potential for
Downstream Scour because of the plunging flow over downstream scour IF minimum
Potential the crest during high flows. This is water surface elevation is lowered
magnified if the structure constricts during high flows.
48
flow width. Scour can be controlled
by good design, such as aprons or
embedded foundation rocks. Note
that aprons often are barriers to
fish movement.
Channel Stability: Extent of sediment deposition Generally experience fewer Similar to permanent weirs.
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Sediment upstream depends on height problems with sediment Flattens upstream channel
Accumulation of weir and design. Sediment accumulation because less gradient like a permanent
accumulation may stress the backwatering occurs during weir and retains coarse bed-
banks, and could cause erosion if high flow (assuming structure is load material similarly. Fine
the stream channel tends to shift adjusted to lower minimum water sediments are likely to pass
laterally. Risk of outflanking is surface elevation during high through the more permeable
greater than for adjustable weirs. flows). rock riffle.
Table 4.1—Comparison of environmental effects and other characteristics of permanent and adjustable weirs and engineered rock riffles
(continued)
Design Concerns Permanent , Nonadjustable Adjustable Weirs Engineered Rock Riffles
Weirs (including boulder weirs)
Water Quality: Temperature increase due to Have potential for lower or less Similar to permanent weirs.
Temperature and pooling upstream of diversion frequent temperature increases
Sediment structure depends on solar because pool size is adjustable.
exposure and flow velocity through When check height is lowered,
the pool. Risk of introducing or sediment may be mobilized
49
mobilizing sediment is less than suddenly, releasing a sediment
for adjustable weirs as long as the wave downstream.
weir is not outflanked.
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Increase in Riparian Are higher and longer lasting. Have lower and shorter duration Similar to permanent weirs.
Ground Water Levels Effects on plant and animal than for permanent weirs because
Upstream of the Weir communities can be beneficial or minimum water surface elevation
detrimental depending on species, over the weir can be lowered
and on wetland objectives at the during high flows.
site.
Increase in Flood Where the diversion is located Have less risk of increased Similar to permanent weirs.
Potential Upstream on a frequently overtopped flood flooding during high flows IF gate
of Weir plain, the extent and duration of elevation is adjusted, lowering
flooding is likely to increase more water surface elevation.
than if the weir were adjustable.
Table 4.1—Comparison of environmental effects and other characteristics of permanent and adjustable weirs and engineered rock riffles
(continued)
Design Concerns Permanent , Nonadjustable Adjustable Weirs Engineered Rock Riffles
Weirs (including boulder weirs)
Upstream Aquatic Can be hydraulically designed to Compared to nonadjustable weirs, Likely to pass a wider range of
Organism Passage provide aquatic organism passage may provide a better opportunity aquatic organisms than weirs,
at some flows, or to serve as for aquatic species passage but depends on how closely
a barrier over a range of flows outside the diversion season they mimic natural structures in
without operator intervention IF dam elevation is lowered to local channel.
minimum.
50
flows with an adjustable check
structure.
Preferential Delivery The minimum water surface The minimum water surface (top of Same as permanent weirs.
of Irrigation Flow elevation (top of weir structure) can weir structure) can be manipulated
or An Agreed Upon be set permanently. according to irrigation needs and
Minimum Instream permit agreements.
Flow
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Remote or Hard-to- May be preferable since no Some systems require power for Same as permanent weirs.
Access Locations power or operator manipulation is air compressors, hydraulic pumps,
required. Generally require less and other machines to adjust the
maintenance. height of the panels.
Table 4.1—Comparison of environmental effects and other characteristics of permanent and adjustable weirs and engineered rock riffles
(continued)
Annual inspections and any In addition to annual and high flow Same as permanent weirs.
Operator Effort maintenance needed after high inspections and maintenance,
flow. operator must adjust weir
elevations as flows change unless
the system is automated.
Stoplog systems can require
strenuous physical efforts to install
and remove stoplogs. In addition,
emergency stoplog removal can
be dangerous (at high flows and
icing conditions).
Poor design or construction can Poor design or construction can Poor design or construction
51
Common Structure leave structure vulnerable to: leave structure vulnerable to same can leave structure vulnerable
Failure Mechanisms • Undercutting (caused by a mechanisms listed for permanent to same mechanisms listed
headcut moving upstream, weirs. Also, mechanical problems, for permanent weirs. Some
seepage under the structure, or such as: common problems are:
local scour). • Air bladder damage from • Rocks too small or poorly
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
52
53
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Figure 4.4—Natural Resources Conservation Service design drawing for the San Francisco de Pauda diversion dam, Taos Soil and Water
Conservation District, 2005. This diversion site had chronic problems with sediment filling in behind the dam so that water could not be
diverted. To fix that problem, the sluice pipe is set 1-foot lower in elevation than the ditch intake, to sluice sediment from above to below the
dam.
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
54
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Permanent weirs:
Rock weirs.
Rock riffles.
Rock vanes or barbs (partial span).
Log weirs.
Concrete/steel weirs.
Adjustable weirs:
Stoplog weirs.
Air-bladder weirs.
Adjustable weir gates.
Push-up dams, nonengineered dams.
Streambed intake structures (not a check structure)
55
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
ROCK WEIRS What are they? A channel-spanning structure constructed of rock sized
to be immobile in the design flow (usually gradations include up to 12-
inch to 48-inch or larger rock) (figure 4.6). Rock weirs used in diversion
applications are intended to be permanent, and the largest rocks may be
larger than in the natural channel. Rocks may also be more angular than
the natural streambed sediments. As far as possible, weirs should be
designed as passable for local aquatic species.
Figure 4.6—Rock weir diversion structure on Donner and Blitzen Creek, OR.
Note the low-flow notch in the center that concentrates flows and allows fish
passage.
56
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Rock weirs also can be designed to mimic natural boulder steps (figure
4.7a) or as cross vanes (figure 4.7b). Detailed design information for
rock weirs and cross vanes is available from the NRCS (2001), NRCS
(2008), California Department of Fish and Game (2008), and Rosgen
(2001), among others.
57
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Where are they generally used? Step-pool and pool-riffle channels. The stream should be moderately
well confined—enough that adding weirs does not increase overbank flood frequency beyond a
tolerable point. Sites with at least moderate bank stability are ideal; noncohesive (sandy, silty) soils
require a filter between the weir rocks and the much finer soil to avoid piping and bank erosion.
Generally, the filter is a layer of gravel or geotextile filter fabric.
Pros Cons
Rock structures are more likely to permit aquatic Nonadjustable: Like any structure that raises
species passage than smoother concrete or metal streambed elevation permanently, may cause
structures because the rougher rock surface may streamflow to overtop the banks at lower flows
provide some slower flow pathways near the (i.e., more frequently) than normal. Consequences
banks or between rocks. The height of a rock weir might include increased bank erosion, flooding the
can be limited to the jump height achievable by a diversion works, eroding the ditch
target fish. In steeper channels, one or a series of
rock weirs can be designed to mimic the structure
and height of rock steps in the natural channel
so that aquatic species are likely able to move
upstream through them.
Water leaking through the rocks may permit Water leaking between the rocks can reduce
smaller organisms to swim or crawl between efficiency of the diversion and the amount of water
rocks. available for any fish screen and bypass. This
problem can be managed by sealing the structure
and maintaining it regularly (see Installation).
Leakage also can deter larger fish from swimming
upstream if water depth over the weir crest is low.
Bank vegetation can grow in and between the Rocks may shift during high flows, requiring
rocks, and help stabilize the structure. It may also maintenance.
help to moderate water temperature.
