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\
MECHANISMS

LINKAGES

DELMAR PUBLISHERS, MOUNTAIN VIEW AVENUE, ALBANY, NEW YORK 12205

 DELMAR PUBLISHERS
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Copyright 0 1972
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1977. There-
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 Foreword

The marriage of electronics and'technology is creating new demands for

technical personnel in today's industries. New occupations have emerged

with combination skill requirements well beyond the capability of many
technical specialists. Increasingly, technicians who work with systems and
devices of many kinds — mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, and
optical — must be competent also in electronics. This need for combination
skills is especially significant for the youngster who is preparing for a career
in industrial technology.

This manual is one of a series of closely related publications designed

for students who want the broadest possible introduction to technical occu-
pations. The most effective use of these manuals is as combination textbook-
laboratory guides for a full-time, post-secondary school study program that
provides parallel and concurrent courses in electronics, mechanics, physics,
mathematics, technical writing, and electromechanical applications.

A unique feature of the manuals in this series is the close correlation of

technical laboratory study with mathematics and physics concepts. Each
topic is studied by use of practical examples using modern industrial applica-

tions.The reinforcement obtained from multiple applications of the concepts

has been shown to be extremely effective, especially for students with widely
diverse educational backgrounds. Experience has shown that typical junior
college or technical school students can make satisfactory progress in a well-

coordinated program using these manuals as the primary instructional material.

School administrators will be interested in the potential of these

manuals to support a common first-year core of studies for two-year
programs in such fields as: instrumentation, automation, mechanical design,
or quality assurance. This form of technical core program has the advantage
of reducing instructional costs without the corresponding decrease in holding
power so frequently found in general core programs.

This manual, along with the others in the series, is the result of six years
of research and development by the Technical Education Research Centers,
Inc., (TERC), a national nonprofit, public service corporation with head-
quarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It has undergone a number of revisions

as a direct result of experience gained with students in technical schools and

community colleges throughout the country.
Maurice W. Roney

//'/'
The Electromechanical Series

TERC is engaged in an on-going educational program in Electromechani-

cal Technology. The following titles have been developed for this program:

INTRODUCTORY
ELECTROMECHAN SMS/ MOTOR CONTROLS
I

ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/DEVICES
ELECTRONICS/AMPLIFIERS
ELECTRONICS/ELECTRICITY
MECHANISMS/DRIVES
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
UNIFIED PHYSICS/FLUIDS
UNIFIED PHYSICS/OPTICS

ADVANCED
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/ SERVOMECH AN ISMS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/FABRICATION
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/TRANSDUCERS
ELECTRONICS/COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRONICS/DIGITAL
MECHANISMS/MACHINES
MECHANISMS/MATERIALS

For further information regarding the EMT program or for assistance in

its implementation, contact:

Technical Education Research Centers, Inc.

44 Brattle Street
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

iv
 Preface

The study of mechanisms is one of the oldest of the applied sciences.

The early Greeks and Romans used simple levers and linkages in a wide
variety of application; and the American Industrial Revolution can truly be
said to have been based on mechanical components. The advent of space
exploration has demanded a rebirth of interest in mechanics and mecha-
nisms. In the pastwe have thought primarily of applications in the auto-
motive, machine tool, and watchmaking fields. Today, it is more common
to think of aerospace, defense weaponry, computer and precision
instrument
applications. These changes in emphasis have created subtle but important
new demands upon training programs in mechanisms.

This material is an introductory treatment of modern Mechanical

Linkages, combining the elements of mechanical theory with those of
practicality. The topics treated include: various levers and four-bar con-
figurations, and some selected special topics. The materials are intended
for use by technology students who have had or no previous exposure
little

to practical applied mechanics. Consequently, no attempt has been made to

cover the material in the fine detail that would be appropriate for the ex-
perienced specialistin mechanical linkages. An attempt has been made to
expose the student to the practical skills of mechanical assembly and to the
principles of operation of a variety of mechanisms.

The sequence of presentation chosen is by no means inflexible. It is

expected that individual instructors may choose to use the materials in

other than the given sequence.

The particular topics chosen for inclusion in this volume were selected
primarily for convenience and economy of materials. Some instructors may
wish to omit some of the exercises or to supplement some of them to better
meet their local needs.

The materials are presented in an action-oriented format combining

many of the features normally found in a textbook with those usually asso-
ciated with a laboratory manual. Each experiment contains:

1. An INTRODUCTION which identifies the topic to be examined

and often includes a rationale for doing the exercise.

2. A DISCUSSION which presents the background, theory, or tech-

niques needed to carry out the exercise.

v
 of the items needed in the
3. A MATERIALS list which identifies all

laboratory experiment. (Items usually supplied by the student

such as pencil and paper are not included in the lists.)

4. A PROCEDURE which presents step-by-step instructions for per-

forming the experiment. In most instances the measurements
are

done before calculations so that all of the students can at least

period ends.
finish making the measurements before the laboratory

5. An ANALYSIS GUIDE which offers suggestions as to how the

student might approach interpretation of the data in order to draw

conclusions from it.

are included for the purpose of reviewing and

rein-
6. PROBLEMS
forcing the points covered in the exercise. The
problems may be
about the
of the numerical solution type or simply questions
exercise.

perform the
Students should be encouraged to study the text material,
technical report on
experiment, work the review problems, and submit a
acquire an understanding
each topic. Following this pattern, the student can
valuable on the job.
of,and skill with, modern mechanisms that will be very
should be concurrently enrolled in a course
For best results, these students

in technical mathematics (introductory calculus).

of a series of
This material on Mechanical Linkages comprises one
volumes prepared for technical students by the TERC EMT staff
at Oklahoma

State University, under the direction of D.S. Phillips and

R.W. Tinnell. The

principal authors of this material were L.P. Robertson,

R.W. Tinnell,

T.G. Watts, and D.A. Yeager.

Data Book available for use with this volume. Mr.

An Instructor's is

the in-
Harlan Cook was responsible for testing the materials and compiling
structor's data book for them. Other members of the TERC staff made
form or criticisms, corrections and suggestions.
valuable contributions in the

hoped that this volume as well as the other volumes in

It is sincerely
supplementary materials
the series, the instructor's data books, and the other
for both
will the study of technology interesting and rewarding
make
students and teachers.
THE TERC EMT STAFF

TO THE STUDENT
provided in the back of
Duplicate data sheets for each experiment are
the book. These are perforated to be removed
and completed while perform-
submitted with the experiment
ing each experiment. They may then be
analysis for your instructor's examination.

vi
 Contents

experiment 1 CLASS-ONE LEVERS 1

experiment 2 COMPOUND LEVERS 8

experiment 3 CLASS-TWO LEVERS 13

experiment 4 CLASS-THREE LEVERS 20

experiment 5 ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS . . . 27

experiment 6 COMBINED MECHANISMS 34

experiment 7 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION 40

experiment 8 CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS 50

experiment 9 DRAG-LINK MECHANISM 59

experiment 10 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM 66

experiment 11 FOUR-BAR SUMMARY 73

experiments FOUR-BAR PROBLEM 80

experiment 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS 85

experiments QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I 94

experiment 15 TRANSLATIONAL CAMS 103

experiment 16 DISK CAMS 110

experiments PIVOTED FOLLOWERS 119

experiment 18 MULTIPLE CAM TIMING 130

experiment 19 HARMONIC DRIVES 140

experiment 20 INTRODUCTION TO THE GENEVA MECHANISM 145

experiment 21 LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS 150

vii
experiment 22 SLIDING-LINK MECHANISM 154

experiment23 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II 160

experiment 24 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA) 167

experiment 25 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG) 171

experiment26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS) 178

experiment 27 RATCHET MECHANISMS 187

experiment 28 FRICTION RATCHETS 194

experiment 29 TOGGLE LINKAGES 199

experiment 30 TOGGLE LATCHING 206

Appendix A WIRE LINK CONSTRUCTION 211

Appendix B EXPERIMENT DATA SHEETS Back of Book

viii
 S
expenment I CLASS-ONE LEVERS

INTRODUCTION. Machines and mechanisms

e^erntT^n
elements One of the
03
h elements
^" Sh
T * *
°f
found in most machines is the
exam.ne the most basic of the machine
elements - the class-one
^ ^S^^^^
often appear to be quite comolicatPH- hn

lever.

lever.
In this exDerimeri w
exper,ment we w "'

DISCUSSION. Complex machines are only

Machines may also be used to multiply
combinations of two or more simple
machine speed. A good example of
this is the bicycle;
elements. Many persons classify the
basic ma- we gain speed by exerting a greater force.
chine elements as being the lever,
the pulley,
the wheel and axle, the inclined
plane, the Finally,
machines are used to change the
screw, and the gear. However, most scien- direction of a force. For example, a flag is
tists and engineers recognize that there raised to the top of a
are flagpole by exerting a
only two basic principles machines: name-
in downward force on the hoisting rope
lythe lever and the inclined plane. which
The wheel causes an upward force on the
attached flag.
and axle, the pulley, and gears may
be con-
sidered levers. The wedge and the screw use Probably the simplest and most
the principle of the inclined often
plane. By be- used type of machine is the
coming familiar with the principles of
lever. A lever
these consists of a rigid bar that
is free to rotate
simple machines, you can more
easily under- about a bearing known as the fulcrum.
stand the operation of complex The
machinery. bar may be either straight or curved. Levers
have been grouped into three
different classes,
Machines have many purposes. They depending upon the location of the
may be used to transform energy. For fulcrum
ex- with respect to the weight and
effort appli-
ample, a generator transforms
mechanical cation. The class-one lever
energy into electrical energy. shown in figure
Or, machines 1-1 has the fulcrum located
between the
may be used to transfer energy from one
place effort or force application
to another. For example, the
and the weight or
connecting rods, resistance. A seesaw or a crowbar are good
crankshaft, drive shaft, and rear
axle transfer examples of the class-one lever.
energy from the automobile Other ex-
engine to the amples with which you may be familiar
rear wheels. are

Another use of machines is to multiply

force. We
can use a system of pulleys to raise
a large weight with a
much smaller force ex-
erted. But we must exert this force over a
greater distance than the height
through which
the weight raised:is
thus, the load moves
more slowly than the pulley chain on FULCRUM
which
we pull. A machine lets us gain force, but
only at the expense of speed or
distance. Fig. 1-1 Class-One Lever

1
 CLASS-ONE LEVERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 1

and oars. A factor involved in Solving for F

shears, pliers, 2 ,

many problems in mechanics is the moment

well illustrated in the 80_X_3 =
of force. This factor is F2 = 240 bs |

class-one lever. The moment of force about

a point the product of the force and the

is In this example, 80 pounds will balance 240
perpendicular distance from that point to the pounds. In this case we have a positive me-
line of action of the force. This distance is
chanical advantage in that our effort has been
the lever arm of the force and the fixed point magnified 3 times. The mechanical advantage
is the center of moment. For example, in
of a machine is defined as the ratio of the out-
figure 1-1, the center of moment can be the put force to the input force.
fulcrum point. The moment of force caused

by the weight about the fulcrum would be

equal to F 2 X C 2 Assuming that F 2 is meas-
-
MA =t*
F
(1.2)
1
ured in pounds and C 2 is measured in feet,
the units would be in pound-feet. 240
In our example, MA = y2 qq
3.

