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3 Physica A ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]

www.elsevier.com/locate/physa
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On non-extensive statistics, chaos and fractal
9
strings
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C. Castro
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Center for Theoretical Studies of Physical Systems, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, GA 30314, USA

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15 Received 29 October 2003; received in revised form 10 May 2004

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17

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Abstract
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Motivated by the growing evidence of universality and chaos in QFT and string theory, we
study the Tsallis non-extensive statistics (with a non-additive q-entropy) of an ensemble of
fractal strings and branes of different dimensionalities. Non-equilibrium systems with complex
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23 dynamics in stationary states may exhibit large fluctuations of intensive quantities which are
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described in terms of generalized statistics. Tsallis statistics is a particular representative of

25 such a class. The non-extensive entropy and probability distribution of a canonical ensemble
of fractal strings and branes is studied in terms of their dimensional spectrum, which leads to a
27 natural upper cutoff in energy and establishes a direct correlation among dimensions, energy
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and temperature. The absolute zero temperature (Kelvin) corresponds to zero dimensions
29 (energy) and an infinite temperature corresponds to infinite dimensions. In the concluding
remarks some applications of fractal statistics, quasi-particles, knot theory, quantum groups
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and number theory are briefly discussed within the framework of fractal strings and branes.
31
r 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.
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33 PACS: ’; ’; ’
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35 Keywords: ’; ’; ’
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37
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39
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41 Fax: +1-914-965-3397.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Castro).
43
0378-4371/$ - see front matter r 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.
45 doi:10.1016/j.physa.2004.08.037
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1 1. Introduction

3 1.1. Universality and chaos in QFT and string theory

5 It has been known for some time that classical Yang–Mills theories exhibit chaotic
behaviour [1]. Spatially varying non-abelian gauge fields on the lattice have revealed
7 that the gauge field has positive Lyapunov exponent that grows linearly with the
energy density. Another signal of chaos emerges in the fluctuation properties of the
9 eigenvalues of the staggered Dirac matrix operator in a lattice SUð3Þ gauge theory
(and in full QCD). Such fluctuations are described by random matrix theory (RMT)
11 [1]. The nearest-neighbour spacing distribution of the eigenvalues, the distribution of
spacings s between two adjacent eigenvalues, agrees with the Wigner distribution for
2
13 the RMT unitary ensemble: PðsÞ
s2 e4s =p : It has been argued that this could be an

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indication of quantum chaos.

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15 Many special chaotic solutions of Einstein’s equations have also been found [2]. In
particular, a perpetual oscillating chaotic behaviour in the vicinity of a space-like

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17 singularity has been found that has the character of deterministic chaos. Chaotica-
like behaviour has been observed also by [3]. Most recently it has been shown by
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Polyakov and Kogan [4] that in certain superstring backgrounds involving
ghost–matter mixing brane-like vertex operators, the world-sheet dilaton beta
function becomes stochastic. The renormalization group (RG) equation leads to a
non-Markovian Fokker–Planck equation whose solutions are described in terms of
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23 the Feigenbaum universal constant d ¼ 4:669 . . . describing the transition from order
to chaos. The appearance of this constant is related to the scaling of spacetime
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25 curvatures at the fixed points of the RG flow. Near the singularities, regions where
the curvature is very large, the RG flow becomes chaotic. These ghost–matter mixing
27 contributions behave roughly speaking like the noise terms in the Fokker–Planck
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equation and can lead to the emergence of chaos near curvature singularities.
29 Beck [5] has also found a very similar stochastic behaviour for the interaction
energy and the potential in his analysis of coupled map lattices. He modeled the
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31 vacuum fluctuations on a small (quantum gravity) scale as a deterministic chaotic

process in terms of iterated maps using Tchebyscheff polynomials (Ulam maps). This
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33 model was based on earlier work by Kaneko on coupled map lattices (chaotic
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strings) [6]. These so-called chaotic strings provide the background noise generation
35 for the Parisi-Wu stochastic quantization of ordinary strings and quantum field
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theory (QFT). Extensive numerical evidence, up to 3–5 digits, was presented by Beck
37 that shows that the vacuum energy (the interaction energy) of these chaotic strings is
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minimized (is zero) precisely for the numerical values of all of the observed Standard
39 Model parameters. Concrete predictions for the vacuum expectation values of
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dilaton-like fields, living on the two-dim lattice, give the values of all the masses,
41 couplings, mixing angles, Higgs mass, mesonic and baryonic resonances, the GUT
scale of the Standard model. Also numerical values for neutrino masses were
43 obtained.
Other physical models exist that predict the values of couplings and masses, like
45 the bit-string physics model based on a Mersenne prime hierarchy (M p ¼ 2p  1;
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1 where p is prime) that was developed in the 1970s by Noyes and collaborators [7].
The models based on set theory, hyperdiamond lattices, Clifford algebras and the
3 Feynman Chess board model [8] furnish the values of all the coupling constants and
masses with remarkable precision; models based on scale relativity [9] and physical
5 geometry [10] also yield very accurate predictions.
The Parisi-Wu stochastic quantization, in a sense, establishes a correspondence, or
7 duality, between a classical theory in D þ 1 dimensions, like the bulk of Anti de
Sitter space, with a quantum theory in D-dimensions, like the conformal-projective
9 (holographic) boundary of Anti de Sitter space. The Parisi-Wu fictitious time
coordinate plays the role of an extra dimension. Hence one has in this picture a sort
11 of classical/quantum duality. It has been argued recently that the quantized non-
abelian gauge theory can be obtained as the infrared limit of the corresponding
13 classical gauge theory in higher dimensions [11].