Inexpensive if rock is locally available. Structure pools water upstream, which can
increase its temperature. This disadvantage is true
to varying degrees for all structures that impound
water.
Considerations. Some rock weirs are nonporous, but most are porous, raising the minimum water
surface elevation while allowing some flow between the rocks. One of the risks associated with
porous rock weirs is that because of the leakage, minimum water surface elevation may be lower than
intended, so that less water flows into the diversion ditch. Another risk is that water flowing around or
under the structure may cause piping or erosion of the soils in which the weir rocks are embedded.
If severe, this process can lead to structural instability and failure, which can cause fish passage,
sedimentation, and water delivery problems.
58
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Engineered riffles are not identical to natural riffles; rock sizes are larger
for stability, pathways for organism passage may be less diverse or
different in character, and turbulence may be higher. The crest may
include larger rocks than average, to ensure it retains its elevation and
the riffle does not move. Slopes in the downstream direction are typically
20:1 or 5 percent. The riffle cross section has a low point (thalweg) to
concentrate low flows for fish passage, and rock should extend up the
bank to at least bankfull elevation. Engineered riffles are sometimes
placed in channels without natural riffles. Aquatic species passage
should not be taken for granted.
59
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
B
Figure 4.8—(A) Constructed rock riffles on Upper Rock Creek, Bear Lake
watershed, WY. (B) Rock ramp—essentially the same as a rock riffle—
constructed in 2007 on the Salmon River, ID.
60
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Where are they generally used? Pool-riffle streams where water surface elevation does not have to
be raised very much to force water into the diversion. Ideally, the riffle fits into the stream’s pool-riffle
spacing; that is, it might simply raise and stabilize an existing riffle. A rock riffle might be considered a
desirable control structure in channels with low banks and channel slopes up to about 4 percent. See
USDA, NRCS 2007b for an example design.
Pros Cons
Depending on the degree of similarity to natural Nonadjustable: Like any structure that raises
streambed structures in the channel, may pass a streambed elevation permanently, may cause
variety of endemic aquatic organisms. Like rock streamflow to overtop the banks at lower flows
weirs, engineered riffles can be designed (using (i.e. more frequently) than normal. Consequences
hydraulic methods) to pass a target fish within a might include increased bank erosion, flooding the
certain flow range. diversion works, eroding the ditch.
Water leaking through the rocks may permit Water leaking between the rocks can reduce
smaller organisms to swim or crawl between efficiency of the diversion and the amount of water
rocks. available for any fish screen and bypass. This
problem can be managed by sealing the structure
and maintaining it regularly (see Installation
below). Leakage also can deter larger fish from
swimming upstream if water depth over the crest
is low.
Installation. Like all rock check structures, installation cost depends on the availability of rock and
ease of access to the site. Sealing leaks between the rocks can be challenging; plastic membranes
and geotextiles have been used, but with time they tend to become exposed and break down. Most
installations now use only well-sorted mixtures of smaller gravel and fines. Sealing leaks can be
important for routing enough flow to the diversion, especially if water is being provided for a fish
screen/bypass system. Rock riffles can be constructed by hand and with winches if rock is onsite or
rock can be hauled in with ATVs.
61
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
ROCK BARBS/VANES What are they? These rock structures span only part of the channel
cross section. When used as diversion checks, they raise the water
surface in the vicinity of the bank where the diversion is located, and
permit free flow and aquatic species passage across the rest of the
channel (figure 4.9). They are usually constructed pointing upstream
at an angle from the bank (USDA, NRCS 2007a) and sloping down
from the bank. This helps keep water overflowing the barb away from
the downstream near-bank area, avoiding bank scour. Like other rock
structures, the rock is sized to be immobile in the design flow (usually 12-
inch to 48-inch or larger rock).
On streams with mild slopes less than 1 percent, vanes generally should
block no more than one-fourth to one-third of the bankfull channel width.
On steeper streams, a barb generally needs to extend across the thalweg
to influence water surface elevation enough that water flows into the
diversion. Such a structure may block low flow entirely, in which case it
is functioning as a weir, or it may simply raise minimum water surface
elevation while allowing some flow between the rocks or around the end
of the structure.
62
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Where are they generally used? Barbs are used where the amount
of water diverted is small compared with instream flow, and a relatively
small increase in water surface elevation in the bank vicinity is needed
to supply the ditch. This means they are most useful on mildly sloping
streams (<~0.5 percent) with relatively high irrigation season flows. They
are not useful where a diversion takes all or most of the flow. They are
best used on wider streams where the vane will not deflect water into
the opposite bank at moderate to high flows.
63
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Pros Cons
64
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
PERMANENT LOG What are they? One or more logs or timbers spanning the entire stream,
WEIRS and long enough to pass bankfull flow (at a minimum) between the
banks. Logs may be pinned together, or cabled or chained to ballast—a
large, heavy object buried in the streambed or bank that acts as an
anchor keeping the logs from floating away. Like rock and concrete
weirs, log weirs should have a low-flow notch or slope toward the middle
of the channel. Constructing them in a V-shape in cross section and
plan view (V pointing upstream) forces water to converge in the channel
center, and reduces the tendency to accumulate sediment and become
vulnerable to outflanking. This also reduces the tendency for water to
eddy around the downstream banks, which could erode them and lead
to outflanking. Log weirs should be keyed deeply into bed and banks
to avoid outflanking and undercutting. Typically, two logs are stacked
to help avoid undercutting as water plunges over the weir crest (figure
4.10).
65
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Log weirs require banks that are more stable than those where a rock
or concrete structure might be placed (see table 4.2). Whereas rock can
adjust (individual rocks roll or shift) when the streambed or bank erodes
slightly, logs cannot. Also, they are not impermeable like concrete or
steel, and water flowing between the individual logs or timbers can cause
piping in poorly consolidated fine-grained soils, possibly undermining the
structure. Filter fabric can be used to help limit piping, but if the fabric
tears, soil can erode through the holes.
66
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Pros Cons
Installation. Log or timber weirs require design just like any other weir
type, and they are not trivial to build. Placing the logs so that they are
lower in the channel center and angled upstream is important, and
requires care during construction; getting this wrong raises the risk of
outflanking. Placing two or three layers of geotextile upstream of the
structure (figure 4.11) is important to avoid undercutting and piping.
Bank stabilization measures, such as additional stacked logs, log cribs,
or rock riprap are necessary. Keying in log weirs generally requires less
bank disturbance than for rock structures because logs are straight
and narrow relative to most rocks. A notch into the bank the width of an
excavator bucket is all that is needed to key them in well. The streambed
is disturbed if ballast is buried to prevent logs from floating away, but the
extent of disturbance is less than for rock or concrete weirs. Installation
in flowing water is difficult since the logs float.
67
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
SHEET DESIGNED
U.S. Forest SHEET TITLE: NUMBER: BY:
Service
910 MAIN STREET, SUITE 258 (adapted from DRAWN BY:
BOISE, IDAHO 83702 NRCS-OR Standard CHECKED
CADD drawings) BY:
OFF:208.342.4214 SCALE: NONE ISSUE DATE:
FAX:208.342.4216
Figure 4.11—Plan and section views and details for a permanent log weir. Adapted from Oregon NRCS standard
AutoCAD drawings.
68
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
CONCRETE OR What are they? Concrete and steel weirs are permanent channel-
STEEL WEIRS spanning structures of concrete wall or steel piles or panels. These are
the strongest, most durable, and least porous check structures. Unless
there is a separate fishway, the entire streamflow passes over the crest,
so the weir should have a low-flow notch and other design features to
concentrate low flows and provide for upstream fish passage.