To have equilibrium (or balance), the

moments about the center of moment must Another frequently used ratio in mechan-
be equal. In other words, in figure 1-1, ics is the velocity or displacement ratio. This

ratio is defined as the distance through which

F2 X8 2 =F 1 X 1
y
(1.1) the input force moves divided by the distance
through which the output force moves. Using

assume that a force of for the input distance and S 2 for the out-
To illustrate this fact, S^i

applied as indicated by F-j and put distance,

80 pounds is

that distance ^ is 3 distance C 2 is 1

feet. If

foot, how much weight would we be able to

Velocity (Displacement) ratio = g- (1.3)
balance? Using the moment equation 1 .
1 and
inserting the given values gives:

= 80 X 3 In figure 1-2, the lever rotates about the ful-

Fo X 1 lb ft

I i

Fig. 1-2 Class-One Lever Velocity Ratio

2
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 1 CLASS-ONE L E VERS

crum and moves the weight, F2, a distance, arm, you would expect 4 times that force to
At the same time, the input force, Fi, is be exerted by the other arm. Your 50 lbs.
moving through the distance S-j. From simi- would be increased to 200 lbs.
lar triangles, it can be seen that
To this point, the levers we have con-
S-| £1 sin 6 sidered have had straight arms, and the direc-
(1.4)
S2 £2 s ' n ® tion in which the weight acts has been paral-

lel to the direction in which the force was

Since the friction is quite small, it can be neg- exerted. However, all levers are not straight.

lected for this discussion. The work performed Look at figure 1-3 and you may wonder how
(force X distance to measure the length of the two arms about
in direction of the force) at
the input will equal the work at the output; the fulcrum. This figure represents a curved

that is.
pump handle. You do not measure around
the curve— you use the straight-line distance.

F2 X S2 _ F 1 X Si To determine the length of the effort arm,

draw a straight line representing force F.|

through the point where the force, F is

1
This equation is equal to:
applied and in the direction in which it is

applied. Then, from the fulcrum, draw a

F
2 line perpendicular to this force line. The
length of this perpendicular, is the length
of the effort arm.
In short, if friction and the weight of the
lever are neglected, the displacement ratio
(S1/S2) is equal to the mechanical advantage
(F2/F1). In practice, it takes a more
little

effort (F-j in our illustrations) to overcome

whatever friction may be in the system.
Therefore, the actual mechanical advantage is

always somewhat less than the velocity or

displacement ratio.

From equation 1.1, it can be seen that

e
1
F2 =F 1
This indicates that the effort

expended by force F-| will be magnified or

increased by an amount equal to length C-j

divided by length C - That is, the mechanical

2
advantage is equal to the effort arm divided
by the resistance arm. For example, a class-
one lever having 8 inches on one side of the
fulcrum and 2 inches on the other would
possess a mechanical advantage of 8/2 or 4.
If you applied 50 lbs. of force to the 8-inch Fig. 1-3 Class-One Lever - Curved Lever Arm

3
EXPERIMENT 1 CLASS-ONE L E VERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

To find the length of the resistance arm, help do work. They can change the size,

the same method is used. Draw a line in the direction, or speed of the force that you
direction the resistance, F 2 , is operating and apply. The class-one lever has the effort and

from the fulcrum construct a perpendicular the resistance on opposite sides of the ful-

to this line. The perpendicular distance from crum. The effort (force applied) and the re-

the fulcrum to this line, 8 is the !ength of sistance or opposition (force output) move in
2 ,

opposite directions. The force is magnified,

the resistance arm.
but with a corresponding decrease in speed or
Regardless of how the curvature of a distance. It was seen that the mechanical ad-

lever is formed, this method will find the vantage equaled the ratio of resistance to

lengths of the moment arms. Then, the same effort. This ratio is also equal to the moment
solutions described for straight-arm levers can arm (or lever arm) ratio. Further, when ig-

be used. noring friction and the weight of the lever

arm, the velocity or displacement ratio is

In summary, levers are machines that equal to the mechanical advantage.

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs 1 Dial caliper (0- 4 in.)

2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2 in. with bearings 2 Collars

Lever arm, 2 long with 1/4 bore hub
Shaft, 4" x 1/4" 1 in. in.
1

2 Spring balances 1 Lever arm, 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub

2 Spring balance posts with clamps

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to be sure they are undamaged.

2. Mount the components on the breadboard as shown in figure 1-4.

3. Move both spring balance posts until the lower balance reads about 10 oz and the lever

arm is vertical. Record the readings of both spring balances (F-| and F 2 ).

4. Using the measure and record the distances from the center of the shaft to
dial caliper,

the point where each spring balance attaches to the lever arm (E-| and C 2 ).

5. Manually twist the lever arm slightly away from the vertical, and observe the changes in

the spring balance readings. Make notes as to the nature and size of the changes.

6. Move the upper spring balance closer to the fulcrum and repeat steps 3 and 4.

7. Again move the upper spring balance closer to the fulcrum and repeat steps 3 and 4.

8. Keep repeating the above process until the upper spring balance is quite close to the

fulcrum.

4
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 1 CLASS-ONE LEVERS

SPRING BALANCES

-SPRING BALANCE
POST

3
Fig. 1-4 The Initial Setup

9. Move the lower spring balance closer to the fulcrum and return the upper one to its

original position. Then repeat steps 3 through 8.

10. Now move the longer lever arm to the other end of the shaft. Set up the lever so that
you still have a class-one lever but the arms are at opposite ends of the shaft.

1 1 . Repeat steps 3 through 9.

12. For each set of data, compute and record the moment of upper and lower lever arms
(M-j and M2).

13. Compute the percent difference between M ^ and M2 for each case.

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In your own words explain the action of the class-one lever. Compare the
ratio of the lever-arm distances with the ratio of the forces for each case. Comment on the ob-
served relative changes in force observed when the lever arm was moved away from the vertical.

Explain any large percent differences in the values of M^j and M2 for each case.

Were the results when the lever arms were separated the same as when they were together?
Explain why you think this is reasonable.

5
EXPERIMENT 1 CLASS-ONE LEVERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

% Diff.

r
1 1
Mi Fo
1
2 So
2 M2 in M

Fig. 1-5 Data for Coplanar Arms

% Diff.

1=1 Si M1 F
2 s2 M2 in M

Fig. 1-6 Data for Noncoplanar Arms

PROBLEMS
1. A crowbar (figure 1-7) has a solid support at P; a load F 2 is to be lifted by a man's
push at F-|. If force F.| is 100 lbs, what load can be lifted for the dimensions
shown?

6
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 1 CLASS-ONE L E VERS

h-
Fig. 1-7 Lever for Problem 1

2. A bar is placed under a two-ton stone with a fulcrum 16 inches from the point of
application. How long will the rest of the lever be in order to raise the stone with
a 150-lbpull?

3. It is desired to transmit motion by means of a class-one lever. The driver is attached

75 mm from the fulcrum and moves 4 cm. If the output motion desired is 1.5 cm,
where would the output be attached?

4. A typewriter type bar is 8 in. long on one side of the fulcrum and has 1/2 in. on
the other side. The typewriter linkage causes the 1/2-in. arm to move 90 degrees
in 0.1 second. Compute the linear velocity of the type on the end of the 8-in.
lever arm.

7
 experiment
2 COMPOUND LEVERS

INTRODUCTION. In many practical cases it is desirable to connect two or more simple levers

with a rigid linkage. In this experiment we shall examine a simple example of compound class-

one levers.

of the characteristics of a This ratio is often called the mechanical ad-

DISCUSSION. One
class-one lever is that it reverses the direction vantage (MA) of the lever. In other words,

of the action. Figure 2-1 shows a simple class-

one lever with the load and effort. Any down-

6
ward motion of the effort will result in an up-
MA = -^=tt- (2.1)
ward motion of the load. 1

With a lever of this type, the moments-

of-force acting on the effort and load side of
In some cases we want the load motion
the lever are to be in the same direction as the effort mo-
tion. We can produce this result by using
M1 = F fi
1 1
and M 2 =F 2 £ 2 two class-one levers as shown in figure 2-2.

Notice that the two levers are connected by

a rigid link. If the effort force causes the
respectively. When the lever is in equilibrium,
left end of the lever system to move down-
the two moments are equal. That is,
ward, then the load end is also moved
downward.
M-|=M 2 or F
1
2
1
= F 2 22
The force on the link can be
(f) acting
determined using equation 2.1 and the left-

If we solve this relation for the ratio of F 2 to hand lever when the connecting link is per-

pendicular to fi
F i we have
:
, 2

F2 C
1
f=F
1^

FULCRUM
EFFORT

Fig. 2-1 A Class-One Lever

8
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 2 COMPOUND LEVERS

F2 LOAD

EFFORT

Fig. 2-2 A Compound Class- One Lever

Or, we could use the righthand lever and F

2
in which case the link force is
,

VR =— = -! = -!
1
!
*1
(2.4)
S2 F fi
2 2
when friction and the weight of the arms are
f = F neglected. Comparing this relationship to
2*f equation 2.3, we see that
Equating these two equations for the link
force gives us
VR T = (VR 1 )(VR (2.5)
2 )

<1
will give us the velocity ratio
of a compound
lever system.

Then, solving for the ratio F /F we have It is worth mentioning at

2 1( this point that
the work done at the load end of a lever is
Fo
(2.2) W2 = F S
2 2

Notice that t^/i the mechanical advantage where S is measured in the direction of the
2 is 2
(MA^ of the first lever, je'j/j^ is the mechan-
force F
2 . At the input the work done is

ical advantage (MA 2 ) of the second lever, and

F /F the mechanical advantage
2 1
is
(MA T ) of
the whole compound system. Consequently,
we see that the mechanical advantage of
If we define lever efficiency as
a
compound lever system is the product of the
individual mechanical advantages: W9
eff =
Txr

MA T = (MA 1 )(MA 2 ) (2.3) then we have

As you will recall, the velocity ratio (VR) F S

2 2
of a class-one lever eff =
is given by F lSl

9
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 2 COMPOUND LEVERS

we most practical cases the efficiency of a

Comparing this equation to 2.2 and 2.5, In

lever system is so near unity that measuring

see that we can express efficiency as
it is quite difficult.

„
eff
_MA (2.6)
-VR

MATERIALS
and clamps 1 Collar
1 Breadboard with legs

2 Lever arms, 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub

2 Bearing plates with spacers

2 Lever arms, 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub

2 Bearing holders with bearings

*1 Straight link, 6 in. long

2 Spring balance posts and clamps

with bearings 2 Spring balances

2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2 in.

Dial caliper (0 - 4 in.)

2 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"
1

can be fabricated as shown in appendix A.

•If the straight link is not available it

PROCEDURE
components to be sure they are undamaged.
1 . Inspect each of your
should be at the last hole in eact
2-3. The link
2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure
lever arm and it should be parallel
to the breadboard.

the input fore

they are parallel to the breadboard and
3 Adjust the spring balances so that
to the breadboard.
is about 4 oz. All of the
lever arms should be perpendicular

4. Record the input force F y

and the output force F 2 .

and £' ).
of each lever arm (8
V 8 2 , C'v 2
5. Measure and record the effective length

6. Compute the force (f) acting in the link.

(M v M 2 M'v and M2
of force acting on each lever arm
).
7. Compute the moment ,

of each class-one lever (MA-| and

MA 2 ).
8. Compute the mechanical advantage

Record the product (MA 1 )(MA 2 ) of the two mechanical advantages.