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This idea had been exploited earlier on by ’t Hooft [11] by arguing that quantum

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15 mechanics may arise as the low energy limit of a microscopically deterministic but
dissipative theory [11]. Microscopic black hole formation may be the mechanism that

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17 causes the loss of information, in the same way that chaos, or exponential growth of
sensitivity to initial conditions, causes information loss in Yang–Mills theories [1,11].
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Based on the universality and chaos in QFT, and the ubiquitous presence of the
stochastic renormalization group (RG) equation for the dilaton beta function, as an
example, it is reasonable to suggest that there must be a deeper organizing principle
(from small to large scales) operating in Nature which might be based in the theories
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23 of complexity, non-linear dynamics and information theory where dimensions,
energy and information are intricately connected.
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25 The natural physical setting where this is very likely to occur is in the study of
quantum field theories defined in the so-called fractal theory spaces (a self-similar
27 lattice) which are invariant under the geometrical renormalization group transfor-
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mations [12]. In the continuum limit, these models described physics in fractal
29 dimensions D ¼ 4 þ
: QFTs defined in these fractal theory spaces could be
perturbative finite to all orders in perturbation theory using the standard ’t
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31 Hooft–Veltman dimensional regularization prescription [12]. Perhaps one of the

most peculiar features of QFT’s defined in fractal theory spaces, which is connected
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33 to the scaling behaviour of fractal strings (branes) [13,14], is the plausible existence of
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limit cycles for the couplings g2 [12], regions where the couplings oscillate between
35 large and small values. Wilson long ago had envison this interesting possibility and
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quite recently this behaviour was observed in superconductivity and the massive
37 sine-Gordon model by [15]. The latter authors have found a Russian Doll
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Renormalization Group behaviour where the coupling constants exhibit a cyclical

39 flow and the mass spectrum a hierarchical scaling.
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41 1.2. Non-extensive statistics

43 Having discussed the relevance of chaos in QFT, Yang–Mills, gravity, standard

model and strings, we will outline briefly some physical applications of non-extensive
45 statistics before moving on into the next sections. By non-extensive entropy one
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1 means a non-additive entropy: the entropy of a composite system is not equal to the
sum of the entropy of its components. The Tsallis non-extensive entropy expression
3 [16] was studied earlier by Havrda and Charvat in a different context [17,18]. It is
defined by
5 P Pj¼N
1 N j¼1 ðpj Þ
q
j¼1 pj ð1  ðpj Þ
q1
Þ
Sq ¼ ¼ X0 ; (1.1)
7 q1 q1

9 the entropic exponent q is a parameter that can take arbitrary values.

The probabilities of the physical microstates are pj ; and the summation is
11 performed over all N microstates. A salient feature of the q-entropy Sq is that it
obeys the non-additive composition rule
13 SAþB ¼ SA B A B
q þ S q  ðq  1ÞS q S q (1.2)

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q

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15 and for this reason one refers to non-extensive statistics [16,19]. In the q ¼ 1 case,
after using L’ Hopital’s rule, one reproduces the Boltzmann–Gibbs–Shannon

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17 additive entropy.
The onset of chaos associated with the non-linear logistic map has revealed very
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profound connections among the entropic index q, the fractal dimension of the
chaotic attractor, the non-linearity exponent, and the end points of the multi-fractal
singularity spectrum f ðaÞ; (a is the Lipschitz–Holder exponents) [20–22]. The
emergence of chaos in renormalization-group (RG) flows has recently been analysed
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23 by [23]. Chaos of Yang–Mills theories within the context of M-theory (matrix
theory) was studied by Arefeva et al. [24]. For these reasons we believe that the RG
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25 transformations should be extended to the study of fractal strings and p-branes [13].
Since this is an arduous task, we shall concentrate for the time being on the study of
27 the non-extensive statistical properties of the recently constructed fractal strings and
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p-branes [13] within the context of the Tsallis entropy [16,17].

29 This non-extensive entropy formalism of fractal strings is more general than
previous ones based on the Boltzmann–Gibbs–Shannon entropy, and also admits a
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31 thermodynamics interpretation. Mendes-France has given a Boltzmann–Gibbs–-

Shannon like definition of the entropy of a (planar) curve in terms of the average
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33 number of intersection points of the curve with a given random line, in particular,
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with a random vertical and horizontal array of lines [25]. A Heisenberg-like

35 uncertainty principle applied to chaotic curves in the sense that it is not possible to
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locate precisely a point on a curve together with the direction of its tangent.
37 Non-equilibrium systems with complex dynamics in stationary states may exhibit
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large fluctuations over long time intervals of intensive quantities like temperature,
39 chemical potential, and energy dissipation [26]. There are many different statistical
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descriptions depending on the statistical nature of the fluctuation properties. Tsallis

41 statistics [19] is one of them but other classes exist as well that have been named
superstatistics [26]. The most important feature of these different statistical
43 descriptions is that for small variance of the fluctuations all of them behave in a
universal way. It seems that the ergodic hypothesis of ordinary statistical mechanics
45 (that trajectories cover uniformly all of phase space) is violated in many physical
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1 processes which nevertheless follow the principle of Tsallis non-extensive statistics.

The latter non-extensive statistics has applications in many areas of physics like in
3 turbulence, nuclear high-energy physics and cosmic rays astrophysics [26];
anomalous diffusion of quarks in quark–gluon plasma, the solar neutrino problem
5 [27], the identification of the edge of quantum chaos [4], non-linear fractional
Fokker–Planck equation [28], self-similar time series [29], etc.
7 It is very suggestive to use also Tsallis statistics to examine the spatial and thermal
fluctuations in black hole thermodynamics if one notices that the Hawking
9 temperature of black hole evaporation in four dimensions is inversely proportional
to the black hole mass T
ð1=MÞ; meaning that b
M; and consequently, the mass
11 content, or energy of the black hole is proportional to the square of the coordinates
fluctuations, like it occurs in an ordinary oscillator. The logarithmic corrections to
13 the black hole area–entropy relation were obtained by using collections of extended

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oscillators in Clifford spaces by Castro and Granik [30] and by other methods [31]

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15 and the Hawking mass-temperature relationship was obtained as well. For a recent
detailed study of the applications of the non-extensive entropy to examine the

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17 thermodynamic properties of self-gravitating systems of stellar systems, see [32,33].
Non-extensive statistics seem to be very suitable also in studying the spacetime
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quantum fluctuations as a source of noise which may be related to the so-called
Wheeler’s spacetime foam at the Planck scale. The spacetime foam could be a
natural model for the noise terms in a Parisi-Wu stochastic-like quantization
approach to gravity.
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23 Studies of criticality in non-linear one-dimensional maps have corroborated the
validity of Tsallis non-extensive statistics at the critical points. Exact RG fixed-point
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25 maps convey the physical meaning of the universal and non-extensive entropy
maxima [20]. More closely related to the work on fractal strings and branes is the
27 fractal-inspired statistical model within the context of Tsallis statistics studied by
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Oprisal [34]. The purpose of this work is to explore further the applications of non-
29 extensive statistics and fractals within the framework of fractal strings and branes.
The outline of this work is the following. In Section 2 we present a brief review of
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31 the fractal strings and branes (sprays) construction described by Lapidus–Franken-

huysen [14] and focus mainly on two very specific examples. We explain why the
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33 dimensions of these fractal strings and sprays are complex valued in general that is
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intricately linked with the notion of logarithmic periodicity phenomena in many