Figure 4.12—Steel weir, Ochoco Creek, Crook County, OR. Note the low-flow
notches in the center designed to concentrate flows and allow fish passage. The
structure has multiple low steps to facilitate juvenile fish passage and dissipate
energy.
Where are they generally used? Concrete structures are solid and
uniform compared to log or rock structures, so they can be designed
strong enough to raise water level higher than either log or rock
structures can. They are used commonly on larger streams, or where
a diverter has the right to take most or all of the remaining water in
the stream. In this case, concrete or steel may be preferable from the
standpoint of upstream fish passage, because seepage through more
porous materials like rock or logs would reduce the amount of flow
available for an upstream passage facility and fish screen.
69
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Concrete and steel may be more desirable where soils are porous and/
or highly erodible, and where durability is important. Design methods and
material properties are well defined for these human-made materials,
and the structure’s final properties are predictable and reliable. They can
be constructed with cutoff walls and massive aprons to reliably avoid
sliding, overturning, and undermining.
Pros Cons
Not as porous as rock or log If fish passage is not designed into the
weirs, so at very low flows, structure, fish moving upstream when
more water is available for fish water plunges over the crest will either
passage. Very low flows can have to jump or a fish ladder will have
be concentrated through a to be provided. Aprons impede fish
notch. jumping, and fish moving downstream
may be hurt when they fall onto a solid
apron.
70
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
ADJUSTABLE What are they? Short stoplogs (2-foot to 12-foot boards or tubes) are
STOPLOG WEIRS placed in slots or stanchions attached to the floor of the weir (figures
4-13 and 4-2). Installation and removal of the stoplogs adjusts the water
surface elevation. Incremental change is generally 2 to 6 inches.
71
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Where are they generally used? Adjustable dams are used where it is
not possible or desirable to construct a permanent bed-elevation control
high enough to divert water throughout the diversion season. Adjustable
dams allow raising the minimum water surface elevation as flows
decrease over the summer to continue delivering water to the diversion.
Stoplog dams can be manipulated by hand, so they are used in remote
locations without power or automation. Their low cost also makes them
attractive: they can be constructed of readily available—sometimes even
surplus—materials. However, it can be quite dangerous to manipulate the
boards during high flows when water pressure holds them in place, and
often stoplogs are not removed in a timely way.
Pros Cons
72
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Inspections are needed after high flows to check for bank erosion,
accumulated debris, or other problems that could endanger structure
stability. Weirs also should be inspected annually for bank and bed
erosion, seepage and leaks, and the overall structure condition. Plan for
some maintenance or repair annually.
AIR-BLADDER WEIRS What are they? Rubber air bladders are placed on concrete or wood
floor slabs, and are protected by hinged steel panels that cover the air
bladder at all flows (figures 4.14 and 4.15). The air bladder is inflated
using an air compressor, raising the steel panels that control water
surface elevation. Elevation adjustments can be made in fractions of an
inch. At large diversions, these systems can be automated to adjust dam
height as flow in the main river changes. This allows the structure to
maintain constant flow in the diversion.
Figure 4.14—Air-
bladder diversion dam
on Ochoco Creek,
OR. A fish ladder is
located to the left
of the photo. The
structure is reinforced
at the ends with rock
riprap to limit erosion
around the concrete
wingwalls. Longer
wingwalls than shown
here would help avoid seepage and outflanking. A concrete apron prevents bed
scour at the overfall, and could affect downstream-migrating aquatic organisms.
73
74
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Fine sediment can plug the weir’s hinges so that the panel has difficulty
opening. Air-bladder weirs are less sensitive to this problem than other
adjustable or tilting weirs because the bladder exerts pressure over the
whole panel area, resulting in large forces that can overcome some sand
embedded in the hinge. Nonetheless, air-bladder weirs would not be the
first choice of structure type in channels that transport large amounts of
sand and silt-size sediment.
Pros Cons
75
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
In areas with active beaver colonies, air bladders are at risk of being
chewed. Both beavers and human vandals have caused failures
by puncturing air bladders. A way of reducing their susceptibility to
punctures is to have ceramic chips or rods mixed in with the rubber
material during fabrication.
Inspections are needed after high flows to check for bank erosion,
accumulated debris, or other problems that could endanger structure
stability. Weirs also should be inspected annually for bank and bed
erosion, seepage around the outside walls, and overall structure
condition. Plan for some maintenance or repair annually.
ADJUSTABLE WEIR What are they? This category includes several types of adjustable
GATES weirs that are seen rarely on national forests, but might occasionally
be encountered, especially at large diversions. In general, these weirs
mostly have been replaced by air bladder weirs, which are easier to
manipulate and more reliable.
One type of adjustable weir gate slides up and down between vertical
walls on either side of the channel. It might be on tracks, or simply
set against concrete walls. Hydraulic or air cylinders, lead screws, or
winches might move the gate.
76
77
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Figure 4.16—Schematic drawing of tilting weir with concrete sill and wingwalls.
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 4.17—Radial gates at lower Cub River diversion, Bear Lake watershed,
ID. These gates are open now, but when closed, they raise the upstream water
surface elevation by about 2½ feet.
In salmonid habitats, radial gates are used rarely now because of the
harm they cause to migrating adult fish.
78
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Pros Cons
Radial gates are well- Radial gates are quite dangerous for
balanced and easy to lift. upstream migrating fish because they
They work well with high attract fish and encourage them to
sediment loads because the jump at the back of the gate.
hinges are out of the water.
Operation and maintenance. For vertical sliders and radial weirs, debris
must be removed from the floor so that the weir can seal. All adjustable
weir gates require annual startup maintenance, winch maintenance,
bearing and gear lubrication, and cables checked for fraying.
79
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
NONENGINEERED Pushup dams and pole-and-tarp dams are some of the most common
CHECK check structures at farm diversions. Pole-and-tarp dams are hand built
STRUCTURES using whatever materials are handy to raise the water surface elevation
high enough to run it into the ditch (figures 4.18 and 4.19). Pushup
diversion dams are constructed by hand or heavy equipment from
streambed or streamside rock and gravel. Wingdams are one example
common on the Salmon River and its tributaries (figure 4.20). They are
quasi-permanent nonengineered barbs that extend at an acute angle
from the streambank across as much as 75 percent of the channel width.
80
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
81
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
82
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Figure 4.21—Two diversions, including the pushup dam in figure 4.20, were
consolidated into one on the East Fork Salmon River. The new diversion
structure is an A-weir with two rock weir drop structures for salmonid fish
passage. Photo courtesy of Brian Hamilton, Bureau of Reclamation, Salmon, ID.
STREAMBED INTAKE What are they? An open pipe or narrow box embedded in the streambed
STRUCTURES with a downstream-sloping grating across the opening for water to enter
(figure 4.22). Streambed intake structures differ from infiltration galleries
in that they are open at streambed elevation, whereas pipes feeding
an infiltration gallery are buried in the streambed. The structure may
or may not span the entire streambed. Water runs by gravity through a
valve to the distribution infrastructure—a pump sump, ditch, or pipe. The
structure slopes toward the bank steeply enough to sweep any coarse
sediment to a sump that can be cleaned out or to a sediment sluice gate
if the amount of trapped sediment is high. Perforated-plate or wedge-wire
fish screens may be secured on top of the grating to protect fish from
being sucked into the diversion. Screens also help keep gravel out of the
diversion.