9.

10. Compute the total mechanical advantage using MA T = F' /F-|.

2

results of steps 9 and 10.

1 1 . Compute the percent difference between the
repeat steps
the input spring balance down to the hole nearest the fulcrum and
12. Move
through 11.

10
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 2 COMPOUND LEVER

1" LEVER POINTING UP

OUTPUT FORCE

COLLAR
1" LEVER
POINTING DOWN I
LINK
3S~
\<D\ \<b\ 2" LEVER
POINTING
DOWN

\<b\ INPUT FORCE

2" LEVER
POINTING UP-
w -» Vo

Fig. 2-3 The Experimental Mechanism

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing your results you should consider the following point

1. Did all of the values for moment-of-force agree in each trial?

2. Did your values of total mechanical advantage agree?

3. When would a compound lever be more suitable than a single class-one lever?

4. What do you think caused the errors in this experiment?

11
 COMPOUND LEVERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 2

First Second
Qtv Trial Trial

Fl

F2

*1

*2

«1

M1
M2
Mi
M'2

MA-,

MA 2
(MA-| MMA2)

% Diff.

Fig. 2-4 The Data Table

PROBLEMS
type shown in figure 2-2,has an input force of 125 oz.
1 A compound lever of the
= 4 = 11 in - and £ 2
= 3 5 m What
2 =
arm lengths are: i 1.2 ft, 2 in - «1 '

The lever }
"

is the output force?

2. What is the link force in problem 1?

moves a short distance with a velocity of 1.8

ft/sec, how
3. If the input in problem 1

fast does the link move?

4. How fast does the output move in problem 3?

What is the total mechanical advantage in problem 1?

5.

12
 experiment
3 CLASS- TWO LE VERS

INTRODUCTION. A second-class lever has the pivot point or fulcrum at one end-the force is

applied at the other end. The resistance is somewhere between these two points. In this ex-

periment we shall investigate the characteristics of this type of lever.

DISCUSSION. If the weight or resistance is the fulcrum is the center of moment, then
placed between the fulcrum and the force as
shown in figure 3-1, the result is known as a F2 X£ 2 =F Xe
l 1
(3.1)

class-two lever.

The mechanical advantage, F2/F1, equals the

A good example of a class-two lever is
ratio of the moment arms, H^ffy It should
the wheelbarrow. The wheel will be the ful-
be noted that the length, 8j, is the entire
crum, the load is represented by F2, and the length of the lever since the fulcrum is at the
lifting force by F1 in figure 3-1. If distance other end of the lever.
£] equals 4 feet and distance #2 equals 1 foot,

applying 50 lbs on the handles (force F-|)

would give a lifting power of 200 lbs at For a class-one lever, the direction of

F2 '
[50 lb x 4/1]. If the weight were placed motion of the output force was opposite to
farther back from the wheel, would it be the direction of the input force— when F-j

easier or harder to lift? moved down, F2 moved up. A look at fig-

ure 3-1 shows that for the class-two lever, the

Again referring to figure 3-1 and apply- motions arein the same direction; when F-j

ing the principle of moments, we see that if moves up (counterclockwise), F2 moves up.

Fig. 3-1 A Class- Two Lever

13
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENTS CLASS-TWO LEVERS

o *
1

._— —1
h "1

" s
2 ! —

FULCRUM

Fig. 3-2 Class- Two Lever - Relative Motions

rium, the forcesdownward must be balanced

What happens to the relative distances moved
by upward forces. Assume that F 2 is 200
lbs
to figure
in the second class lever? Referring 150
is 50 lbs. Where is the other
out- and that
3-2, can be seen that the force of the
it

input force, F v lbs thatmust be acting upward along with F-|?

put, F 2 , is greater than the
If you answered that the
fulcrum point must
by a factor equal to the lever-arm ratio, 9.^19.^, This
4/1 or 4. Graphically, it can be be supporting 150 lbs, you are correct.
in this case,
move more than force force-not one of the applied forces-is called
seen that force F-j will
mechanically
posi- a reaction and would have to be
F2 the lever moves from its initial
when
figure 3-2. capable of holding that much weight.
tion to the dashed-line position
in

Ignoring friction, the work (force x distance)

What if Fi were to be applied at an angle
input will equal the Work output. That is,
of, say, 45 degrees to the
horizontal lever?

Would the full 50 lbs of F-\ be felt in the ver-

F2 X S 2 = Ft X S y
tical direction? Would the full 50 lbs of F<\
be the horizontal direction? With the
felt in
Since F-, is 1/4 F 2 , then must be equal to application of a force at an angle, the amount
this equality to be maintained. equals
of force felt in the vertical direction
is
4 times S 2 if

Again note that the direction of the motion

in angle
the applied force times the sine of the
F and for
the class-two lever is the same for 2 of application. Figure 3-3 shows this
relation-

lbs at 45°,
Ft ship. In other words, applying 50

the as shown, is equivalent to applying simultane-

A basic law of mechanics states that and
ously 35.35 lbs horizontally to the right
sum of forces acting on a body in any plane 45°
45° = cos
35.35 lbs vertically because sin
or direction equals zero if the body is in equi-
= .707.
librium. Another way of saying this is that
the forces acting downward
must equal the
forces acting to When applied to the second-class lever,
forces acting upward, or, the
it can be seen in
figure 3-3, that applying a
acting to the
the right must equal the forces applying a
are force at an angle is the same as
left. Referring to figure 3-2, two forces
lesser force (F, X sin 0) at
the end of the
shown (F 2 and F^. F2 is four times as large
downward. For equilib- lever arm.
as Fi and is acting

14
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 3 CLASS- TWO L E VERS

F-j (50)

j
SIN 0
(35.35)

COS0
(35.35)
\ f F (200)
2

Fig. 3-3 Force Applied at an Angle

What happens to the reactive force at accuracy of the above using this technique.
the fulcrum when F-j is applied at an angle? [Note: The effective lever-arm or moment-
Remember that when force F-| was applied arm of the 50-lb pull is the perpendicular dis-

at right angles, there was a reactive force that tance of the 50 lbs line of action to the ful-

acted upward. There will still be an upward crum point]

reactive force, but now there must be a force
Scales often use combinations of lever
that will balance the horizontal component
arrangements similar to the compound lever
(Fi X cos 0) caused by F-j operating at an
system shown in figure 3-4.
angle (if there were not, the lever would be
pushed to the left in figure 3-3). With the dimensions shown in the figure
3-4,what must the value of F-| be to balance
In what weight, F2, can be
figure 3-3, the system? First, what is the value of f for
lifted (balanced) by a pull, F-j, of 50 lbs at an the lower lever? The lever-arm ratio is 1/6
angle of 45°, if the lever-arm ratio is 4:1? F-| [remember that the fulcrum is 6 ft from fr
at 45° is equivalent to a vertical pull of 35.35 not 5 ft). So, f will equal 1/6 X 300 lbs or

lbs. Multiplying this 35.35 lbs by the lever- 50 lbs. This will be the load on the upper
arm ratio gives a weight of 141.4 lbs. Another lever. The lever-arm ratio of the upper lever

technique is to use the "effective lever-arm is 1/7. Therefore, will be 1/7 X 50 lbs or
distance." Be sure that you can check the 7.14 lbs. Another solution is to first compute

Fig. 3-4 Class- Two Compound Levers

15
 . .

EXPERIMENT 3 CLASS- TWO LEVERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

the overall lever-arm ratio. The lower lever motion? Moving 300 lbs 0.1 in. upward ac-

has a 1/6 ratio; then the upper lever ratio is complishes 30 in. -lbs of work; therefore, f,

1/7. This gives an overall lever ratio of whichis 50 lbs, must accomplish at least this

1/42 (1/6 X 1/7). Multiply the 1/42 by 300 much work [50 X S = 30 in.-lb; S = 0.6 in.]

lbs and, again, F-j = 7.14 lbs. You may note that this is the same as the
lever arm ratio, but inverse to the force ratio;

that is, 6 to 1 rather than 1 to 6. F-j must,

Now, let's look at the relative motions then, move 7 times S, or 4.2 in. Since the

compound lever system. Assume that

in this overall system ratio was 1/42 for force, then
you wish the 300-lb weight to move 0.1 in. the motion ratio is the inverse of 1/42, or

How far must F-j move to accomplish this 42 to 1

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"
2 Bearing plates with spacers 2 Lever arms, 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub

2 Bearing holders with bearings 2 Lever arms, 1 in. long with hubs

2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2 in. with bearings 2 Collars

2 Spring balance posts with clamps 1 Dial caliper (0 - 4 in.)

2 Spring balances *1 Straight link, 6 in. long

•For link construction details see appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect each of your components to be sure they are undamaged.

2. Mount the bearing plates and shaft hangers as shown in figure 3-5.

3. Mount a 1 -in. lever and a 2-in. lever, both pointing downward from a shaft through the
bearing plates.

4. Similarly mount two levers on a shaft through the hangers.

5. Install the 6-in. link between the small lever on the hanger shaft and the long lever on the
bearing plate shaft. The bearing plate levers should both point downward and both hanger
levers should point upward.

6. Adjust the bearing plate location and shaft height so that all fevers are vertical and the link

is horizontal.

7. Install the spring balances so that one is between the small bearing plate lever and a post.

The other is between the long hanger lever and a post.

8. Adjust the spring balances so that they are in the end holes of the levers.

9. Set the input force for about 4 oz. being sure that the spring balances are horizontal .

10. Record both forces, F-| and F2.

16
 )

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 3 CLASS- TWO L E VERS

OUTPUT FORCE F2

8j
£W R DOWNWARD

1" LEVER UPWARD

1
6" LINK Tj
2" LEVER
DOWNWARD

2" LEVER
UPWARD
INPUT FORCE
V
1 1 1
' '

Fig. 3-5 The Experimental Setup

11. Measure and record the length of each lever, 9.^, $.'2, Z\ and (The identity of each
length is shown in figure 3-5.

12. Compute the force (f) acting in the link using F-j, Hi, and C^-

17
 CLASS- TWO L E VERS
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 3

force (f) in the link using F 2 , and e V

13. Compute the

Compute the percent difference between f and f.

14.

down to the next hole in the input lever and repeat steps 9
15. Move the input spring balance
through 14. Record data.

down to the next hole in the lever and repeat steps 9

16. Again move the input spring balance
through 14. Record data.

%
F2 «2 f f Diff.
Qty. Fl «1 «2 «1

First

Trial

Second
Trial

Third
Trial

Fig. 3-6 The Data Table

class-two levers illustrated during

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Draw a simplified sketch of each of the
distances and compare this
this experiment. Compute the lever-arm ratio from the measured
obtained from the three
ratio with the force ratio. Explain the difference in the force readings
In your own words discuss other
aspects of class-two levers.
different trials.

PROBLEMS
feet and an effective weight
1 Assume that a sign hinged to a wall has a length of 12
is necessary to
of 100 pounds when 3 feet the wall. What upward force, F
from v
support the sign? (See figure 3-7.)

-9% J

I W= 1001b
Fig. 3-7 Diagram of Problem 1

18
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 3 CLASS-TWO LEVERS

2. In the same problem, assume that there is no place to support F-j in a vertical posi-
tion, and that attached to that end of the sign and brought over to the
a cable is

building making an angle of 30° with the horizontal. How much force will the cable
be required to support? [Note: You already know the vertical component from
problem one.]