35 branches of science. In Section 3 the non-extensive entropy and probability
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distribution associated with a canonical ensemble of fractal strings (branes) is

37 evaluated explicitly in terms of the spectral energies. It then permits us to show why a
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natural upper cutoff energy exists in this ensemble of fractal strings (branes),
39 establishing a direct correlation among dimensions, energy and temperature. In the
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concluding remarks some applications of fractal statistics, quasi-particles of

41 intermediate statistics, knot theory, quantum groups and number theory are
discussed within the framework of fractal strings and branes.
43

45
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1 2. Fractal strings and branes

3 In this section we will present a very concise review of fractal strings and branes.
This review is indispensable to the reader before one can move on to Section 3 where
5 we study the non-extensive statistics of an ensemble of fractal strings and branes and
arrive at the important relationship among dimensions, energy and temperature.
7
2.1. Fractal strings
9
We will briefly summarize the basic ideas behind the book by [14] on fractal
11 strings. A standard fractal string L is a bounded open subset O of the real line R. It
is well-known to the experts that such a set consists of countably many open
13
P be denoted by l 1 ; l 2 ; l 3 ; . . . ; l j : These are called the
intervals, the lengths of which will

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lengths of the string. The sum l a is finite and equals the Lebesgue measure of O:

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15 Despite the fact that one is dealing with countably many intervals/lengths in the
definition of O the boundary qO is not necessarily countably finite. The boundary of

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17 the Cantor string is the ternary Cantor set which is a non-countable dust of points (it
has the same cardinality as the real line) despite having zero measure.
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The geometric counting function of the lengths is defined as
X
1
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zL ðsÞ ¼ ðl j Þs : (2.1)
D
j¼1
23
The central notion of the book [14] is that this function of s has poles at complex
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25 numbers sn ; the so-called complex dimensions of a fractal string. The spectrum of a

fractal string consists of the sequence of frequencies: f ¼ k=l j for k; j ¼ 1; 2; 3 . . . .
27 The spectral zeta function of the fractal string L is defined as
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X
zn ðsÞ ¼ f s : (2.2)
29
f
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31 The geometry and the spectrum of L are connected by the following relationship,
valid for all values of s
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33 zn ðsÞ ¼ zL ðsÞzR ðsÞ ; (2.3)

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35 where the Riemann zeta function is

X
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zR ðsÞ ¼ ns : (2.4)

37
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It has a simple pole at s ¼ 1 with residue 1 and it admits an analytic continuation to

39 the whole complex plane.
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The Cantor string is defined by constructing the sequence of lengths using two
41 scaling factors r1 ¼ r2 ¼ 13 : One starts with the unit interval and scales it by these two
scaling factors yielding two segments of length equal to 13 : One then repeats this
43 process iteratively yielding the Cantor string which is a self-similar string consisting
of segments of lengths 3n with multiplicities of 1; 2; 4; . . . ; 2n ; respectively. The
45 geometric counting function of the Cantor string is then given by the geometric series
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1 X 1
zCS ðsÞ ¼ 2n 3ns ¼ : (2.5)
1  23s
3
The complex dimensions are given by the poles of this function, by the zeros of the
5 denominator
23s ¼ 1 ¼ 1ei2pn : (2.6)
7
Taking logarithms on both sides of this equation yields
9 ln 2 i2pn
ln 2  s ln 3 ¼ 0  i2pn ) s ¼  : (2.7)
ln 3 ln 3
11
We immediately can recognize that the real part of the complex dimension (ln 2= ln 3)
coincides precisely with the fractal dimension of the ternary Cantor set. The
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boundary of the fractal string L is precisely the uncountable Cantor fractal dust of
points.

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15
There are many types of fractal strings discussed in the book [14]. The possibilities
are endless. In order not to confuse the reader with the nomenclature used in [14]

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related to the class of Golden and Fibonnaci strings, we should emphasize that our
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construction of Cantorian-Fractal spacetime [13] is based entirely in a particular
class of fractal strings, and higher dimensional fractal sprays or branes, whose fractal
dimensions are given by suitable binary powers and pinary powers of the Golden
mean. By pinary we mean powers of a prime number p
D
j j
23 2f ; pf j ¼ 1; 2; 3 . . . : (2.8)
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25 The complex dimensions of the fractal strings [14] is not just a mathematical
artefact but that is deeply related to the log-periodic laws in Nature discussed amply
27 by Nottale et al. [35] in their theories of the fractal tree of life and fractal evolution
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and by many others in particle physics in the renormalization group context. We

29 believe that quantum gravitational phenomena should involve interference of
complex dimensions. With this preamble of some of the basic ideas on fractal strings
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31 of the book [14], we turn our attention to the construction of the notion of fractal
sprays (branes) which are the higher dimensional analogues of strings.
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33
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2.2. Fractal branes/sprays

35
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In this section we are going to generalize the construction of fractal strings to the
37 p-branes case. In particular we will be studying a subclass of fractal branes called
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sprays in the literature [14]. A self-similar fractal brane (spray) O with basic shape B;
39 scaled by a self-similar string L; whose dimension can be greater than one, is given
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by a collection of sets Oj which are congruent to l j B; the homothetic of O by the ratio

41 l j o1 for each value of j:
Hence, for instance, the fractal spray of the Cantor string on the unit square B is
43 obtained by having one open unit square; two open squares of length-size 13 ; four
open squares of length-size 19 . . . and so forth. The Sierpinski drum is also a fractal
45 spray associated with the unit area triangle T and is obtained by scaling the middle
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1 triangle with the scaling ratios: r1 ¼ r2 ¼ r3 ¼ 12 : Notice now that rj ¼ 32 41 and
for this reason the dimension of this fractal spray will be greater than unity. There is
3 one triangle of unit area, 3 triangles of 14 area, 9 triangles of 16
1
area, and so forth.
The geometric length counting function associated with the scaling lengths r1 ¼
5 r2 ¼ r3 ¼ 12 of the Sierpinski drum is
X X 1
7 zL ðsÞ ¼ ðl j Þs ¼ 3n 2ns ¼ (2.9)
1  32s
9 and has poles at
ln 3 i2pn
11 s¼  : (2.10)
ln 2 ln 2
Notice that the real part of s is given by D ¼ ðln 3= ln 2Þ41 which is precisely the
13

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fractal dimension of the Sierpinski’s gasket. For this reason D is also the dimension
of the boundary of the fractal spray O associated with the string L:

O
15
Hence we have that

O
17 ln 3
d  1pD ¼ dim ðqOÞpd ) 1p p2 ; (2.11)
ln 2
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21
construction of the fractal spray O:
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where d ¼ 2 is the dimension of the ambient embedding space R2 used in the

Now we are ready to discuss the relevant examples that we shall be studying in the
next section when we evaluate the non-extensive entropy of an ensemble of fractal
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23 strings and branes. In particular, the two cases we shall investigate are the Golden
fractal strings (branes) whose fractal dimensions are related to the Golden mean, and
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25 the fractional strings (branes) whose dimensions are related to suitable binary
powers with negative and positive integer exponents, respectively.
27 The construction of Golden fractal strings and sprays (branes) in the ambient
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space RD allowed us to show why Cantorian-fractal spacetime Eð1Þ [36] comprised of

29 an infinite hierarchy of sets EðjÞ of dimension
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31 ðfÞ j1 ð1 þ fÞ j1 j41 (2.12)

is a very special class of fractal strings and sprays [13] whose scaling ratios are given
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j1 j1
33 by suitable binary (pinary) powers of the Golden mean 2ð1þfÞ and 2f ;
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respectively. These fractal strings and sprays involving the Golden mean must not be
35 confused with the Golden strings discussed by the authors [14]. The latter Golden
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strings belong to the class of nonlattice self-similar strings, whereas the former belong
37 to the class of lattice self-similar strings.
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Let us consider the Golden fractal spray O obtained by scaling an open square B
39 of unit area by the scaling lengths
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41 r1 ¼ r2 ¼ 2f : (2.13)
Thus O is a bounded open subset of R2 consisting of one open square of unit area,
43 two open squares of length size 2f (area is 22f ), four open squares of length size
22f (area is 24f ), etc. The geometric length counting function associated with the
45 scaling: r1 ¼ r2 ¼ 2f is
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1 X X 1
zL ðsÞ ¼ ðl j Þs ¼ 2n 2nfs ¼
; (2.14)
3 1  22fs
and it has poles when the denominator vanishes
5 1 ¼ 1ei2pn ¼ 22fs ) 0  i2pn ¼ ln 2  fs ln 2
i2pnð1 þ fÞ
7 ) s ¼ ð1 þ fÞ  ; ð2:15Þ
ln 2
9 where we have used the defining relation of the Golden mean
pffiffiffi
1 2 51
11 ¼1þf)1¼fþf )f¼ ¼ 0:618 . . . : (2.16)
f 2
13 It is not difficult to prove that the Golden mean generates a ring structure Z½t;

F
where t ¼ 1 þ f

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15
ð1 þ fÞn ¼ F nþ1 þ fF n ; fn ¼ ð1Þn F n1 þ ð1Þnþ1 F n f ; (2.17)

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17 where F n are the Fibonacci numbers 1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21 . . . obeying the recursive
relation: F nþ1 ¼ F n þ F n1 and the limit of F nþ1 =F n ¼ 1 þ f when n ! 1: This
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21
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construction generalizes to the full space Eð1Þ with the provision that one constructs
the Golden sprays from suitable hypercubes of unit hypervolumes and of enough
dimensionality N to obey
N4ð1 þ fÞn ¼ F nþ1 þ fF n 4N  1 : (2.18)
D
23
For example, to construct the set E [36] whose dimension is ð1 þ fÞ ¼ 4 þ f3 ¼
ð4Þ 3
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25 3 þ 2f44 requires starting with a unit size hypercube in R5 ; instead of R4 : To

construct the set Eð5Þ whose dimension is ð1 þ fÞ4 ¼ 5 þ 3f46 requires starting with
27 a unit size hypercube in R7 : And, in general, to construct the set EðjÞ whose dimension
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is ð1 þ fÞ j1 requires to find the smallest integers NðjÞ such that

29 NðjÞ4ð1 þ fÞ j1 ¼ F j þ fF j1 4NðjÞ  1 (2.19)
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31 and to begin the construction of the Golden spray by starting with a unit size
hypercube in RNðjÞ whose scaling ratios are
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33 r1 ¼ r2 ¼ 2f
j1
; j ¼ 2; 3; 4; 5; . . . : (2.20)
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35 The poles of the corresponding geometric counting length

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X j1 1
37 zL ðsÞ ¼ 2n 2nf s ¼ j1 (2.21)
1  22f s
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39 are obtained as usual, from the zeros of the denominator

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j1
1 ¼ 1ei2pn ¼ 22f s
) 0  i2pn ¼ ln 2  f j1 s ln 2
41
i2pnð1 þ fÞ j1
) s ¼ ð1 þ fÞ j1  ; j41 : ð2:22Þ
43 ln 2
Hence, the dimension of the fractal boundary of the domain O living in the ambient
45 space RNðjÞ coincides precisely with the dimension of the set EðjÞ :
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1
NðjÞ  1pð1 þ fÞ j1 ¼ dim qðOÞpNðjÞ : (2.23)
3 This procedure also works for fractal strings whose dimensionality is less than one
0pDp1 : (2.24)
5
This requires starting with the interval ð0; 1Þ and constructing a hierarchy of fractal
7 strings of dimensionality

9 0pf j1 p1; j41 (2.25)

ð1þfÞ j1
by using the scaling ratios r1 ¼ r2 ¼ 2 : The corresponding geometric
11 counting lengths of this hierarchy of fractal strings are
X j1 1
13 zL ¼ 2n 2nð1þfÞ s ¼ ; (2.26)

F
ð1þfÞ j1 s
1  22

O
15 whose poles are located at
i2pnf j1

O
17 s ¼ f j1  j41 : (2.27)
ln 2
19

21
The dimensions of this hierarchy of fractal strings is 0pDp1: PR
We could have built another class of Golden fractal strings and sprays by using the
scaling factors given, respectively, by powers of other primes
D
j1 j1
23 pð1þfÞ pf p ¼ prime; j41 : (2.28)
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Taking p ¼ 3; our basic domain would have been a triangle. Then we scale this
25
triangle by the scaling functions r1 ¼ r2 ¼ r3 ¼ 3f to generate 3 congruent triangles
of areas 32f smaller than the original and that are attached symmetrically to the 3
27
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sides of the unit triangle. Repeating this process ad infinitum will yield 9; 27; . . . ; 3n
scaled-down versions of the unit triangle and allows to construct a model of the set
29
Eð2Þ as well. The geometric counting function will be
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31 X j1 1
zT ðsÞ ¼ pn pnf s ¼ j1 (2.29)
1  ppf s
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33
and whose poles furnish the complex dimensions at
O