83
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
These structures work well only where there is plenty of flow that will not
be diverted. The gratings tend to take in water so fast that, in shallow
water, most of the surface flow may enter the top of the opening and
return back out again at the downstream side of the grating, leaving the
middle section dry or nearly dry (figure 4.23). Downstream-migrating fish
may be able to negotiate the narrow dry patch by flopping and rolling
but when leaves and twigs are allowed to accumulate there, fish may be
blocked and die. Such structures require diligent maintenance to keep
them clear of debris. For these reasons, streambed intake structures are
often frowned upon by regulators.
84
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Figure 4.23—Streambed water intake and fish screen on Clear Creek, near
Halfway, OR. This structure is a corrugated metal pipe with rectangular holes cut
in the top that are covered by a grating. The grating slopes downstream 6 inches
in 2 feet (25 percent) so that flow across the top will sweep it clear of debris.
This works as long as the grating is submerged, but at low flows, all streamflow
may enter at the top and resurface near the bottom, creating a problem for
debris and fish passage. Note the piece of culvert at the far side of the stream
channel. It acts as a low dam narrowing the channel so that water flows toward
the diversion structure. An opening for upstream fish passage can be seen
between the two structures.
85
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Pros Cons
86
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
87
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Advantages
Pumps have several advantages over other types of diversion control
structures.
● Water surface elevation in the stream does not have to be raised
for a pump station intake.
88
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Disadvantages
Pumps also have several disadvantages compared to other types of
structures.
● Continuous power requirements (either electricity or fuel).
■ A hole in the screen can allow debris into the pump causing
impeller damage.
89
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 4.26—Kalapuya River pump station and river context. See text for
explanation.
90
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Propeller and turbine pumps are similar in having the motor and pump
impeller coupled via a shaft. These need permanent installations, where
the motor can be located high above the water out of reach of floods on
something like a dock or pier (figure 4.27). The propeller pump operates
only at low pressure; turbine pumps operate at low to high pressures.
In centrifugal and submersible pumps (figure 4.28), the motor and pump
impeller are closely coupled. The centrifugal pump is placed no more
than about 15 to 20 feet above the water surface, which can limit its use
on large rivers with very high banks. Submersible pumps are placed
below the water surface. Both centrifugal and submersible pumps can be
simple, easy-to-move packages including a pump, a protective screen, a
water delivery pipe, and a power cord.
91
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
When the pump and screen are operating properly flow in the diversion is
very reliable and uniform. However, one of the disadvantages of pumps
is their need for consistent attention to operation and maintenance.
Pump and motor maintenance includes replacing seals and/or packing,
and bearing and shaft replacement. Approximately every 20 years the
motor will need to be rewound.
Stationary pump stations require removing sediment from the screen and
sump (with backwash, sluicing, suction, or excavation). Moveable pump
stations require removing the pumps at the end of the irrigation season
and reinstalling them at the beginning of the next season. Replacement
of the pumps during high flow can be very challenging.
92
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Infiltration galleries that use steel pipe or other materials that are not
corrosion resistant are particularly susceptible to plugging. Corrosion
raises blisters (carbuncles or tubercles) on rust-prone surfaces that can
cause plugging, as can calcium deposits from carbonate-rich water.
93
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 4.29—Drawing of an infiltration gallery that delivers water to a vault and irrigation pipe. Backflushing
equipment must have access to the vault to clear each pipe on a regular basis.
94
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
Advantages
● Water collected by infiltration galleries is typically of better quality
than surface water collection as it has been filtered by streambed
sediments.
Disadvantages
● Installation is difficult and expensive; regulators tend to view them
skeptically because of experience with many failed systems.
95
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Daily operating costs for infiltration galleries that are properly located
and designed are relatively low. Once installed, the infiltration gallery
should function without operator input or intense supervision. The main
operating cost for the system would be in the pump operation.
96
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
97
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
98
Table 4.2—Diversion structure suitablity for various site characteristics
Structure Channel Maximum Bank Channel Required Range of Qdiverted/ Acceptable Size of
Type Width Drop Height Slope Bank Instream Qinstream Sediment Passable
(ft) Across (ft) (%) Stability Flows (%) Load Debris
Diversion (cfs) (wood)
Structure
(ft)
99
(partial at bank)
width)
Permanent Weirs
Weir1 of a weir
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
system
Weirs
Adjustable
Tilting Weir 8 to 50 2 to 2,500
Table 4.2—Diversion structure suitablity for various site characteristics (continued)
Structure Channel Maximum Bank Channel Required Range of Qdiverted/ Acceptable Size of
Type Width Drop Height Slope Bank Instream Qinstream Sediment Passable
(ft) Across (ft) (%) Stability Flows (%) Load Debris
Diversion (wood)
Structure
(ft)
100
flooding.
Pumps
Propeller 8 to 50 Maximum Bank <2 High, Sufficient 90 High ¾” and
lift <30 should because depth is less
be high of the required
Turbine Maximum enough significant for pump Silt/clay 4” and
lift VERY to protect infra- operation. load: Low to less
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Structure Channel Maximum Bank Channel Required Range of Qdiverted/ Acceptable Size of
Type Width Drop Height Slope Bank Instream Qinstream Sediment Passable
(ft) Across (ft) (%) Stability Flows (%) Load Debris
Diversion (wood)
Structure
(ft)
Pumps
electrical structure damages
panels and investment bearings
controls at pump and
from stations. impeller).
101
flooding
Infiltration Gallery
Excavation
is
impractical.
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Structure Stability Maximum drop across a diversion structure. For a stable rock weir,
Table (T4.2) Notes series of weirs, ramp or riffle experience shows that 6 feet is the largest
safe drop before a retaining structure would be needed. If a diversion
requires a higher check, consider moving the point of diversion upstream,
or use a concrete or steel structure. The limit of 12 feet for a concrete
or steel structure is a practical limit on the height of a structure before a
geotechnical feasibility study should be done as part of the design. For
pumps, this column is the maximum lift height. Single weirs should be
limited to heights endemic swimming species can jump.
Bank height. Where banks are lower than 3 feet, overflow is likely
to be frequent, putting the diversion at risk of being outflanked during
high flows. Banks higher than 16 feet require very long bank keys
(as a general rule, a bank key is twice as long as the bank is high).
That amount of excavation could cause an unacceptable amount of
disturbance to the riparian area. For infiltration galleries, 20 feet is a
rule of thumb beyond which the amount of bank excavation required to
connect the gallery to the pump or ditch would be impractical.
102
Chapter 4—Diversion Structures
103
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
Diversions can affect fish and fish habitat in a variety of ways. For
example, they reduce the amount of water in the stream, which reduces
the available aquatic habitat; the smaller amount of water in contact with
streambed gravels exposed to the sun can increase water temperature
downstream; diversions also may increase sediment loading if they
contribute to accelerated bank or bed erosion. Techniques for limiting
some of these effects have been discussed in the previous sections
dealing with the components of diversion infrastructure.
Screening fish from diversions is more difficult than one would think,
because organic materials (twigs, algae, leaves, fine organic particles) in
the water tend to clog the small screen openings. Screens are designed
to have a large total open area—large enough that as water accelerates
to go through the screen openings, fish will not be pinned to the surface.
If part of the screen is blocked by debris, water accelerates more to get
through the restricted open area, increasing the risk of pinning fish to the
screen. Therefore, a cleaning mechanism is an essential part of screen
design and operation (figure 5.2). Passive screens—those without any
cleaning mechanism—exist but are sized considerably larger because of
the tendency to clog. Generally, passive screens are used only where: (1)
the stream is steep so that sweeping water velocity past the screen is fast
enough to keep it clear and/or (2) where debris in the stream is scarce.