3. A safety valve on a boiler (figure 3-8) has a 2-inch diameter and a steam pressure of
200 2
lb/in . If the lever arm is 15 inches long and the valve is 3 inches from the
pivot point, what is the value of W that is required?

Fig. 3-8 Valve in Problem 3

4. In the discussion, a problem was solved which used the "equivalent vertical pull" of
a 50-lb force. Draw a sketch showing that 50 lb times the "effective lever arm dis-
tance" gives identical results.

5. In problem 3, if the safety valve moves 1/32 in., how far does the weight move?

6. Using a class-two lever, where would you place the output on a 6-inch lever to
achieve a motion of 0.1 in. if the input motion is 0.4 in? This may be necessary,
for example, if the error in the input motion is 0.4 in. and your allowable error in
a work device is 0.1 in. Draw a sketch of this lever arrangement.

7. Discuss the similarities and the differences between class-one and class-two levers.
Give three practical examples of each type.

19
 CLASS-THREE LEVERS
experiment
4
that both the res. it-
very similar to a class-two lever .n
INTRODUCTION. A class-three lever is
effort or input force o
on the same side of the fulcrum. However, the
le and the ffo t are
expenmen
closer to the fulcrum thanthe load or output force. In th.s
is
he c ass-three ever
" is
of load pos.t.ons w.ll
this type lever. Also, combinations
we w investigate the characteristics of

be examined.

makes it possible for you to flex your arm.

DISCUSSION. There are times when you will
Your elbow is the fulcrum. Your biceps
output
want to speed up the motion of the one inch
use a large muscle applies the input force about
force even though you will have to to be
from your elbow. The output force
amount of input force to accomplish this.

class-three overcome is in your hand located some 13

Levers that help do this are called
4-1 the fulcrum of inches from your elbow.
levers. As shown in figure ,

one end, and the

at
you contract your biceps muscle one
a class-three lever is
If
is at
weight or output force to be overcome your hand swings through a thirteen-inch
inch,
or input force
the other end, with the effort This illustrates the major use of the
class-
arc.
applied at some point between. displacement.
three lever-fo gain speed or

input
It is easy to see that, while the
the short distance, S the
force, F 1# moves v that
distance, Referring back to figure 4-1, assume
output load, F 2 moves the greater
,
will
during the F2 is100 pounds. How much force
S 2 Since the whole lever moves
.
The distance
be required to lift this weight?
must
same time interval, then the speed of F 2
from the fulcrum to F 2 is 1 ft + 3 ft
or 4 ft.
be greater than because F 2 covers a greater
ft or 400 Ib-ft is
So, a moment of 100 lb X 4
distance in the same period of time.
equilibrium, F-|
created by this weight. For
must overcome this clockwise moment.
F-|
Your arm, as illustrated in figure 4-2, is

operates a distance of 1 ft from the fulcrum,

It is this lever action that
a class-three lever.

Fig. 4-1 Class-Three Lever

20
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 4 CLASS- THREE LEVERS

FULCRUM

Fig. 4-2 The Forearm -A Class-Three Lever

so Again, referring to figure 4-1, if F2 is

100 pounds acting in a downward direction

F} X 1 ft = 1001b X 4 ft and F-| is 400 pounds acting upward, what

force must be present at the fulcrum? Since

and the upward forces must equal the downward

forces, then the fulcrum must have a reaction
400^ft = 400lb force of 300 lbs acting downward (the clamp
Fi=
1 1 ft arrangement shown in the figure is necessary
to keep the lever on the fulcrum!).

It can be seen that MORE force input is re-

quired than will be lifted. However, if F-j is

It is important to notice that the weight

move 4 of the lever has not been considered in any of

moved one inch, then F2 will inches.
our computations. In some applications, the
weight of the lever is so small that it can be
What is the mechanical advantage of a ignored. However, in other applications, the
class-three lever? Remember that mechanical weight of the lever may be large enough to be
advantage is the ratio of the output force to an important consideration. When the weight
the input force. In the illustration just given, must be considered in the computation, an
the output force was 100 lb and the input additional moment is determined by the prod-
force was 400 lb, giving a mechanical advan- uct of the weight of the lever arm, and the
tage of 100/400 or 1/4. Class-three levers will lever arm distance to its center of gravity from
have a fractional mechanical advantage which the fulcrum. You will remember that an ob-
means that more force must be applied than ject's center of gravity is the point where the
is to be moved or lifted. weight may be considered to be concentrated.

21
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 4 CLASS-THREE LEVERS

(CG)
|F 2 = 1.00 LB
1 LB/FT

-7.5"
t
•5"- -10"

Fig. 4-3 Class-Three Lever - Lever Weight Consideration

Ft X 5 in. = (1.25 lb X 7.5 in.)

For example, the 15-in. lever shown
in figure

uniformly. With the + (1.00 lb X 15 in.)

4-3 weighs 1 lb per foot
dimensions as shown, what force F-|
neces- + 15 lb-in.
= 9.38
is Ib-in.
•=1
and the one-pound 5 in.
sary to place the lever
equilibrium?
= 24.38
weight in Ib-in, =
4j88 |b
5 in.
The weight of the bar can be considered

to be at the center of gravity

(CG) which will In this case, the weight of the lever is signifi-

Since computa-
be located 7.5 in. from the fulcrum. cant and must be included in the
lb/foot or lb/12 inches, The lever arm ratio is 1:3, which would
the bar weight is 1 1 tions.

will equal indicate a pull, F-,. pf 3 lb if the lever weight

then 15 inches
force,
is neglected. Be sure to notice that the
F-j, to balance the system is not based just on
X 15 in. = 1.25 lb
but on each weight
12 in. the opposing weights,
times its respective lever arm.

tend-
It can be seen that there are two forces compute the re-
As an exercise for you,
the weight
ing to rotate the lever clockwise: at the ful-
1 -pound active force that must be present
of the lever at the CG point and the
the example given in figure 4-3. See
equal these two crum in
weight. The pull, F v must 2.63 downward.
if your answer is lb
moments:

MATERIALS
2 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps
2 Lever arms, 2-in. long with 1/4-in. bore hubs
2 Bearing plates with spacers
2 Lever arms, 1-in. long with 1/4-in. bore hubs
2 Bearing holders with bearings
2 Collars
2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2 in. with bearings
Dial caliper (0-4 in.)
2 Spring balance posts with clamps
1

*1 Straight link, 6-in. long

2 Spring balances

*For link construction details see appendix A.

22
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 4 CLASS- THREE L E VERS

0 OUTPUT FORCE

IE
2" LEVER
UPWARD

Fig. 4-4 The Experimental Setup

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect each of your components to be sure they are undamaged.

2. Mount the bearing plates and shaft hangers as shown in figure 4-4.

3. Mount a 1-in. lever and a 2-in. lever both pointing downward from a shaft through the
bearing plates.

4. Similarly mount two levers on a shaft through the hangers.

23
 CLASS- THREE LEVERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 4

the 6-inch link between the small lever on the

hanger shaft and the long lever on
5 Install

the bearing plate shaft. The bearing plate levers

should both point downward and both

hanger levers should point upward.

all levers are vertical and the
6. Adjust the bearing plate location and shaft height so that
link is horizontal.

between the small bearing plate lever and a post;

7. Install the spring balances so that one is

the other is between the long hanger lever and a post.

8. Adjust the spring balances so that they are in the end holes of the levers.

9. Set the input force for about 20 oz being sure that the spring balance s are horizontal.

10. Record both forces F-| and F 2 .

and {The identity of eacn

Measure and record the length of each lever, £
2 e1
fi
11. , 2-

length is shown in figure 4-4.)

12. Compute the force (f) acting in the link.

Compute the moment of force acting on each lever, M v M2 ,

M'-,, and M2 .

13.

14. Compute the percent difference between M., and M 2 and between M'-| and M2 .

15. Compute the mechanical advantage of each class-three lever, MA<\ and
MA 2 .

Compute the total mechanical advantage (MAj) using the results of step 15.
16.

Compute the total mechanical advantage (MAj) using only F-j and F 2 .

17.

difference between your two values for total mechanical advantage.

18. Compute the percent

Fl 1=2 *1 *2 «2

% %
Mo Diff. Mi M' Diff.

%
MAt MA 2 MA T MAj Diff.

Fig. 4-5 The Data Tables

24
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 4 CLASS-THREE LEVERS

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Using the measured moment-arm lengths, compute the

moment-arm ratio
for each set of data. Compare this ratio with the ratio of the forces. In your own
words sum
marize the characteristics of class-three levers. Give
five examples of how lever class may
be ap
plied in a practical situation. Distinguish between class-two and class-three
levers. Add anv
comments you believe appropriate.

PROBLEMS
1.1s the lever shown in figure 4-6 a class-three lever, or is it a class-two lever? Explain
in detail your answer.

2. In figure 4-6 how much pull must be exerted to overcome the load of 6 oz?

r>1

3J>

-4 CM- -6 CM-

T
F, = 6 0Z
Fig. 4-6 Lever for Problems 1, 2 and 3

3. Assume that the lever in Problem 2 moves upward (counterclockwise

two degrees).
Compute the true distances (arc length) that the attaching points
of F and of F2
1
travel. Compare the ratio of these distances
with the lever-arm ratio.

4. A crimping tool is pinched together with a pair of forces of 10 pounds each as

shown in figure 4-7. What is the force exerted on the connector? What is the force
in the link X between the two levers of the crimping tool? Hint: If one side of the
tool were placed on the bench, the bench would push with 10 lbs.

10 LB

10 LB

Fig. 4-7 A Crimping Tool

25
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 4 CLASS-THREE LEVERS

PIVOTS

Fig. 4-8 Typewriter Mechanism

mechanism, identify the class of the levers

Figure 4-8 Is a sketch of a typewriter
5
(speed) of po.nt and
marked A, B, and C. Discuss the reiative mot.on 1
that are
point 2.
and that delivered by
Discuss the relative forces
between that applied to the key
6 C)
of the three levers (A, B, or
bar, based on the typewriter sketch. Which
the tVPe
is used primarily
to increase speed?
'tsinput force one inch f^m
eight-inch long lever ispivoted at one end and has
7. An and 8 inches respectively,
Three loads of 3, and 4 ounces are 6, 7
2,
the pivot.
What input force is necessary to establish equ.l.br.um?
from the pivot.
Assume
and the 3-foot distance be Y.
the 1-foot distance be X
R
8 In fiaure 4-1 let
the
express
In terms of X, Y, and 0,
the .ever rotates through 0
-
degrees.
It travel.
vertical distance and the
arc distance that Ft and F 2

26
 experiment ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

INTRODUCTION. This experiment summarizes the characteristics of the three basic types of
levers and investigates the characteristics of two common ways of linking basic mechanical
parts: the rocker arm and the bell crank.