35 i2pnð1 þ fÞ j1
s ¼ ð1 þ fÞ j1 
C

Golden sprays j41 : (2.30)

ln p
37
N

The Golden fractal strings have for complex dimensions:

39
U

i2pnðfÞ j1
s ¼ ðfÞ j1  Golden strings j41 : (2.31)
41 ln p
The real part of the dimension coincides again with the dimension of the set
43 EðjÞ ¼ ð1 þ fÞ j1 : Only the periods of the imaginary components will vary
accordingly to different values of p ¼ 2; 3; 5; 7; . . . . It is essential to use scalings
45 given by powers of primes: pinary powers. This construction of these fractal sprays
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1 from the scalings of the unit size domain, and their subsequent iterated attachings,
resembles nothing but a crystal growth process; and an assembly of hypersurfaces.
3 So far we have been discussing scaling ratios in terms of suitable binary (pinary)
powers and whose exponents are given in terms of the Golden mean. However,
5 among the infinite number of possible fractal strings and sprays, we could have built
yet another interesting class of fractal strings and sprays, which we shall label as
7 fractional strings (since the dimensions are rationals numbers, fractions, instead of
irrational numbers) and sprays, by using different scaling factors whose exponents
9 are given, respectively, by
j1 ðj1Þ

11 p2 ðstringsÞ; p2 ðspraysÞ; j41; p ¼ prime : (2.32)

leading to following complex dimensions for the strings and sprays:
13

F
i2pnð2Þðj1Þ
s ¼ ð2Þðj1Þ  ; Fractional strings; j41 ; (2.33)

O
15 ln p

i2pnð2Þ j1

O
17 s ¼ ð2Þ j1  ; spraysðbranesÞ; j41 : (2.34)
ln p
19

21
PR
2.3. Renormalization group, log-periodicity and complex dimensions
D
23
To finalize this section we argue how log-periodicity in Nature is a natural physical
TE

25 basis of complex dimensions [13]. In the past years a lot of activity has been
concentrated on the log-periodic laws associated with the fractal structures of
27 evolutionary trees, in particular, in the study of the time sequences of major
EC

evolutionary leaps at various time scales [35]. Models of this type have been observed
29 in economical crisis patterns in Western pre-Columbian civilizations. The physical
model underlying the appearance of such laws is that of critical phenomena. The RG
R

approach also predicts both power laws and logarithmic-periodic corrections. The
31
log-periodic behaviour in field theories with RG limit cycles has been studied
R

33 recently by [15].
If the fractal dimension D is complex valued, d x þ id y ; then one can see that the
O

35 imaginary component will be responsible for an oscillatory behavior which yields the
logarithmic-periodic character to a general function of the form [13,35]
C

37 
id y
o
N

L ¼ Lo ðxÞ ¼ Lo ðxÞ exp½id y lnð
o =
Þ

h 
 i
39 o
U

) L ¼ Lo ðxÞ cos d y ln þ a ; a ¼ phase ; ð2:35Þ

41 where in the case of the fractal tree of life description [35] one has the following
identification of the time intervals
43

o ¼ t o  t c
¼ t  tc ; (2.36)
45 where tc is the critical time marking the end of an evolutionary process which began
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1 at to and t is the time variable. One can see that the function L has peaks at discrete
values of time tðjÞ
n that accelerate towards the critical dates in a given tree-branch Lj
3 parametrized by j according to a log-periodic law

5 tnðjÞ  tc j1
¼ 2nð1þfÞ o1 ; (2.37)
to  tc
7
where in this particular case we have used the complex dimensions of the Golden
fractal strings (sprays).
9
Setting the phase factor a to zero in (2.35) and using for complex dimensions those
associated with the Golden fractal strings we have the following hierarchy of
11
imaginary components of complex dimensions associated with a given tree-branch
Lj :
13

F
2pn
d y ¼ d ðnÞ
j ¼ ðfÞ j1 : (2.38)

O
15 ln 2
Thus the arguments of the cosine function (2.35) will then be

O
17
 
2pðfÞ j1
19

21
ln 2
j1

and hence, we will have peaks spaced at log-periodic intervals.

PR
ln 2nð1þfÞ ¼ ½ð1 þ fÞ j1 f j1 ½2pn ¼ 2pn; fð1 þ fÞ ¼ 1 (2.39)

Thus, we can then model the fractal evolutionary tree process of Nottale et al. [35]
D
23 in terms of fractal strings/sprays; i.e., in terms of a sequence of temporal intervals of
lengths tnðjÞ  tc associated with a given branch Lj : Hence, the fractal tree of life
TE

25 envision by Nottale et al. [35] fits very naturally within the context of fractal strings
and their complex dimensions described in the book [14]. These arguments apply to
27 other physical processes involving log-periodicity in critical phenomena [15].
EC

29
R

31 3. The Tsallis statistics of fractal strings and branes

R

33 Having presented the preamble of chaos and non-extensive statistics physics in the
O

introduction, and reviewed the construction of fractal strings and sprays (branes), in
35 this section we shall evaluate explicitly the non-extensive entropy associated with a
C

fractal string (branes) ensemble comprised of an infinity of fractal strings and p-

37 branes. To be precise once more, by fractal strings here we mean fractal in the sense
N

of Lapidus–Frankenhuysen [14], an object whose boundary has for fractal

39 dimensions those between zero and one, like the Cantor set. Whereas the boundaries
U

of their higher dimensional counterparts, fractal sprays or fractal p-branes, have

41 dimensions greater than one. As we have shown these fractal extended objects have
complex valued dimensions and in this respect they may reveal new mathematical
43 and physical structures in the horizon.
The non-extensive entropy valid for non-equilibrium systems with a stationary
45 state
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1 Pj¼N
1 j¼1 ðpj Þq
Sq ¼ ; (3.1)
3 q1
is written in terms of the entropic exponent q; the probabilities of the physical
5 microstates pj ; and the summation is performed over all N microstates. We are using

7 P q:
the old conventions of Tsallis to define the entropic index
One may extremize the entropy with the condition pj ¼ 1 by introducing a
Lagrange multiplier. The entropy Sq is then extremized for all values of q in the equi-
9 probability case pj ¼ 1=N: It gives in this case the entropy for the microcanonical
ensemble [16]
11
N 1q  1
S q ¼ kB : (3.2)
13 1q

F
For qp1 the entropy S q in Eq. (3.2) diverges in the large N ¼ 1 limit. However,