105
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Behavioral Barriers
Air-bubble curtains—
formed when compressed
air is released through
small holes in a pipe or
conduit—tend to guide fish Figure 5.1—Looking downstream at double rotary drum screen installation on
away or past entrances Fourth of July Creek diversion, Salmon River Basin, ID.
to diversions. Louvers Figure 5.2—Rotating-
are bar-shaped pieces drum screen coated
placed like overlapping with aspen leaves in
shingles. Water that flows the fall. The screen’s
through the louvers must rotation should lift
turn more than 90 degrees the leaves over and
into the diversion and wash them off the
fish are expected to pass downstream side, but
them by. Information on clogging occurred fast
electro-shock barriers can here. Flow passing
be found at <http://www. through the drum
smith-root.com/barriers>. decreased so rapidly
that the paddlewheel
stopped, stopping the
drum rotation. After
this photo was taken,
a water measurement
flume located
downstream of the
screen was removed.
The screen gained 6
inches of head as a
result, and the problem
is considered fixed.
Fish Haven Creek,
tributary to Bear Lake,
ID. October 2009.
106
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
Fish screens are placed at or near the head of the diversion ditch to
separate fish and debris from the diverted water, and protect fish from
injury or entrainment in the ditch. Screens placed in the ditch return fish
and debris to the stream channel via a bypass channel or pipe, which
should reenter the channel at a safe discharge point downstream of the
diversion structure (see figure 1.2).
During the site assessment, consider what type of screen might be used
and where it might be located (also see section 5.1.5). As you will see in
this chapter, screens have different tolerances for incoming debris and
water level variations, and they vary in the amount of bypass flow needed
to sweep debris away (table 5.1). Generally, they must be located at a
point on the ditch where a bypass can be constructed to take fish back to
the main channel.
107
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
108
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
Screens are either fixed in place, or they move as part of the cleaning
process. A fixed screen is sealed in place and does not move, although
brushes or other cleaning components may move over it. In a moving
screen, seals and brushes close gaps between the moving screen and
its housing, preventing the fish from entering the diversion ditch through
those gaps.
Figure 5.3—Pressure backwash flat plate fish screen at the end of a pump
suction. This intake is in a channel undergoing reconstruction after an
impoundment was removed. Garden Creek, Bonneville County, ID. Photo
courtesy of Matt Woodard, Trout Unlimited.
● Plate screens cleaned by water flowing over and off the screen.
109
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Horizontal flat-plate screens (figure 5.4) are passive; that is, there is no
cleaning mechanism other than the sweeping flow itself. The surface
area of a passive screen is determined by the desired diversion rate
(i.e., the rate of water inflow through the screen) and by the acceptable
water velocity through (normal to) the screen vis-a-vis fish impingement.
As a rule of thumb, the area of a passive screen should be at least 15
to 20 ft2 per cfs diverted. Again, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration NMFS criteria (1.75 mm (1/16 inch) holes or slots) are
recommended even where screening is not regulated. The criteria
minimize fish entrapment, and they also help keep the plugging potential
down.
110
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
B
Figure 5.4—Horizontal flat-plate screen. Upper Fish Haven Creek, Bear Lake, ID. (A) Photo was taken during
installation. The view is upstream looking toward the headgate. In this Farmers’ Conservation Alliance screen,
the partially shadowed screen is on the left, with some debris on top. Boards in the middle control how much
flow exits toward the diversion ditch, which is out of sight behind the photographer. (B) This view is looking
downstream. When the screen is functioning, fish pass over the screen, and out the bypass pipe seen in the
background, right. These screens require substantial bypass flow. At least 6 inches of fast-moving water is
needed to protect the fish from scraping on the screen, and to sweep the screen of debris.
111
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
112
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
113
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
114
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
Figure 5.8—Rotary-drum fish screen on Elk Creek, Salmon River Basin, ID. This
type of modular setup with a trash-rack and rotary-drum screen powered by a
paddlewheel is very common in mountain streams in Idaho and other Western
States in anadromous fish habitat.
115
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 5.9—Traveling-belt fish screen, Lytle Creek, San Bernardino County, CA,
protects a municipal water intake.
The rotary-drum screen only works when water levels are within a
restricted range, so it requires more water control than other screens.
The usual method of flow control is a submerged orifice headgate at
the point of diversion. Rotating drums are more expensive to install
than fixed screens, but they are probably the most well-developed and
reliable screening technology in common use today. They are preferred
by State fisheries agencies in Washington, Idaho, and Oregon. At least
one provider (located in Idaho) can supply prefabricated rotating-drum
screens for up to 10 cfs.
116
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
117
Table 5.1—Advantages and disadvantages of different screen types. The “good” and “poor” labels rate each screen type in comparison to the
others for each variable in the table
Type of Bedload Variable Floating Limited Head Loss Sub Short Energy Widespread
Screen Fines Silt Water Trash Space Across Freezing Duration Requirement Acceptance
and Sand Surface Screen Conditions Floods of Fish and
Elevation System Wildlife
Agencies
118
Backwash (Very Good) significant (Very Good) (Good) (Very Good)
bypass
Wiper flows. Screen Can be Low Pacific
Screen Handles operates well set up to Northwest
well with with low head operate in and
significant differential. freezing California
bypass Drive conditions
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Type of Bedload Variable Floating Limited Head Loss Sub Short Energy Widespread
Screen Fines Silt Water Trash Space Across Freezing Duration Requirement Acceptance
and Sand Surface Screen Conditions Floods of Fish and
Elevation System Wildlife
Agencies
119
(Fair) on state Handles (Good)
requirements trash
for water well with
depth over significant
screen.) bypass
flows.
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
Passive Must be Must be (Fair) Generally Operates Good Enclosed None except Case
end-of-pipe suspended submerged. very small well with screen hand by case.
screen above the (Good in and easy 0.1 ft head continues cleaning.
stream deep pools.) to fit into loss across to protect (Very good)
bottom to variety of screen fish.
prevent stream (Very good) (Very good)
accumulation locations.
of sediment. (Very good)
(Fair)
Table 5.1—Advantages and disadvantages of different screen types. The “good” and “poor” labels rate each screen type in comparison to the
others for each variable in the table (continued)
Type of Bedload Variable Floating Limited Head Loss Sub Short Energy Widespread
Screen Fines Silt Water Trash Space Across Freezing Duration Requirement Acceptance
and Sand Surface Screen Conditions Floods of Fish and
Elevation System Wildlife
Agencies
MOVING SCREENS
Rotary Must have If Passes Configuration Rotary drum Drum must Will not Low power Pacific
Drum a sump in overtopped, over drum. can be can operate be raised in protect requirements Northwest
the ditch fish can (Very Good) adjusted to under head extended fish when can be met by
120
and/or pass over fit most drop of sub-freezing overtopped. paddlewheel,
a raised the drum. sites. approximately conditions. (Fair) grid, or solar
screen (Poor) (Fair) 0.2 ft. (Poor) electric drives.
(5-6 inches) (Good) (Good)
and a free
flowing
Traveling bypass. Very Good Carried Application 0.1 ft. Belt must Can be Generally Moderately
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Belt (Fair) over belt. is limited to (Good) be raised in set up to solar or AC well
(Very Good) deep water extended protect fish electric drive. accepted
(not shallow sub-freezing in a flood (Fair) in Pacific
ditches). conditions. situation. Northwest
Screen can (Poor) (Very Good) and
be very California.
compact
when water
is deep.
(Good)
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
121
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
End-of-Pipe Weekly
Screen with lubrication and
Backwash debris removal
can protect
pump from
burnout.