DISCUSSION. Levers can be used: to change where F-| and F 2 are the input and output
the direction of the force being applied, or to forces,
#i
is the moment arm of the input
change the speed of a force applied. force,
2and J2 ' s tnemoment arm of the out-
put force. This relationship is frequently used
Class-one levers have the applied or input in the form
force and the output force on opposite sides
of the pivot point or fulcrum. These two F 2 /F 1
=« 1
/C
2 (5.2)

forces move in opposite directions. The rela-

tive speed and relative magnitudes of the two which shows that the ratio of force out to
forces depend upon the moment-arm lengths.
force in is equal to the moment-arm (or lever-
arm) ratio. This ratio isknown as the lever's
Class-two levers have the input force and mechanical advantage.
the output force on the same side of the ful-
crum, but the input force is farther from the For equilibrium to exist, forces in any
fulcrum than is the output. Both forces move plane or direction — horizontal, vertical,
(e.g.
in the same direction. The output force is
etc.) must be equal. This is, forces pushing
greater than the input, and the linear speed of
downward must be counterbalanced by forces
the output is less than the input.
pushing upward. Forces pushing to the right
must be balanced by forces pushing to the left.
Class-three levers have the two forces on
the same side of the fulcrum but the input In machines it is often necessary to trans-
force is applied between the output and the mit limited rotary or linear motion from one
fulcrum. Both forces move in the same direc- place to another. This is accomplished by one
tion. The linear speed of the output is greater
or more of the following basic machine parts:
than the input, but the magnitude of the out-
put force is less than the applied force. 1. Rocker Arms
2. Bell Cranks
3. Levers
The method used to analyze all levers is

the relationship that clockwisemoments must 4. Rods or Shafts

equal counterclockwise moments for equilib-
Typical of the use of the first of these is
rium to exist.
in an automobile engine where a rocker arm
This relationship is expressed mathemati- moves a valve assembly, thus, opening it. This
cally as: basic mechanism is shown in figure 5-1. When
the push rod moves up, the other end of the
F1 X )2 = F X C (5.1) rocker arm must move down, causing the
1 2 2
valve to move down. This action is diagramed

27
 :

EXPERIMENT 5 ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ROCKER ARM SHAFT BRACKET

ROCKER ARM
SHAFT
ROCKER ARM

VALVE PUSH ROD

ASSEMBLY

Fig. 5- 1 Automobile Rocker Arm Assembly

showing that a rocker arm is a 1/2 in. from the pivot in an upward direction,
in figure 5-2
a 24-lb force is felt 5/8 in. from the pivot in a
class-one lever.
downward direction.
Referring to figure 5-2, what is the force ap-

plied to the valve assembly if the push rod

Remember that the distance ratio varies
force is 30 lb? If the push rod moves upward inversely as the moment arm ratio: so, to

3/8 in., how downward does the valve as-

far solve for the relative motions of the two
sembly move? What do you need to know to forces,
answer these two questions? If you stated
lever-arms or moment-arms, you are correct.
S2 = S-, X £ = 3/8 X 5/4 = 15/32 in.
2 /«i
If this point did not occur to you, refer back

to equations 5.1 and 5.2.

The push rod moves upward 3/8 in. and the

valve moves downward 1.25 times that dis-

FULCRUM
tance, or 15/32

I An
in.

easy check of motions and forces of

a class-one lever is to remember the action of
FORCE ON PUSH ROD
a see-saw (teeter-totter) when a very heavy
I THE VALVE FORCE 1
person is on one end and a light person is on

Fig. 5-2 Rocker Arm Force Diagram the other. The heavy person must sit quite

close to the fulcrum and will not move up or

Assume that the push rod force acts 1/2 down much - the light person will be much
in. from the pivot and the valve assembly is farther away from the pivot point and will

5/8 in. from the pivot. Note: These distances move a large distance up and down.

are the perpendicular distances from the pivot

of action of the two forces. Now,
to the line What is the result of applying the forces

we can compute the output force by using at an angle other than 90° to the moment
equation 5.1 rocker arm? This application is shown in fig-
ure 5-3. There are two ways of analyzing the
F2 = F., X £ /£ 2
t
= 30 lb X 4/5 = 24 lbs force relationships. The first is illustrated in

the righthand sketch in figure 5-3. Here, the

states that when a 30-lb force applied lines of action of the input and output forces
which is

28
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENTS ROCKER ARMS AND BELL

Fig. 5-3 Rocker Arm, Non-Perpendicular Forces

are shown by dashed lines along the force vec- We can also measure the distance £•] and
tors. The moment or torque produced by F2 #2 quite easily in most practical situations. If

is equal to that force multiplied by the per- distance £2 " s used, what moment or torque is

pendicular distance from the pivot, 0, which being produced? Only that force which is

is shown as £
2 You can
- see that this distance perpendicular to that moment arm is con-
is than the rocker arm length C
less Tnis - sidered. To say it another way, force F2 can
2
torque must be equal to that produced by be broken into two components: one acting
so: F2 X )?2 = F-| X $.']. Practically, however, horizontally, Fx , and one acting vertically,
it is often difficult to measure the true per- F . Iftwo true forces, F x and F were , ap-
y y
pendicular distance from the pivot point to plied they would equal F2. F generates NO
x
the line the force is acting upon. But, we torque because it is applied in line with the
usually can measure the angle with the lever. fulcrum which makes the moment arm zero.
This is shown in figure 5-4. Fy acts perpendicularly and generates a torque
equal to F X #2-
y

How do you compute these components?

If the angle with the horizontal of F2 is 9,
then Fy/F2 = sin 9. Thus, F = F2 sin 9. The
y
moment generated by Fy must be counter-
balanced by the moment generated by the
vertical component of F-j; let's call it, F X 8 .

y
From this, our basic equilibrium equation
becomes:

F Xg 2 =FyXfi
y 1

OR £2 X F
2 sin0
= £ X
1
F-, sine (5.3)
Fig. 5-4 Angular Force Analysis

29
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 5 ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

Now, let's analyze the movements of

Itshould be noted that the parameters
these two forces - sometimes these-forces
are
of equation 5.3 are usually quite easily meas-
actually tensions in taut cables. In figure 5-6,
the force, the angles with the lever,
and
ured:
position of
of the the solid lines indicate the initial
(from trigonometry tables) the cosines
indicate
the bell crank and the dotted lines
angles.
the crank position after F<[ has been ap-
bell
Another device used primarily to trans-
plied to rotate the crank through 0
degrees.
one direc-
mit motion from a link traveling in The distances and S 2 are the linear dis-
tion to another link which is to be
moved in a
tances rather than the arc distances.
direction is the bell crank. The
different
came from the linkage
name of this device
doorbells.
used to operate our grandparent's
crank mounted on a fixed pivot
The bell is

and the two links are connected at two points

different directions from the pivot. By
in
points, the
properly locating the connecting
move in any de-
output links can be made to
direction. One type of bell crank is
sired

shown in figure 5-5.

In this figure the two arms are perpen-

dicular to each other and the

connecting links

are perpendicular to the arms.

Since the forces
to the pivot
are applied on a line perpendicular
point, then the clockwise moment, F-| X £ 1(

must be equalled by the counterclockwise

moment, F2 X £2- Thus,
Fig. 5-6 Bell Crank Movements

8 X F! = 2
2
X F2
1
It can be seen in the lower triangle that
or
sin 0 = S-i/K-i («! is the length of the arm ro-
F 1 /F 2 = »2 /C 1
the dotted position and is the hypot-
tated to
this look familiar? in the
Does enuse of the small right triangle). Also,
upper triangle, sin 0 = S 2 /%2- Ec uatin 9 these l

two expressions gives:

S^U-i =S2 /«2

or
S 1 /S 2 =8i/K2

The linear distance moved by one of the

forces is equal to the distance moved by the
other force multiplied by the moment-arm
It should be noted that there is also
ratio.
F1 movement toward the pivot which was not
considered in the above.
Fig. 5-5 Simple Bell Crank

30
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENTS ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Spring balances
2 Bearing plates with spacers 2 Spring balance posts with clamps
2 Bearing holders with bearings 1 Dial caliper (0 - 4 in.)
1 Shaft, 4"x 1/4" 1 Protractor
1 Lever arm, 2-in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub 2 Collars
1 Lever arm, 1-in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 5-7.

OUTPUT FORCE

INPUT FORCE

OUTPUT FORCE

INPUT FORCE

Fig. 5-7 The Experimental Setup

31
 ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS MECHANISMS/LINKAGE
EXPERIMENTS

Adjust the two lever arms so that they are

approximately 90 degrees apart.
3.

are horizontal and the input force (F-j)

4. Adjust the two spring halances so that they
about 6 oz.

5. Record the values of both forces (F-j and F 2 ).

arms and £
6. Measure and record the lengths of the lever 2 ).

and spring balance {& y and 02

Measure and record the angle between each lever arm
its
7.

acting at right angles to each lever arm (f and f 2 ).

8. Compute the component of force }

Compute the moment of force acting on each lever (M 1

and M2 ).
9.

Compute the percent difference between the two moments.

10.

0 using input forces of 8, and 1

2 oz.
1 1 . Repeat steps 4 through 1 1 0,

%
©1 02 f
h M<| M2 Diff.
«=2 *1 *2 1

F,/F 2 V f
2

Fig. 5-8 The Data Tables

data table. Compare these

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Compute the force ratios as indicated in the
lever-arm ratio, and note and explain
any deviations. Summar.ze your
force ratios with the
understanding of rocker arms and bell cranks.

32
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 5 ROCKER A RMS AND BELL CRA NKS

PROBLEMS
1. Assume that a rocker arm is 3-in. long with the pivot point 1-1/4 in. from the load
side. The input force occurs 2000 times per minute and travels 1/2 in. What is the

average angular speed in radians-per-second of the rocker arm? What is the average
linear speed of the input force and of the output force?

2. In the previous problem, the input force is increased linearly to 3000 per minute in

a time of 30 seconds. What is the linear acceleration of the input and of the output?
What is the new linear velocity (speed) of the output?

3. A bell crank has one arm 3-in. long and another 2-in. long which are separated by
75°. A force of 6 oz is applied at 60° (see figure 5-9) ) to the 3-in. arm. What force
is felt at 30° output at the end of the 2-in. arm?

Fi 6 0Z.

Fig. 5-9 Levers for Problem 3

33
 COMBINED MECHANISMS
experimen t

6
INTRODUCTION. As we have seen, levers may be compounded using rigid links. They may a

combination with a wide variety of other mechanisms. In this exercise we will i

be used in

amine one of these possibilities.

DISCUSSION. In many practical lever appli- f = Fi sin

©i
1

cations, the input and output lever arms are where ©] is the angle between the input force
coupled through a gear train as shown in fig-
and the lever arm centerline. This perpendic-
ure 6-1. ular force produces a torque of

can use any one of several different

We T-| = f -| = F ^ fi-j sin
©i
approaches in analyzing the operation of such
a mechanism. transmitted
This amount of torque is

through the gear mesh and transformed ac-

One way is to consider the forces re-
cording to
quired to produce equilibrium. Starting with

Fi acting on 8-j, we see that the force com-

ponent acting perpendicular to the lever arm li Jl
To N
is
 f

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 6 COMBINED MECHANISMS

or
F 1 = 1 0 oz fi = 2.5 in.
1

n = 36 teeth N = 60
T2 = T^ teeth

0 =45° 1 02 = 3O° 5
2
= 3.4 in.

which gives us F 2 = ??