O
15 for q41; the entropy (3.2) reaches a maximum value in the large N limit,
kB

O
17 lim Sq ¼ : (3.3)
N!1 q1
19

21
PR
Having discussed the microcanonical ensemble case, we shall proceed with the
construction of the canonical ensemble and evaluate the entropy that is extremized
for all values of q; with the provision that
X X
D
23 pj ¼ 1; pj E j ¼ E : (3.4)
j¼1 j¼1
TE

25 Introducing two Lagrange multipliers a; b allows to extremize the entropy for all
values of q for the following probability distribution:
27
EC

½1  bðq  1ÞE j 1=ðq1Þ

pj ¼ : (3.5)
29 Zq
At this stage it is important to emphasize that our definition for the probability
R

31 (3.5) is based in the old convention used by Tsallis. A different convention has been
adopted afterwards by many authors by simply replacing the q  1 term by ðq 
R

33 1Þ ¼ 1  q: In this work we shall be using the old convention of Tsallis given by Eq.
O

(3.5). This convention is very important to keep in mind in all what follows next.
35 The q-normalization factor is
C

X
37 Zq ¼ ½1  bðq  1ÞE k 1=ðq1Þ ; (3.6)
N

39 where the Lagrange multiplier parameter b is identified with the inverse temperature
U

b ¼ ð1=kB TÞ: In the q ¼ 1 limit one recovers the ordinary Boltzmann–Gibbs

41 expression after a simple application of L’ Hopital’s rule
ebE j
43 pj ¼ P bE ; (3.7)
ke
k

45 and the Shannon–Boltzmann–Gibbs entropy:

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1 X
S ¼ kB pj ln pj : (3.8)
j
3
by a straightforward use of L’ Hopital’s rule. In our old conventions, when qo1;
5 then q  1o0; and the numerator of the probability distribution pj in Eq. (3.5)
diverges at
7 1
bE j ¼ : (3.9)
q1
9
Such case (3.9) corresponds to negative energies (to a lower cutoff) and after
11 normalizing pj by the Z q factor, which is also infinite when (3.9) occurs, it leads to
pj ! 1: In the opposite end, the probability pj vanishes for bE j ! 1:
13 However, an entire different (complementary) behaviour occurs for q41 such that

F
the probability distribution (3.5) has an upper cutoff value in energy when the

O
15 probability pj becomes zero. The upper energy cutoff occurs at
1

O
17 bE cutoff ¼ ; (3.10a)
q1
19

21
PR
which means that the relevant energies E involved in the evaluation of the entropy
must have a lower and upper bound:
0pðq  1ÞEpðq  1ÞE cutoff pkB T; q41 : (3.10b)
D
23 1
Notice that for q41; this cutoff value q1 of the ratio E cutoff =kB T; also matches the
maximum value of the microcanonical ensemble entropy, in units of kB ; given by Eq.
TE

25 (3.3). If the cutoff energy E c 40; the last expression (3.10) has a very important
physical consequence as described by Tsallis [16]: the temperature ð1=bÞ in the energy
27 intervals: 0oEoðq  1ÞE c is physically unaccessible, thus generalizing the unacces-
EC

sibility of the absolute zero temperature in ordinary thermodynamics. In order to

29 physically access the absolute zero temperature it is required that the cutoff energy
be precisely equal to zero: E c ¼ 0 (q41). However, due to the zero point vacuum
R

31 fluctuations E c 40 the absolute zero temperature is unattainable.

Having said this we can obtain the canonical probability distribution of an infinite
R

33 ensemble of fractal strings (branes) S1 ; S2 ; S3 ; . . . ; Sj ; . . . of different dimensions

O

whose characteristic energies are E 1 ; E 2 ; E 3 ; . . . ; E j . . . . The remaining step is to find

35 the energy spectrum. Quantization of ordinary membranes (p-branes) is a extremely
C

difficult task. As far as we know it has not been achieved yet. Let alone fractal ones
37 If this is the case, how are we able to compute their spectrum? A plausible way to
N

tackle this brane quantization problem is by arguing [37], for example, why a
39 membrane can be seen as a collective excitation of an infinity of strings and recurring
U

to the area-preserving symmetry algebra of membranes studied in [38,21].

41 To bypass this problem of membrane (brane) quantization in [13] we assigned for
the characteristic energies of a fractal string (each fractal string is itself comprised of
43 an infinity of disjoint segments) those values given directly in terms of their (complex)
fractal dimension by arguing that the imaginary component of the complex
45 dimensions of the fractal string reflect its dimensional and geometrical oscillations
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1 [13,14]. For this reason it is very important to emphasize that the energy level
excitations we have assigned to a fractal string are not naively equal to integer
3 multiples of the inverse lengths (frequencies) of the infinite line-segments required to
built a particular fractal string, whose boundary points is a Cantor set of dimensions
5 0oRealðsÞo1 [14]. They are given instead by integer multiples of the characteristic
energy; i.e., by the imaginary parts of the complex dimensions. If we believe that the
7 energy of a fractal string (brane) is a measure of dimensions and entropy
(information), we can show for a very specific example [13] why the characteristic
9 energies of the Golden fractal strings (branes) are proportional to the dimensions of
the Cantor sets EðjÞ in Cantorian-fractal spacetime [36,13].
11 Therefore, we shall take for the energies of this particular Golden fractal string
(brane) ensemble Sj the following [13]:
13  

F
2p
Ej ¼ m ð1 þ fÞðj1Þ ¼ Mð1 þ fÞðj1Þ ¼ Mf j1 ðGolden stringsÞ ;

O
15 ln p
(3.11)

O
17
 
19

21
Ej ¼ m
2p
ln p
ð1 þ fÞðj1Þ ¼ Mð1 þ fÞðj1Þ PR
ðGolden spraysÞ j41 ; (3.12)

after defining M ¼ m ln2pp where m is a fiducial mass scale.