122
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
123
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
124
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
125
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
126
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
Like open channels, ladders can function with a wide range of sediment
loads. Often, moveable gates or orifices are placed near the bottom
of the ladder channels to pass sediment. However, ladder functioning
is highly susceptible to woody debris blockages. Debris can block fish
passage and it can be difficult to remove. Fish ladders require either a
water supply without much woody debris or daily maintenance to clear
debris from the weir boards or trash rack if there is one.
127
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
128
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
A B
129
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
130
Table 5.3—Fishway Installation and operations and maintenance
Pool-and-Weir High Dewatering. For small Remove and Sediment and Stoplogs/
access for applications, can be reinstall stoplogs debris accumulate blades can be
concrete truck. prefabricated or built seasonally. and can block fish. stolen, eaten by
onsite of wood or beavers, and
steel. burned.
Denil and Medium Dewatering. Portable for many Remove and Wood easily Low
Alaska Steep small applications. reinstall blades accumulates on
pass They are not very annually and blades, and can
heavy and can remove debris trap and block fish.
131
be carried by two daily. This is a more
people. In Alaska, acute problem for
they are flown into steeppasses than
backcountry by for pool-and-weir
plane or helicopter. fishways.
Chapter 5—Fish Protection at Diversions
Vertical Slot High Precision Not very Remove debris Similar to Low
installation. The portable. at least weekly. steeppass ladders.
exact shape
of the weirs is
very important.
Most successful
with concrete.
Dewatering.
Table 5.3—Fishway Installation and operations and maintenance (continued)
Constructed Medium Dewatering. Could be Weekly or more Channel may take Stabilizing bank
Channel— Access for rock constructed with often; adjust flow too much water vegetation can
132
Semi-natural and debris a small excavator to proportion from diversion. be damaged
Open Channel removal. depending on water between Downstream fish by fire, flood,
Fishway channel size. the stream, the movement may be vandalism, and
constructed impaired by debris beavers.
channel, and the accumulation in
ditch. fishway.
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Chapter 6—Flow Measurement
● Flumes.
● Submerged orifices.
133
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Figure 6.1—Open-channel control section and staff gauge at USGS gauging site
on an unnamed tributary of Bertrand Creek, near Lynden, WA (not a diversion
ditch). Photo courtesy of Darrin Miller, USGS, Sedro-Wooley WA. This control
section is not ideal because of its location downstream of a bend. Preferably,
the control reach should be located on a straight section where downstream
conditions are relatively unchanging.
134
Chapter 6—Flow Measurement
135
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
HEAD WALL
STAFF GAUGE
AT 3-4 H
FROM WEIR
WEIR BLADE
136
Chapter 6—Flow Measurement
Sharp-crested weirs are very accurate at low flows, but they are not
suitable for measuring large flows because they are easily submerged
when the downstream water surface approaches the weir crest. Debris
can be caught on the crest and sediment tends to deposit upstream
of the weir. They do not work well in pipes or lined canals because the
velocity of water approaching the weir must be less than 0.5 foot per
second.
137
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
The most common flumes used to measure diversion flows are long-
throated (also called broad-crested weirs or ramp flumes) and short-
throated or Parshall flumes. Several specialized structures, such as
H-flumes, cutthroat flumes, Palmer-Bowles flumes, flat-bottomed
trapezoidal flumes, and special sediment-passing flumes are used under
special circumstances. The “Water Measurement Manual” (Bureau of
Reclamation 2001) contains information on these specialized weirs and
their applications.
138
Chapter 6—Flow Measurement
STAFF GAUGE
C
Figure 6.4—Long-throated flume. (A) drawing. (B) Salmon Falls Canal, west of
Rogerson, ID. (C) Twin Falls main canal below Milner Dam, ID.
139
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
GAUGE
GAUGE
GAUGE
140
Chapter 6—Flow Measurement
2. For a given head drop, a flume can measure a wider range of flows
than a sharp-crested weir.
For flumes, as for weirs, approach flow should be tranquil and uniform.
Approach velocity should be higher than for sharp-crested weirs—
between 1 and 3 feet per second. Ramp flumes are less sensitive to
backwatering than other devices, so they might be appropriate where
water surface elevation in the ditch varies, such as where the farmer
puts in a ditch plug to irrigate a field. Ramp flumes also can be designed
to fit in pipes or in ditches of various cross-section shapes, which saves
the installer from having to reshape the ditch to accommodate the flume.
The upstream banks must be high enough to prevent overtopping, and
scour protection is needed downstream, especially when using short-
throated flumes.
141
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
142
Chapter 6—Flow Measurement
STAFF GAUGE A
STAFF GAUGE B
Submerged orifices measure relatively large flows with little head loss
(i.e., only a small drop in water surface). This allows them to conserve
delivery head in comparison to the losses associated with flumes or
weirs.
143
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
To determine the flow rate, the size and shape of the orifice and the
change in water surface elevation across the flume must be known
(figure 6.6). Two head measurements (upstream and downstream) are
required. Commercial devices come with calibration tables that show
flow for any combination of upstream and downstream water surface
elevation. If the orifice is operating in a free flow situation (i.e., not
submerged), then only an upstream head measurement is required.
144
Chapter 6—Flow Measurement
145
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Table 6.1—Comparison of measurable flow ranges and head loss for structures approximately 4- to 5-feet wide
1
Minimum headloss across the weir for an accurate measurement with a single upstream measurement (weirs
and flumes).
2
Flows for sharp-crested weirs are shown for head above weir crest of 1.99 ft. Weir width, excluding wingwalls, is
approximately 4 ft.
3
Channel side slopes of 1.5:1, bottom width of 2.0 ft, maximum canal depth of 4.0 ft.
4
Orifice cross-sectional area of 1.0 ft2 and head differential from 0.01 ft to 0.80 ft.
146
Chapter 7—Operations, Monitoring, and Maintenance Plan
147
Table 7.1—OM&M actions required
Water Adjust headgate to Inspect for and repair Inspect for excess Fill conveyance system
Conveyance to maintain desired flow damage caused by vegetation growth; with water at beginning
User (ditch, pipe, and required freeboard animals (beavers, clear if needed. of season; dewater
canal) (daily checks and ground squirrels, at end of season.
adjustments likely and so forth). Inspect for and
needed in spring or repair damage from Clean out sediment
when flows vary). Inspect mechanical uncontrolled storm accumulations.
appurtenances (waste runoff.
ways and gates) and Inspect for and repair
repair as needed. Check freeboard damage from animals,
during maximum water ice, vandals, fire, flood,
diversions—may be tree roots, excessive
needed daily in spring. vegetation growth,
148
and so forth.
Headgate Adjust and control flow. Check for and remove Inspect for and clear Adjust and tighten
debris and sediment excess vegetation operator bolts.
Check for debris accumulations. growth.
accumulation. Clear out sediment
Inspect for and repair Inspect for and repair accumulations.
damage caused by damage caused by
animals (beavers, ground weather. Inspect for and repair
squirrels, and so forth). damage from ice,
Lubricate gate stem vandals, fire, flood, tree
(leadascrew) semi roots, moss build-up, and
annually. so forth.
149
Check seal and repair as
needed to prevent water
from entering ditch when
closed.