N
T 2 =F 1 e 1 -sin0 1 First we determine the force acting per-
pendicularly to the input lever arm:

as the amount of torque acting on the second

f = F sin 0., = 10 X 0.707 = 7.07 oz
lever arm where n and l\l are the numbers 1 1

of teeth on the gears. This second lever arm

torque must also be equal to Then the input torque is

t 2 = 2e2 T., = f = 7.07 X 2.5 = 17.65 in.-oz

The output torque transformed by the gear

where 2 is the force component perpendicu-
f

lar to the lever arm. Equating these last two

mesh is
equations for torque gives us

T2 = T 1 1T = 17 65
-
36
= 29 45 - in --° z
f
2
= F
2
sin 02

2 into the torque

Substituting this value of f
'2 29.45
^=34- = 8DCK
,
equation gives us 65oz
2 =
f -

F
2C2 sin 02 = F^i — sin 0^
And finally the output force is

or

«1 N sin0 1 r-
^2 8.65 no
Fo = F (6.1) * sin 0o 0.5
2 1 £
2 n sin 02

You may wish to compare this result to that

as the equation for the output force.
produced by equation 6.1 to verify that they
are the same.
It is worth mentioning that both 0-j and
02 are the angles between the applied force
and the lever arm centerline.
We can analyze the lever displacements
in much the same manner. That is, if the end
of the input lever moves an arc distance S-j,
This process seems somewhat lengthy
then the input gear rotates through an angle
and involved; however, in actual practice it is

easier than you might expect. Let's work

0 1
of

through an example to illustrate how it is

done. Suppose that the mechanism in figure

0,1 = 77- radians
6-1 has the following parameters: e
1

35
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENTS COMBINED MECHANISMS

lever in the
results in a rotation d of the output For example, if the end of input
which 2 then the
previous example moves 1.0 in.,
gear equal to
input gear rotates

(=)„=—
u =—L= 0.4 radians
1 2.5

related
Then since the output lever notion is

by while the output gear rotates

to output gear rotation

=
S 2 = £ 2 e 2 = 3.4 X 0.24 0.816 in.

Q2 =
T 2
Since linear velocity at the end of the
lever is

equal to
we have
V = SIX,
Sj^Sj n
£2 h N approach to determine
we can also use this

output velocity if the input velocity is known.

un-
or The gears here, as in the rest of this text
less otherwise stated, are considered to have
a constant speed.
S2 _S 1 « N
(6.2)
1

Similarly, ratios such as the mechanical

this advantage can be found using the same type

As before, the practical application of
easier than it might seem. of analysis methods.
type of analysis is

MATERIALS
Spur gear, approx. 1 in. OD with
Breadboard with legs and clamps
1
1
1/4 in. bore hub
2 Bearing plates with spacers
4 Collars
2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2 in. with bearings
2 Lever arms, 2 in. long with
4 Bearing holders with bearings
1/4 in. bore hubs
2 Spring balance posts with clamps
2 Lever arms, 1 in. long with
3 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"
1/4 in. bore hubs
2 Spring balances
Dial caliper (0- 4 in.)
1 Spur gear, approx. 1-1/2 in. OD with 1

1 Protractor
1/4 in. bore hub
*1 Straight link, 6 in. long

•See appendix A for link construction details

36
 —
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMEN T 6 COMBINED MECHA NISMS

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to be sure it is not damaged. Record the gear tooth
counts, n and N.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 6-2.

TL . 1 9 I

INPUT FORCE F1

-2_L J_®_
I
I 1
,
6 IN. LINK

GEAR 0
OUTPUT FORCE F
2 PINION
D

1
n lt
 COMBINED MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 6

Lever B should make a right

3. Adjust the mechanism so that levers A, C, and 0 are vertical.
horizontal and the input force
angle with the 6-in. link. Both spring balances should be
should be about 6 oz.

4. Record the input and output forces, and F 2 -

5. Measure and record the length of each lever arm, C

A ,
S
B ,
fi
c and £ D
,
.

Measure and record the angle between each lever arm and its applied force, ©A © B 0 C
, ,
,
6.

and 0q.

0A and 0B compute and record the force acting on the 6-in. link, (f)
7. Using F v £ A 2 B , ,
, ,

and N com P ute and record the force acting ° n the 6 n

"' "
n
8. Using F 2 ,
e
c ,
C
D- ©O ®D< < '

link. If)

9. Compute the percent difference between f and f'.

mesh. Then rotate the pinion

10. Hold the gear securely while you slip the pinion out of
Re-engage the gear teeth.
about 30 degrees in the direction which increases F 2 .

11. Repeat steps 4 through 9.

Qty
Trial n N "=1 •=2
«A *B *C

Fig. 6-3 Data Table A

Qty
%
f f Diff.
Trial ©A ®B ©C ©D

Fig. 6-3 Data Table B

your you should focus primarily on the analysis meth-

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing results

ods used. Did they result in good agreement between f and f ? Why do you think this occurred?

What do you think were the main causes of error in this experiment? How could the errors be

reduced?

38
 )

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 6 COMBINED MECHANISMS

PROBLEMS
1. Figure 6-4 represents a lever with angular forces applied to each end. From the di-
mensions given, compute the pull, P, necessary to achieve equilibrium.

Fig. 6-4 Lever for Problem 1

2. Referring to figure 6-1, assume the lever parameters are:

FpHoz 0 1
= 4O° C
1
=2.7 in.

F
2 = 91oz ©2 = 25° £ =1 9in
- -
2
A. If one of the gears has 36 teeth, what are the two possible tooth counts that
the other gear could have?
B. If the righthand gear in figure 6-1 has 36 teeth, how many does the lefthand
gear have? (Use your results from 2A.

3. A certain lever system is composed of a class-two lever, a link, and a bell crank as
diagramed in figure 6-5. What is the mechanical advantage of the system?

4. What is the value of F

2
in figure 6-5?

5. What is the angle between F-j and F 2 in figure 6-5?

10OZ. f 1

V oo°
1
03
x FULCRUM
B

<S IN.
-120°
,30°

FULCRUM
A
V
V . J
V
CLASS BELL CRANK
2
LEVER

Fig. 6-5 Figure for Problems 3 to 5

39
 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION
experiment
7
practical mechanisms. In
INTRODUCTION. The four-bar mechanism is one of the most basic
various classes of operation of this important mechanism.
this experiment we shall examine the

four-bar mechanism the links or

mechanism In a
DISCUSSION. A four-bar is a
members do move relative to each other.
system in which four rigid links are inter-
Figure 7-2 show one possible arrangement for
connected in such a way as to allow predict-
a four-bar mechanism. In this case, when the
able relative motion. You should notice at
input link (£,) rotates through a complete
rev-
this point that it is possible to assemble four
an arc
such a way that relative motion olution, the output link swings through
rigid links in
and back to its starting point. The pins used
cannot occur without deforming the links.
free to
A to join the links must, of course, be
Figure 7-1 shows one such arrangement.
construction of this type is NOT a mecha- allow link motion.

nism, it is a The members of a

structure.
move relative to The type of mechanism shown in figure
structure normally do not
7-2 can only be constructed if the longest link
each other.
(£ in this case) is shorter than the sum of the

This usually the first test

linkage will have a other three links. is
Strictly speaking a
we apply to a proposed mechanism.
number of members and there may be rela-

tive motion between them. When one link of

have speci- For example, suppose we wish to build a

a linkage is fixed and the others
Actu- mechanism using a 4-in. fixed frame link, a
fied motions, it becomes a mechanism.
input link, a 3-in. output link and a 10-
only with mechanisms but
ally this text deals
2-in.

coupling link. We first test to see if the

the words linkages and mechanisms are used
in.

mechanism is possible by adding the three

interchangeably.

40
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BA R INTRODUCTION

o
UN*. K
cou

\
FRAME LINK£„ o
F/]g>. 7-2 -4 Four-Bar Mechanism

smallest link lengths and comparing the sum 6-in. fixed frame link. Testing this mecha-
to the longest length: nism as before we have
4 +2 +3= 9<10 2 + 4 + 5=11>6
In this example the total of the three short The sum of the shorter links is greater than
lengths is less than the longest length. So such the longest link so the mechanism is possible.
a four-bar mechanism can not be built. If you
Figure 7-3 shows a mechanism of this
think about this for a while you will realize
that this mechanism is impossible because the
type. In this case, as before, when the input
link rotates through a complete circle the out-
three small links just aren't long enough to
put link swings through an arc.
reach the ends of the long link.

On the other hand suppose that we wish A four-bar mechanism which acts in this
to build a mechanism using a 2-in. input link, way is called a type I four-bar mechanism or a
a 5-in. coupling link, a 4-in. output link and a crank-rocker mechanism.

41
EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BA R INTRODUCTION MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig. 7-4 Drag- k Mechanism

links Again, we can change the link dimen-

By changing the dimensions of the
get a different type of relative motion. sions to get another type of mechanism. Sup-
we can
Suppose that we have an input link of 3 in., pose we use an input link of 3 in., a coupling
link of 2 in., an output link of 4 in., and a
a coupling link of 4 in., an output link of 4 in.,

and a fixed frame link of 2 in. fixed frame link of 5 in. We still have a possi-
ble mechanism,

You can check to insure that such a 2+3+4=9>5

mechanism is possible and it will look somewhat like figure 7-5. In

this case the input cannot go through a com-

2+3+4=9>4 plete revolution because the lengths of £ c and

type of 9.2 will not permit it.

Similarly the output
Figure 7-4 is a diagram of this
link can't go through a complete revolution
mechanism.
because the lengths of C c and £-| won't permit

This time when we rotate the input link it. However, when the input link does move,
output link also rotates the output link must also move in the same
a full revolution, the
a full revolution. A mechanism which does manner. A mechanism of this type is called

called a type II four-bar mechanism or a type III, four-bar mechanism or a double-

this is

a drag-link mechanism. rocker mechanism.

42
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

The last type of four-bar mechanism that

we will consider somewhat more difficult to
is

illustrate. Suppose tnat we have link lengths

as follows: The input link is 3 in., the coup-
ling link is 5 in., the output link is 4 in., and
the fixed frame link is 6 in. Testing the possi-
bility of building such a mechanism we see
that since

3 + 4 + 5= 12 >6
it is possible.

Figure 7-6 shows a sketch of such a

mechanism. Let's suppose that the input link

is rotating counterclockwise at a constant Fig. 7-5 Double- Rocker Mechanism

rate. Now let's examine the mechanism at
several different positions. First, in the posi- Such a condition produces a type IV,
tion shown in figure 7-6, the output must fol- four-bar mechanism. Sometimes this type is

low the input in its counterclockwise motion. called an indefinite four-bar operation since

However, as the links become colinear we can't tell from the linkage alone what it

with the fixed frame as shown in figure 7-7, will do.

there is no vertical force coupled tothe output The condition shown in figure 7-7 is

link from the input link. Due to gravity or called a critical position in the cycle of the

flywheel effect the output link may continue mechanism.

downward. Or, if it is spring-loaded upward, As a result of these link dimensions we
it may reverse its direction and swing upward can tell whether the mechanism will operate
as the input link continues its counterclock- in type I or type II. External forces could
wise motion. cause it to do either.

Fig. 7-7 A Critical Point in

Fig. 7-6 A Class IV, Four-Bar Mechanism Mechanism Operation

43
EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BA R INTRODUCTION MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

In conclusion then we can summarize this discussion as follows:

Four-bar mechanisms are possi- 4. If neither the input or output

1.

ble only if the sum of the three link can rotate through a full

circle, then the mechanism is a

shorter links exceeds the length
double-rocker or type III mecha-
of the longest link.
2. If the input link rotates through nism.

a full circle while the output

swings through an arc of less

the mecha- 5. If link dimensions alone make it

than a full circle,
impossible to classify a four-bar
nism is a crank-rocker or type I

mechanism, it is considered an
mechanism.
indefinite or type IV mechanism.
3. If the input and output links
both rotate through full circles,
External conditions may cause

the mechanism is a drag-link or such a mechanism to operate as

type II mechanism. any of the other three classes.