D
23 Whereas the energies of the fractional strings and sprays case are given instead by
the following binary powers:
TE

25  
2p ðj1Þ
Ej ¼ m 2 ¼ M2ðj1Þ ðFractional stringsÞ ; (3.13)
ln p
27
EC

 
29 2p ðj1Þ
Ej ¼ m 2 ¼ M2ðj1Þ ðspraysÞ j41 : (3.14)
ln p
R

31
The quantity m is a fiducial mass scale that for convenience purposes we take to be
R

33 independent of parameter j. Such binary scaling behaviour for the energies has also
O

been found in the fermion spectrum of the chaotic-strings studied by Beck [5,39]. The
35 energy E j thus corresponds to the fundamental dimensional-geometrical oscillation
C

of the Golden and fractional string (brane) which is encoded in the imaginary parts
37 of the complex dimensions. p is a prime number. As one varies the values of j one
N

spans the full family of Golden and fractional strings (branes) Sj within the
39 ensemble.
U

One can notice in Eqs. (3.11–3.14) the hierarchical scaling dependence of the
41 energies of the Golden and fractional strings (branes). Such scaling dependence has
also been observed in the gap-energies of an infinite number of condensates in a
43 reduced BCS model of superconductivity and in the infinite number of resonances of
the S-matrix associated with the massive sine-Gordon model which exhibits a cyclic
45 coupling-symmetry [15].
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1 The masses have the so-called Russian Doll scaling behaviour:

1 np=y
3 mn
e ; (3.15)
L
5 and behave under scalings as
mn ðel LÞ
mnþ2 ðLÞ ; (3.16)
7
where the characteristic RG time (length) scale is L and the RG period is l ¼ 2p=y
where y is related to the RG invariant coupling parameter Q given in terms of the
9
two couplings of the massive sine-Gordon model g1 ; g2 by the relation Q

ðg1 Þ2  ðg2 Þ2 [15]. It was speculated by these authors that the three generations of
11
fermions in the Standard model may in fact be among the first few in an infinite
sequence of Russian dolls . . . . The cyclic RG behaviour may possibly represent a
13

F
new paradigm in physics.
Finally, by using Eqs. (3.11 3.12) as an example one can write the canonical

O
15
probability distribution of Golden fractal string (brane) ensemble explicitly in powers
of ð1 þ fÞ since E j
ð1 þ fÞ j1 :

O
17
½1  bðq  1ÞMð1 þ fÞ j1 1=ðq1Þ
19

21
pj ¼
Zq
with the q-normalization factor:
;
PR (3.17)

X
Zq ¼ ½1  bðq  1ÞMð1 þ fÞk 1=ðq1Þ : (3.18)
D
23 k
TE

When q ¼ 1 one recovers the Gibbs–Bolzman probability after using L’ Hopital’s

25 rule. pj
ebE j : As we discussed earlier by using the old convention of Tsallis, when
qo1; there is no upper bound on the energy and as E j ! 1; the probability pj in Eq.
27
EC

(3.17) becomes zero. However, when q41; a different behaviour occurs and there is a
natural cutoff in energy which corresponds to the point when the probability
29 vanishes. In this case, the upper limit k of the sum Zq is given by the cutoff value kðqÞ
defined by
R

31
1
bE k ðcutoff Þ ¼ bMð1 þ fÞkðqÞ ¼
R

: (3.19)
33 q1
O

Since the k values correspond to natural numbers, to be more precise one should
35 write for the cutoff (integer) values j c such that ð1=q  1Þ has a lower and upper
C

bound given by
37
N

1
bMð1 þ fÞ j c p pbMð1 þ fÞ j c þ1 ; (3.20)
39 q1
U

where we have denoted by j c the cutoff value of j.

41 The same result applies to the fractional strings (sprays) case by simply replacing
the powers ð1 þ fÞ j1 by binary powers 2 j1 : One can notice from these equations
43 above that the greater the temperature is, the higher the cutoff values of kðqÞ can be,
which in turn imply higher values for the allowed dimensions of the fractal strings
45 (branes). Hence, dimensions, temperature and energy are explicitly interconnected in
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1 this physical model. This is one of the most important conclusions of this work. The
entropic exponent q41 is directly related to the cutoff values of the energies
3 (dimensions).
For example, when the j ! 1 limit, the dimension of the Golden fractal string
5 ðfÞ j1 collapses to zero. The same occurs for the fractional string. In this limiting case
the cutoff energy becomes zero and corresponds naturally to the absolute zero
7 (Kelvin) temperature resulting from Eq. (3.19), when the entropic exponent q41;
when using the old conventions by Tsallis.
9 In the case of fractal branes (sprays) the dimension of the fractal branes (sprays)
given by ð1 þ fÞ j1 becomes infinity (instead of zero), saturating its upper bound.
11 Naturally, the temperature in Eq. (3.19) blows up in this case. Ample arguments
were given in [40] why an upper limiting temperature in Nature is given by the Planck
13 temperature, which in turn, was associated with a maximal acceleration relativity

F
principle in phase spaces and with a minimal Planck scale relativity [22]. This upper

O
15 limiting acceleration and temperature, with a minimal Planck scale, is also
tantamount to a maximal string tension principle operating in string theory [40].

O
17 Therefore, from now on we shall set an upper limit of T Planck :
To sum up, if we equate bE j to their saturation values given in terms of the
19

21
PR
entropic exponent q by Eq. (3.19), and using the old conventions of Tsallis for q41;
one obtains the following thermal-energy spectrum of the Golden fractal strings,
whose dimensions fj are constrained to fall between 0 and 1:
1
D
23 bE j ¼ bMðfÞ j cutoff ¼ bMð1 þ fÞj cutoff ¼ : (3.21)
q1
TE

25 From the latter equation one can infer that there is an upper and lower bound in
the dimensions and temperatures of the fractal strings given by
27
EC

0pðq  1ÞMfj pðq  1ÞMf j cutoff pkB T; Golden strings : (3.21b)

29 It is very important to add the following remarks in Eq. (3.21). Firstly, we have
renamed the exponents j  1 appearing in the (fractal) dimensions of the Golden
R

31 fractal strings (branes) by simply writing j. Secondly, since our conventions for the
Golden mean are f ¼ ð1 þ fÞ1 ¼ 0:618o1; by the cutoff value j cutoff in Eq. (3.21b)
R

33 one means a lower value in j, instead of an upper value, because if j c ! 1 then

f j c ! 0; the fractal string collapses to a point.
O

35 Whereas the spectrum of fractal branes is

C

1
37 bE j ¼ bMð1 þ fÞ jcutoff ¼ ; (3.22)
q1
N

39 from which one can infer that there is an upper and lower bounds in the dimensions/
U

temperatures of fractal branes (sprays) given by

41 1pðq  1ÞMð1 þ fÞj pðq  1ÞMð1 þ fÞ j cutoff pkB TpkB T Planck ;
Golden sprays ðbranesÞ ; ð3:23Þ
43
where by cutoff j c one means in Eq. (3.23) an upper value in j because 1 þ f ¼
45 1:61841:
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1 In the fractional strings case where powers of the Golden mean are replaced by
binary powers we have the following conditions for the thermal-energy spectrum of
3 the fractional strings:
0pðq  1ÞM2j pðq  1ÞM2jcutoff pkB T; Fractional strings ; (3.24)
5
where by cutoff j c in Eq. (3.24) one means a lower value in j.
7 And for branes (sprays) one has
1pðq  1ÞM2j pðq  1ÞM2 jcutoff pkB TpkB T Planck ; sprays ðbranesÞ ; (3.25)
9
where by cutoff j c in Eq. (3.25) one means an upper value in j.
11 Concluding, for each given fixed value of the entropic exponent q41; using the old
conventions of Tsallis for the values of q, one has arrived in these last equations
13 (3.21–3.25) at the very specific relation constraining the values of the temperatures