Diversion Adjust stoplog or gate Inspect for and remove Inspect for and clear Inspect for and repair
Structure position to maintain sediment and debris excess vegetation damage from ice,
required diversion flow. accumulations. growth. vandals, fire, flood, tree
roots, moss buildup, and
Chapter 7—Operations, Monitoring, and Maintenance Plan
Fish Screen Remove floating debris Check for fish passing Inspect for and clear Inspect for high velocity
Note: In many from screen surface. over, through, or around excess vegetation areas. The approach
cases, an agency or screen; repair as needed. growth. channel may have
organization provides Check to ensure cleaning changed, altering how
the fish screen or system is operating as Lubricate bearings and water enters the screen.
fishway. Ensure the needed. mechanical components
diverter and agency of the screen cleaner.
acknowledge any Check screen for
potential conflicts damage. Inspect for and remove
and agree on how to sediment accumulations.
operate the diversion. Check freeboard
during maximum water Inspect for and repair
diversions. damage caused by
150
animals (beavers, ground
Inspect bypass pipeline squirrels, and so forth).
entrance to ensure it
is free from debris and Adjust flow through
sediment blockage and screen if necessary and
has adequate flow. ensure flow is distributed
as evenly as possible
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Fishway (upstream Inspect fishway entrance Inspect for and repair Remove excess Repair any erosion on
passage) to ensure it is free from damage caused by vegetation. entrance and exit pool
debris and sediment animals (beavers, ground banks.
blockage. squirrels, and so forth).
Inspect for and repair
Inspect outfall and damage caused by ice,
measure flow rate to vegetation (tree roots,
ensure sufficient flow moss buildup), floods,
151
depth and discharge pool vandals, or fire.
depth are provided for
fish passage.
Water Check for and remove Check for sediment Remove excess Check device is level.
Measurement debris caught in upstream accumulation in upstream vegetation.
Devices approach reach or on approach reach
crest of device. (deposits will increase
water surface elevation
Chapter 7—Operations, Monitoring, and Maintenance Plan
Ballast An anchor: a heavy object buried in the streambed and chained to a log
or other weir component to stabilize it and prevent it from floating away.
Bankfull channel The bankfull channel is the channel width, depth, or area filled with
water just as rising water spills onto the flood plain. Bankfull flow is often
described as a channel-forming flow because it is a frequently occurring
high flow that, in many channels, transports the most sediment and
correlates with channel size (Emmett and Wolman 2001). See Forest
Service Stream System Technology Center DVD: “Identifying Bankfull
Stage in the Eastern and Western United States.”
Critical depth For any open channel cross section, each flow rate has two depths: a
higher depth at subcritical flow and a lower depth at faster supercritical
flow. Critical depth is the boundary between the two. Critical depth is
important in flow measurements because a single depth measurement
Glossary/Bibliography
uniquely defines water velocity. Many flow measurement structures are
designed to force water to critical depth through a known cross sectional
area, so that flow rate can be read off a calibration table.
Head Head describes the energy in a mass of water. For diversion planning
purposes, it can be thought of as the elevation of the water surface
above a reference level, such as the channel bed, the ditch bed, the floor
of a hydraulic structure, or the point of water use. Velocity and pressure
are also components of head, but they can usually be neglected in
diversion planning.
Head loss For the purposes of diversion planning, head loss is the decrease in
water surface elevation between two points (section 3.2).
Piping Piping is erosion caused by water percolating through soil (or an earthen
dam). This type of erosion results in small tunnels inside the soil mass
(soil pipes), which enlarge as water progressively concentrates and
removes more soil particles.
Poorly graded A mixture of rocks is poorly graded when the rocks are uniform in
size. Because the particles are all similar in size, smaller particles are
not present to fill the spaces between them, so these mixtures have
continuous pore spaces through which water can move relatively rapidly.
Meaning is the same as well sorted.
153
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Thalweg A thalweg is a line connecting the deepest points in the channel from
upstream to downstream along the streambed (see figure 2.2).
154
Glossary/Bibliography
A
Adams, S.B; Schmetterling, D.A.; Young, M.K. 2005. Instream movements by boreal toads.
Herpatology Review 26(1): 27-33.
Adkins, G. B. 2006. Flow measurement devices. Utah Division of Water Rights. Online at <http://
waterrights.utah.gov/distinfo/measurement_devices.pdf>. Accessed 4/23/2010.
B
Bates, K.K. 2006. Assessment of diversion related structures within the Sawtooth National
Recreation Area. Prepared for the Sawtooth National Recreation Area and USDA Forest
Service. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region,
Instream Flow Group.
Bates, K.K.; Love, M. (in preparation). Modifying culverts for fish passage. San Dimas, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, National Technology and Development Program.
Bohn, C,C.; King, J.G. 2000. Stream channel responses to stream flow diversion on small streams of
the Snake River drainage, Idaho. RMRS-RP-20. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Bureau of Reclamation. 2001. Water measurement manual. 3rd edition. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office. Online at <http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/wmm/>.
Accessed 4/23/2010.
C
Cadena, F.; Magallanez, H. 2005. Analytical solution for circular gates as flow metering
structures. J Irrigation and Drainage 131(5): 451-456.
California Department of Fish and Game. 2009. Fish passage design and implementation. Part XII of
the California salmonid stream habitat restoration manual. Online at <http://www.dfg.ca.gov/fish/
REsources/HabitatManual.asp>. Accessed 4/23/2010.
E Emmett, W.W.; Wolman, M.G. 2001. Effective discharge and gravel bed rivers. Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms. 26: 1369-1380.
155
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
F Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. 2001. Stream corridor restoration:
principles, practices, and processes. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service National Engineering Handbook 653. Online at <http://www.nrcs.usda.
gov/technical/stream_restoration/>. Accessed 5/17/2010.
Forest Service Stream-Simulation Working Group. 2008. Stream simulation: an ecological approach
to providing passage for aquatic organisms at road-stream crossings. San Dimas, CA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, National Technology and Development Program.
Online at <http://www.stream.fs.fed.us/fishxing/aop_pdfs.html>. Accessed 4/23/2010.
G
Gale, S.B.; Zale, A.V. 2008. Effectiveness of fish screens to prevent entrainment of westslope
cutthroat trout into irrigation canals. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 28(5):
1541-1553.
H
Heiner, B.J. 2009. Parshall flume staff gauge location and entrance wingwall discharge
calibration corrections. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering. Master’s Thesis. Online at <http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/
etd/480>. Accessed 3/3/10.
Hill, R. 1999. How good is your water measurement? Logan, UT: Utah State University Cooperative
Extension AG/BIE/WM/01. Online at <http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/
AG_BIE_WM_01.pdf>. Accessed 4/23/2010.
M
Moulton, M. 2010. Personal communication. Review comments transmitted via email to K.
Clarkin 6/10/2010.
N
National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2008.
Anadromous salmonid passage facility design. Portland, OR: National Marine Fisheries
Service, Northwest Region.
Northcote, T.G. 1998. Migratory behavior of fish and its significance to movement through riverine fish
passage facilities. In Fish Migration and Fish Bypasses. 1998. Jungwirth, M.; Schmutz, S.;
Weiss, S., eds. Oxford, England: Fishing News Books, Oxford, England.
P Pearson, K.E. 2002. Irrigation water measurement. Agronomy Note #348. Bozeman, MT:
Montana State University Extension. Online at <http://agnotes.org/AgNotes/docs/348.htm>.
Accessed 4/23/2010.
156
Glossary/Bibliography
Rosgen, D. L. 2001. The cross-vane, W-weir, and J-hook vane structures: their description,
design and application to stream stabilization and river restoration. Fort Collins, CO: Wildland
Hydrology Inc. Online at <http://www.wildlandhydrology.com/assets/cross-vane.pdf>. Accessed
4/24/2010.
S Schmetterling, D.A.; Adams, S.B. 2004. Summer movements within the fish community of a
small montane stream. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 24:1163-72.
U U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2003. Identifying bankfull stages in the eastern
and western United States. DVD. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Stream Systems Technology Center.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Watershed, Fish, Wildlife, and Rare Plants Staff. [In
preparation]. Water rights and uses site visit field guide. Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2001. Design of rock weirs.