MATERIALS
and clamps Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
1 Breadboard with legs 1

Lever arm 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub

2 Bearing plates with spacers 1

*1 Straight link 6 in. long

2 Bearing holders with bearings
with bearings *1 Reverse link 2 in. long
2 Shaft hangers 1-1/2 in.

2 Shafts 4" x 1/4" 1 Steel rule 6 in. long

•For link construction details see appendix A.
3 Collars

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect each of your components to be sure they are not damaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 7-8. The shaft through the bearing plates

should be 2-3/4 in. above the breadboard.

Adjust the spacing between the shaft hangers and bearing plates so that when the
shorter
3.

lever arm is straight down, the longer arm points to the right and is horizontal.

4. Make a simple diagram of the mechanism as it now appears.

Measure and record the length of each link £ Q C v £ c and C (Note: Use the shortest
5. ,
,
2 -

lever arm for £7 and the distance between shaft centers as

6. Using the measured link lengths verify that this mechanism satisfies the possibility test

used in the discussion.

and £ 2 Describe each

7. Carefully rotate the input link and observe the motion of £ 1# 2 C , -

of these motions in your own words.

44
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

-Tch

is
0
1 IN. LEVER LINK 2 IN. LEVER

2 IN.
LEVER

f/flf. 7-g The First Experimental Mechanism

8. Based on your observations identify the type and name of this mechanism.

9. Loosen the bearing plate clamps and readjust the spacing between the shaft
hangers and
bearing plates so that both lever arms point straight up.

10. Now repeat steps 4 through 8.

1 1 Readjust the spacing between the shaft hangers and the bearing plates
.
so that both lever
arms point to the right and are horizontal. The coupling should not
bind on the lever
arm holes.

45
 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 7

1 2. Repeat steps 4 through 8.

loosen the shaft hangers and bearing plates and

turn them around on the breadboard
13. Now
as shown in figure 7-9.

14. Repeat steps 4 through 8.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

Type of
Name of Mechanism
Mechanism

Dimensions of
e = =
Mechanism o *c

Sketch of Mechanism Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7- 10 Data for the First Mechanism

Type of
Name of Mechanism
Mechanism

Dimensions of
= = =
Mechanism *o «1 *c

Sketch of Mechanism Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-11 Data for the Second Mechanism

47
EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Twnp nf
Mechanism
Name of
Mechanism

Dimensions of = =
*o *c
Mechanism
Description of Motion
Sketch of Mechanism

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7- 12 Data for the Third Mechanism

Type of Name of Mechanism

Mechanism

Dimensions of = *1- =
*o *c
Mechanism
Description of Motion
Sketch of Mechanism

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7- 13 Data for the Fourth Mechanism

48
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 7 FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

ANALYSIS GUIDE. The main objective of this experiment has been to introduce the four types
of four-bar mechanism. In you should discuss each four-bar type and tell
analyzing your results

how you can identify each one. Also discuss any difficulty you encountered in getting the mech-
anisms to operate properly.

PROBLEMS
1. What is a four-bar mechanism?

2. What are the characteristics of a mechanism as opposed to a structure?

3. How can you test to be sure that four given link dimensions can be connected into
a four-bar mechanism?

4. Test each of the following link dimension sets for possibility in a four-bar mechanism.

E) £0 = 4 in., C, = 2 in., = in., = 1 in

9.
Q
1 J2
2 2 -

5. Make a sketch of the mechanisms in problem 4 which are possible.

6. Tell how each mechanism in problem 5 would act if £1 rotates at a constant rate
clockwise.

49
 experiment
8 CRANK- ROCKER MECHANISMS

or pivoted to each other are

known as
INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms having elements pinned ,n
of linkages the crank and
Lages. One of the most elementary forms
is

and charactenst.es of th.s form of l.nkage.

this experiment you will investigate the features

You can see that if

Figure 8-1 illustrates the sim- frame or foundation.
DISCUSSION.
This is called a link 6 were fixed instead of link C 0 the same ,

plest possible plane linkage. C

When
past it has crank and rocker motion would result.
four-bar linkage, although in the known as an
because there the fixed link is changed, this is
been called a three-bar linkage
Since the inversion of the mechanism.
are movable connectors.
three
are quite
forces and strains felt by the frame
correct The most general four-bar linkage has
important, it is most appropriate and
general linkage
mechanism. The links links of different lengths. This
to call this a four-bar
long as they is shown figure 8-1 and the links are lettered
in
can be of any form and shape so
such that
do not interfere with the desired motion.

£
1
<£ 2 <C C <C 0

po-
Figure 8-2 shows one of the limiting
sitions of the linkage. This occurs
when the
colinear;
crank and the connecting rod are
that is, lie on the same line.

the limiting position shown in figure

In
sides: link £ D
8-2, a triangle is formed having
,

link £ and C c " C 1 K lf a triangle 1S t0 be

2 <

a crank
formed, as it must if we are to have

Fig. 8- 1 Crank Rocker Mechanism

In figure 8-1 assumed that link 8 0

it is

is fixed and does

not move. This means that
link C i will
with the link dimensions shown,
Link is known
rotate through 2tt radians.
as a crank. The word crank indicates a link
rotate continuously. Link C 2 ,s
that can
called the rocker (sometimes a beam or a

lever) because can only oscillate through a

it

limited arc path. Link C c is the connecting

or a connecting
link and is called a coupler
to the
rod. This link connects the crank
Fig. 8-2 Contracted Limiting Position
frequently is the
rocker. Link £ Q is fixed and

50
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENTS CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

0
/
I \ I 1 \

Fig. 8-3 Extended Limiting Position

and rocker, then you know that any one side The limiting positions shown in figures

of a triangle must be less than the sum of the 8-2 and 8-3 are quite useful in analyzing the

other two sides. This leads to one significant motions and times of motions of the various
criteria for this type mechanism. lengths. If a scale drawing is made of the
actual mechanism, the angle through which
8
0 <([fic -fi
1 ]
+£ 2 >
the rocker oscillates can be determined quite
accurately. For many purposes a scale draw-
or rewritten:
ing will provide sufficient accuracy. For other
<(e c + £ - £ (8.1)
e
0 2 i> purposes an analytical approach will be re-

quired. If the lengths of the links are known,

Equation 8.1 tells us that the distance on you can use the cosine law to solve the angu-
the frame between the pivot points of the lar positions shown in the limiting positions
(figures 8-2 and 8-3). For example, in figure
crank and the rocker must be less than the
8-3 the angle of the rocker (angle between
lengths of the connecting rod (fi plus the
c)
links 2 and can De solved by substituting
rocker (£2) minus the crank (C-j). Q
into the following relationship:

Figure 8-3 illustrates the extended limi-

2 2 2
ting position of the crank and rocker mecha- <*i
+
*c> = h + £
o 2« 2 «o cos 0
nism.
where 0 is the angle between C Q and fy- Once
Using the same basic principle regarding this angle isknown, the sine law can be used
the lengths of the sides of triangles, you can to find the angle at the crank. This process is

see from figure 8-3 that repeated for the other extreme position which
will give both limiting angles of the rocker

« 1 +fic <e 2 +«0 (8.2) and the angular position of the crank at these
limits.

This equation tells us that the crank length From the above analytical approach you
added to the connecting rod length must be can find out how many degrees of crank rota-
less than the length of the frame and rocker. tion are required for motion to the right and

51
EXPERIMENTS CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig. 8-4 Analytical Design of Crank-Rocker Mechanism

for motion to the left. Knowing these facts

permits you to use the usual angular relation- d = 2 arc tan K ±

VK 2 + L2 - M2
(8.4)
L + M
ships to determine velocity and acceleration.

where
Now, let's look at the problem of deter-
mining where the follower will be for a given
K- sin 0
crank angular position. This general problem
is outlined in figure 8-4. C
o
L=-7T +COS0
The rectangular coordinates of point P-|

are 2
+£ o2
M = "jr^ cos © +
K1 2*1*2
xi = S-| cos 6
y-| = J?i sin © The plus sign in equation 8.4 will give the

figure drawn with solid lines in figure 8-4.

The minus sign will give the figure shown

and of point P 2 ,

with dashed lines which is known as the

x 2 = 2 Q + £ 2 cos 6 cross condition.

We will now look at a linkage having

y2 = £2 sin 9
dimensions as follows: C-j = 2.5 inches, £ c =
10 inches, C 2 = 4.5 inches, and £ Q = 9 inches.
We know by the Pythagorean theorem that
A scale drawing of this linkage is shown in fig-
2 2 -y 1 : ure 8-5 with the two extreme positions shown.
= + (y 2 (8.3)
£
c
(x
2 -x-,) )

The problem is to determine the number

of degrees that the rocker oscillates through as
By substituting the f(0) values for the
the crank revolves. Referring to figure 8-5,
unknowns in equation 8.3 and expanding, you
terms of©. you can see that this equals angle P 2 0' P' 2
finally arrive at an equation for 6 in

52
 -

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENTS CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

Fig. 8-5 Crank- Rocker Problem

and that this angle is equal to angle OO'P'2 when crank £] is in position P'-j and ends at

angle 00'P . You can see that we know the position P2 when the crank reaches P'-|. This
2
lengths of the sides of triangles OO'P'2 and takes more than 180 degrees of crank rotation.

triangles OO'P^. Thus, we can use the law of Also, the return swing of link #2 f rom P'2 to

cosines and determine the two angles desired. P"2 takes a crank rotation from P'-| to P'-j

For the left position of link £2 which makes which is less than 180 degrees. If the crank

up triangle OO'P^: is rotating with a constant angular velocity,

this time is different. With rotation as shown
c^ 2
= e2
2
+ £0
2
" 2C £ cos (00 P 2>
'
in the figure, link £2 takes longer to swing
c -
(fi
2 o
left than to return to the right. Let's assume
the crank is rotating counterclockwise at 120
Substituting, we have
RPM. What is the time for the left stroke and

2 2 the time for the right stroke? This involves

7.5 = a2 + 4.5 - (2)(9)(4.5) cos (00'P 2 )
first determining the value of angle P2 OP'2

00'P 2 = arccos 0.5555 which is the difference in angular position.