F
kB T ¼ ð1=bÞ in terms of the spectral energy levels and dimensions of fractal strings

O
15 (branes) via the cutoff values of the exponents j c : These dimensions/energies/
temperatures interplay in fractal strings (branes) is consistent with the fact that the

O
17 energy of a fractal string (brane) is directly linked to the imaginary part of its
dimension; namely, with its dimensional-geometrical oscillations, and must not be
19

21
PR
confused with the frequencies associated with the infinite number of segments
(domains) in the construction of a particular string (brane) [14]. The latter authors
have shown as well that one can in fact hear the shape of a fractal string as a result of
these dimensional-geometrical oscillations.
D
23
TE

25 4. Concluding remarks

27 We have seen how the study of fractal strings and sprays (branes) of complex
EC

dimensions, in conjunction with the Tsallis non-extensive statistics, leads to the very
29 important fact that dimensions, energy and temperature are deeply interconnected.
Using the old convention of Tsallis, when the entropic exponent qo1; there is no
R

31 upper bound on the energy, while the q41 case introduces an upper cutoff in the
energy and dimensions of the fractal string (brane) that is related to the temperature.
R

33 A dimension-temperature relation has been recently studied in RG flows, phase

O

transitions and critical phenomena in spaces of continuous dimensions [41]. A multi-

35 fractal generalization of ordinary fractal strings and sprays has not been developed
C

yet, to our knowledge. The statistics of multi-fractal systems within the framework of
37 Renyi entropy has been studied in Refs. [42,18] and non-classical additive entropies
N

by [19]. It is an open problem how to extend this construction to the multi-fractal

39 strings (sprays) case.
U

Another relevant issue is the role of quantum groups and the connection between
41 the quantum deformation parameter and the entropic exponent q in the Tsallis
statistics. The spectral behaviour of models with quantum group symmetries, and
43 fractal geometry, with a geometric-like growth of their eigenvalues like the models
studied in this work, has been studied further in Ref. [43]. Not surprisingly this
45 should have important applications to the work on fractal strings and sprays
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1 (branes). Closely related to this is its relation with the fractal spin statistics, the
fractal index and the Knot invariants associated with the quantum paths of quasi-
3 particles (fractons) in spacetime with fractal Hausdorff dimensions [44].
There are several different statistical descriptions of quasi-particles and anions in
5 two dimensions. In particular, the statistics for quasi-particles of continuous spin
based on the generalized Fibonnaci series has been studied in Ref. [45]; the statistics
7 for quasi-particles coined fractons with fractal spin has been developed by da Cruz
[44]; the so-called detailed-balanced statistics models associated with particles of
9 intermediate statistics between bosons and fermions was presented in Ref. [46]; and
the fractal inspired statistics model within the context of Tsallis statistics studied
11 earlier by Oprisal [34]. It is warranted to find a unifying picture, if possible, of all
these different statistical descriptions associated with quasi-particles of continuous
13 spin (fractal spin) and with intermediate statistics.

F
The new idea of thermal duality in string thermodynamics under the transforma-

O
15 tions T goes to 1=T has been advanced in Ref. [47]. This was achieved by extending
the usual definition of entropy and other thermodynamical quantities while

O
17 implementing the invariance (covariance) under thermal duality symmetry transfor-
mations of the thermal string partition function and other thermodynamical
19

21
PR
quantities. The Tsallis entropy Sq is not invariant under the ‘‘duality’’ transforma-
tion q goes to 1=q: It is important to find what would be the generalization of the
Tsallis entropy S q and statistics that implement invariance (covariance) under such
duality symmetry transformations of the entropic exponents, in a similar vein to the
D
23 thermal duality symmetry advocated in string thermodynamics [47].
Finally, the chaotic attractors in RG flows in quantum field theories [23] deserves
TE

25 to be studied further within the framework of number theory, arithmetic attractors

and preferred Calabi-Yau compactfications in string theory [48]. In particular the
27 relation to the deep underlying physics behind the Standard Model parameters
EC

described by Beck [5,39] because the moduli space of string-compactifications

29 determine the particle masses, Yukawa couplings and other GUT model parameters,
etc. Hence, it is desirable to figure out how string theory compactifications overlaps
R

31 with the description in Refs. [5,39] based on chaotic scalar fields and two-
dimensional Kaneko coupled-map lattices. A lot remains to be done to link non-
R

33 linear dynamical systems with string theory. Hopefully, fractal strings and branes
O

combined with their non-extensive statistics may shed some light into this very
35 difficult question.
C

37
N

39
U

5. Uncited references
41
[49–51].
43

45
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1 Acknowledgements

3 We thank Alexander Gorban for insightful discussions and to B.G Sidharth and
K. Rama for their very kind invitation and hospitality to the Birla Science Center
5 (Hyderabad) and the Institute of Mathematical Sciences (Madras) where this work
was completed. To J. Mahecha and M. Altaisky for invaluable assistance and to the
7 referee for important and useful remarks to improve this work.

11 References

[1] S. Matiyan, G.K. Saviddy, N.G. Saviddy, Sov. Phys. JETP 53 (1981) 421;
13

F
B. Berg, E. Bittner, H. Markum, R. Pullirsch, M. Lombardo, T. Wettig, Universality and chaos in
quantum field theories, [arXiv : hep-lat/0007008].

O
15 [2] V. Belinski, E. Lifschitz, I. Khalatnikov, Adv. Phys. 19 (1970) 525.
[3] V. Ivashchuk, V. Melvikov, J. Math. Phys. 41 (2000) 6341;

O
17 T. Damour, M. Henneaux, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 (2000) 85.
[4] I. Kogan, D. Polyakov, Ghost–matter mixing and Feigenbaum universality in string theory [arXiv:
hep-th/0212137].
19

21
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