Engineering Technical Note 13. Online at <ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/ID/technical/technotes/
engineering/eng_tn13.pdf>. Accessed 4/23/2010.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2007b. Grade control
structures. National Engineering Handbook Part 654-Technical Supplement 14G. Online at
<http://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17816.wba>. Accessed
12/21/10.
W
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. [2000 draft] Fish protection screen guidelines for
Washington State. Online at <http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/ahg/screen51.pdf>. Accessed 4/21/2010.
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. [2000 draft] Fishway guidelines for Washington State.
Online at <http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/ahg/fishguid.pdf>. Accessed 4/23/2010.
Witte, L. G. 2001. Still no water for the woods. Salt Lake City, UT: ALI-ABA Federal Lands Law
Conference. Oct 19, 2001.
157
Appendix A—Site Assessment Checklists
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
159
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Design Report
Construction Drawings
O&M Plan
Watershed Plan
TMDL Study
Grant Application
1
Indicate items available and check if reviewed.
160
INFRASTRUCTURE OBSERVATIONS
Diversion Structure
Fish Screen
Fish Bypass
161
Water Measuring Device
Flow Control
Other
Appendix A—Site Assessment Checklists
6
If structure is present but not evaluated = P; if structure was evaluated = E
SITE CONDITIONS
See list of common problems in table 2.1
Problem Evidence
Sediment Deposition
Erosion/Headcuts
Stream Bed Scour/Degradation
Ditch Failures
Other:
162
See list of common constraints in table 2.2
Condition Potential constraint on diversion location, layout and/or design
Geology/Soils
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Stream Type
Structures
Land Ownership
Archaeology
Vegetation
Flow Condition Diverted Flow Method of Determination Stream Flow Method of Determination
7
Diversion designers typically use the 25-year flow as the high design flow. The recurrence interval can be higher if resource
protection warrants.
SITE SKETCH
Include downstream and upstream survey endpoints, channel alignment, channel features (pools, sediment accumulation),
163
diversion structure/dam, ditch/pipe entrance and alignment, fish screen, bypass, water measurement structure, cross section
locations.
Appendix A—Site Assessment Checklists
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Dam Crest
Opposite Ditch
Ditch Entrance/Headgate
164
Appendix A—Site Assessment Checklists
Left Endpoint
Thalweg
Right Endpoint
Upstream Cross Section at LP _______’
Left Endpoint
Thalweg
Right Endpoint
165
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Headgate Size______________________________________________________________________
__________________ _________________
__________________ _________________
__________________ _________________
166
Appendix B—Automating River Diversions
Demand for water in and from national forests continues to increase; and
water temperature, water quality, and in-stream and riparian habitats are
being managed with increasing care and administrative oversight.
New irrigation systems also require flexible water delivery. In the past,
water users typically received a constant flow rate on a predetermined
schedule, and this was often adequate for managing their surface
irrigation systems. However, as the variety of irrigation systems has
increased, the need for more flexible flow management, both in
timing and quantity, has become apparent. For example, end guns
on center pivot systems turn on and off, and microirrigation systems
irrigate different-sized fields on schedules based on the weather
(evapotranspiration rates and precipitation).
167
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
One disadvantage of the float gate from the water user’s perspective
is the difficulty in changing the setting or making adjustments. Also the
flow rate can vary as the gate adjusts to maintain the desired upstream
or downstream water level. For more information, see flap-gate design
information from the Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC
2007).
Figure B.1—Automatic float gate used to maintain constant water level on the inlet
screen for the Hood River Canal Diversion, Hood River, OR. Only the closer gate is
operating, and it is adjusting to keep the upstream (on left) water level the same. The
float or ballast is the round tube at the end of the levered gate.
168
Appendix B—Automating River Diversions
169
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
170
Appendix B—Automating River Diversions
Figure B.3—Automatic gate at Twin Falls main canal, Murtaugh, ID. From left to
right---solar panel and antenna; three boxes containing the RTU; regular screw
type gate with the actuator, and a cover over the gate stem. The tube running
along the back of the concrete head wall goes to a water surface level sensor
that measures how much water is flowing through the gate.
171
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
A local automated control system has all of the above plus an RTU
programmed to maintain a constant flow by moving the gate up or
down to a setpoint in response to a water level reading (figure B.4).
The controlling water level is commonly in the ditch, but it could also
be in the stream itself, if criteria were based on streamflow rather
than ditchflow. This is referred to as ‘local control’ because all the
components needed to measure and control ditchflow are onsite and
responding to preprogrammed criteria or setpoints. Flow targets and
adjustment criteria can be changed remotely if necessary. Data might be
stored in the base station computer with some backup storage capacity
onsite.
Figure B.4—SCADA components for Middle Cub River diversion, ID. From left
to right: the breaker panel for alternating current grid power, the flow meter local
readout (blue), and the RTU. The RTU reads the flow from the flowmeter and
adjusts the automated gate to maintain the flow at the programmed setpoint.
Note the telephone: The irrigation district can call in to the RTU and check the
flows, gate position, and make adjustments to the flow setpoint without visiting
the site.
172
Appendix B—Automating River Diversions
● Power supply (12 volt direct current or 110 volt alternating current).
Figure B.5—One of the monitoring and control panels for the Hood River canal
SCADA system. This panel shows real-time pressure measurements and flows
from three sources to the power plant.
173
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
174
Appendix B—Automating River Diversions
System design and setup. Currently, turnkey SCADA systems rarely are
available (however, see the Rubicon SCADAConnect system). Individual
components are available but operators need to understand how to
apply them to their specific situation, or they need to find someone
knowledgeable enough to piece the various components together. People
who specialize in setting up SCADA systems are called integrators
because they combine components from different suppliers into an
integrated monitoring/communication/power/control system. They also
provide local support for the built system over time, which can be quite
important.
Cost. SCADA costs (2010) vary widely, depending on the purpose, the
approach to communication, scale, and instrumentation requirements.
Costs depend strongly on specific site characteristics. As a hypothetical
example, consider a remote diversion with a single gate located in a
small valley with a good view of the southern horizon. Line of sight is
restricted but could be maintained with two additional repeaters. The
options are:
1. Automate the gate and set it for specific flow rate. Equipment would
include a power supply, gate sensor, gate actuator set to maintain
the desired flow rate, and probably a datalogger.
175
Planning and Layout of Small-Stream Diversions
Option 3: Monitoring plus control. The broad spectrum radio is the only
method that would approximate real time control and feedback. Some
equipment can be used for both monitoring and automation/control.
The cost range is approximately $19,000 to $22,000, depending on the
number of repeaters needed.
Option 3 is the system most irrigation companies use if they use SCADA
systems. Naturally, the cost increases as the scale increases. For
irrigation districts that monitor and control dozens of gates with custom
software, SCADA installation and setup can run into the hundreds of
thousands of dollars. Complex systems like this also need people skilled
in operating and maintaining mechanical and electronic equipment, and
knowledgeable about the software that controls them.
176
Appendix B—Automating River Diversions
REFERENCES
Burt, C.; Piao, X.; Gaudi, F. 2007. SCADA information umbrellas for
irrigation districts. In SCADA and related technologies for irrigation
district modernization II, Proc 2007 USCID Water Management
Conference. U.S. Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, Denver CO.
ITRC. 2007. ITRC flap gate design program. Report R 07-001. San
Luis Obispo, CA: California Polytechnic University, Irrigation Training
and Research Center. Online at <http://www.itrc.org/reports/flapgate.
htm>. Accessed 5/18/2011.
177