You can see that this angle is equal to
Angle 00'P 2 = 56° 15'

P =
2 0P' 2 0'0P 2
- 0'0P"
2
In an identical fashion we can solve for angle
OO'P'2 b Y usin 9 trian 9 ,e OO'P'2 and the cosine
Again, using the cosine law, we determine that
law. From this we find that

Angle 00'P' 2 = 132° 46' = 29° 56' - 15° 20' = 14° 36'
P
2 0P' 2

"
And, angle = angle 00'P - 00'P = The left stroke (from P2 to P 2 will take a
P'
2 0'P 2
)
2 2
(132° 46') - (56°15') = 76°31' which is the movement of the crank of 180 degrees plus
2 of the 360
total swing of the rocker. angle P to P' degrees of rota-
2
tion. The right movement of the rocker will

You can see from figure 8-5 that the be 180 - angle P' 2 0P 2 of the 360 degrees.
swing of link £2 from position P'2 begins The time involved will be this same fraction

53
 CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENTS

the revolutions per minute

and
of the time to revolve 360 degrees. 120 RPM where RPM is

half second. From time in minutes. the time for one revo-
T is
means one revolution each is

lution. The relationship between angular ve-

this,
a given
locity and linear velocity of a point at
motion of distance from the center of rotation is
Time for left

n = 180
+1 4 6 = 0.27 seconds distance = aI£i^ath © = rcj
x .5
veiocny =
Velocity
Z 360 tjme t|me t

and
The relationship between the velocity and the
Time for right motion of acceleration for a crank rotating at a constant
angular velocity is as shown in figure 8-6. You
180 4 6
-

= 0.23 seconds
£2 = 3~ X .5
will note that the velocity is perpendicular to
6q
the radius from the center of rotation and
that

It is often important to know the veloc- the acceleration is toward the center.

ities of the various motions of a linkage. Since

we do have circular motion, the velocity is VELOCITY
angular as is the acceleration. You may re-

member that in physics we define an angle as ACCELERATION

_ arc length
e radius

which gives the angle, 0, in radians. For the

entire circle this expression becomes
Fig. 8-6 Rotating Body Velocity

and Acceleration
0 = = 2w radians
The angular acceleration, a, equals dw/dt
and is measured in units of radians per second,
Angular velocity, w, equals the angle covered
per second. In summary, all relationships
rotating
per unit of time. All points on a given
found in linear displacement, velocity, and
body have the same angular velocity. Also,
acceleration will remain true by substituting
0 for displacement, co for velocity and a for
co = |=^= (2tt) RPM acceleration.

MATERIALS
1 Lever arm 1 in. long with
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps
1/4 in. bore hub
2 Bearing plates with spacers
2 Disk dials
2 Bearing holders with bearings
2 Dial indexes and holders
2 Shaft hangers with bearings
*1 Straight link 6 in. long
2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"
1 Steel rule 6 in. long
2 Collars
long with 2 Sheets of linear graph paper
1 Lever arm 2 in.
*See Appendix A
1/4 in. bore hub

54
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 8 CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 8-7. Be sure that the bearing plate shaft is

2-3/4 in. above the breadboard surface.

INDEX INDEX

<2L XL DIAL n
"
DIA L jz>
"*
D C i
, ,
i i i

g> CI
2l
T— ZJ
L2J

1 IN.
0 WPT~70 V
0 l,
LEVER £ l

2 IN. LEVER
LINK

2 IN. LEVER

Fig. 8-7 The Experimental Mechanism

55
EXPERIMENTS CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

3. Adjust the spacing between the shaft hangers and the bearing plates so that both lever
arms can point straight up at the same time.

4. Allow the mechanism find its own "rest" position and set the two dials to zero.

5. Measure and record the length of each of the links (C

0 ,
C
2 , and £ c ).

6. Rotate the dial attached to the shorter lever arm in 20° increments and record the other

dial reading at each increment.

Driver rOHOWci Anni

r*M iy u lar
i
iai

Position Position Velocity (Rad/sec.)

n°
u

20

tu
end
bU

80

1UU

120

140

loU

I OU

200
oo n°
ZZU

240°

oan°

280°

300°

320°

340°

360°

C
1
= *2=_

F/#. 5-5 Data Table for the First Trial

56
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENTS CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

7. Assuming that the driver were turning at 100 RPM compute the average angular velocity
of the follower in each increment in step 6.

8. Plot a smooth curve of the follower position versus time using the conditions of step 7.

9. Similarly plot follower velocity versus time.

10. Move the link to the next hole nearer the shaft and repeat steps 3 through 9.

D
LSIriwpr
IVCI Fr>l
1
ln\A/pr
\J \ lUVVCI A nni
Ml lot* \/ol/^r*i+\/
ILJU d! V c IUL.I Ly
i
1

Position Position (Rad/sec.)

0°

20°

*tu

R0°
uu
80°

I uu
190°

14U

I ou

1 ou
9nn°

990°

240°

260°

280°

300°

320°

340°

360°

x x
! c o

Fig. 8-9 Data Table for the Second Trial

57
EXPERIMENTS CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Draw a skeleton sketch of your mechanism showing the lengths of the links

and the two extreme positions of the rocker. Using the law of cosines, calculate the rocker swing
and compare with that observed. Explain any differences noted. Using your measured link
for a crank-
lengths, verify that this mechanism satisfies the conditions given in the discussion
rocker. Do this for both sets of links used.

PROBLEMS
1. Assume that the crank rotation of the mechanism used by you in the experiment

was rotating clockwise at 60 RPM. What is the time required for the rocker to move
to the left? What is the time needed for its return movement to the right?

2. What must be the rotational speed in RPM of a crank 3.5 inches in length of its

linear velocity is 500 feet/minute?

3. The crank described in problem 2 starts at rest with an angular acceleration of 3

radians/second/second. If the acceleration is constant, what is the angular velocity

after 7 seconds? What is the velocity of a point 3.5 inches from the center at this
time? What was the average velocity of this point?

4. Using equation 8.4, compute one set of angular positions of the crank and rocker
used during this experiment. Be sure the angles you use correspond to those of
figure 8-4. Compare the computed values with the observed values and comment
on the differences.

58
 experiment KJ DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

INTRODUCTION. An important inversion of the four-bar linkage is the one known as the drag
link or double crank mechanism. In this type mechanism both of the links pinned to the frame
are able to make complete rotations. In this experiment you will investigate the characteristics
and features of a drag link mechanism.

DISCUSSION. As you already know, if you if you fix the shortest link, that is, make it

have a four-bar linkage mechanism with lengths the frame, the resulting mechanism will be
such that the shortest link can make a full ro- known as a drag-link or double-crank mecha-
tation, you have what is known as a type I nism. These three inversions of type I link-

linkage. If the shortest link is indeed a crank ages are illustrated in figure 9-1.
and one of the adjacent links is fixed, then As you can see in figure 9-1, if the long-
you have what is known as a type I linkage, est or next longest link is fixed, one link may
known as a crank and rocker. rotate and one oscillate. If the next shortest
If the shortest link is used as the coupler link is fixed, both links may oscillate. And
or connecting rod, you will have what is finally, if the shortest link is fixed, the links
known as a double-rocker mechanism. And, may both rotate through a full 360 degrees.

(B) DRAG-LINK

Fig. 9-1 Inversions of a Four-Bar Mechanism

59
EXPERIMENT 9 DRAG-LINK MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig. 9-2 Special Drag- Link Mechanism Fig. 9-3 Drag- Link Mechanism:
Critical Positions

If the driver link has uniform motion The general requirements for a drag-link
(angular velocity is constant), it will transmit mechanism may be obtained by looking at
to the follower link a highly variable angular what are known as the critical positions of the
velocity as they both make full rotations mechanism. Since both links rotate a full rev-

about their fixed centers. This variable veloc- olution, there will be a time when each of the

ity is used in practical applications of the drag rotating links will be colinear with the fixed
link mechanism, especially in quick-return frame (link £
Q in our diagram). At this time
type mechanisms. For example, if the length a triangle will be formed as is shown in fig-

and the
of links
£1 and 5
Q are the same ure 9-3.
lengths of
c
and £ 2 are the same, then when
fi

link £ makes one revolution, the driver link

2 From the critical positions you can see
£.| will have made two revolutions. This is that the following relationships must be true
illustrated in figure 9-2. in order for this mechanism to function:

In this special drag-link mechanism where e

o
+ C
2
<£ +C c1
(9 ' 1)

the driver length equals the frame distance be-

tween pivot points, and where the connecting g
c
<fi 1 +R 2 -«o (9 2)
-

rod length equals the driven lever length, the

and the driven angle are nearly
c1 <5 c + £ 2- C
o (9 3)
"

driving angle
proportional over a considerable portion of
the cycle. In the position shown in figure 9-2, These three inequalities, coupled with the fact

a 20-degree movement of crank £-| will result that the shortest link is fixed, are the require-

in approximately a 20-degree movement of ments for a drag-link mechanism. In these in-

crank 8 2 Much beyond this 20-degree move-

.
equalities link C-j and link £
2 are the rotating

ment, however, finds crank C 2 remaining al- cranks and link S c is the coupler or connecting

most still as crank £ continues to rotate. rod.

2

60
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 9 DRA G-LINK MECHANISM

We will now look at the two in-line posi- You can see by inspection that this time will
tions of crank £•] which will be the driven be longer than the time required to move
crank. Let's assume that these two positions from £'1 to £"]. The time required for move-
represent a desired output. Crank £2 w '" De ment from left to right position is

the driver crank and will be rotating at a con-

stant angular velocity. The problem will be to
determine if there is a difference between the (9.5)
time it takes crank £•] to move to the left and
to move to the right and to determine what
this time difference will be.
To check if t-j plus t2 equals the time for one
revolution we add equation 9.4 to 9.5 and see
that

+t 2- T +T 360
*1
L^60^ J L J

= T [ 180 + 0 -© + 180-0 +0 ]
1

L 360 J

= T 360] _ T 1

L360J

and since T equals the time for one revolu-

tion, the two expressions will add to equal
this time.

Fig. 9-4 Drag- Link Motion Analysis

The values of angles 6 and © shown in

figure 9-4 can be found by using the cosine

You can see by the sketch in figure 9-4
law and the lengths of the linkages. It is im-
that link £-| will travel from its extreme right
portant to draw a sketch of a proposed drag
position to its extreme left position when link
link mechanism to check the possible motions
^2 moves from position £'2 to £2. Since £2
graphically as well as using analytical tech-
travels at a constant rate, the time required
niques. The cosine law gives the following
for this motion is
relationships.

2 + 2
(9.4) («1 (£ £
2 )

6 = arc cos (9.6)

2£ 2 (£ 1 £
0)
where

t is the time of motion from £"1 to £'1 (£ 1+ £ 0 )

2
-(£ 2 +£ 22 )
1 c
T the time of one rotation of link £2
0 = arc cos
+£ 0 (9.7)
is 2£ 2 (£ 1 )

61
EXPERIMENT 9 DRAG-LINK MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps
2 Bearing plates with spacers
2 Bearing holders with bearings
2 Shaft hangers 1-1/2 in. with bearings
2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"
2 Collars
1 Lever arm 2 in. long with
1/4 in. bore hub
1 Lever arm 1 in. long with
1/4 in. bore hub
1 Steel rule 6 in. long
*1 Reverse link 2 in. long

2 Disk dials
2 Dial indexes and mounts
2 Sheets of linear graph paper

*For link construction details see appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect each of your components to be sure they are not damaged.

Note that the bearing plate shaft should

2. Construct the mechanism shown in figure 9-5.

be 2-3/4 in. above the breadboard.

3. Allow the mechanism to find its own "rest" position and set both dials to zero.

4. Rotate the dial fixed to the shorter lever arm in 20-degree increments and record the

angular displacement of the other dial at each increment. Continue in this way until you

have completed a whole revolution.

Assuming that the driver lever arm was turning at a constant angular velocity of 100
RPM,
5.
used in
compute and record the angular velocity of the follower in each of the increments
step 4.

6. Plot a smooth curve of the follower lever arm's displacement versus time assuming the

conditions of step 5.

7. Similarly plot the follower lever arm's velocity versus time.

Repeat steps 4 through 7 using the longer lever arm as the driver and the shorter arm
as
8.

the follower.

9. Measure and record the length of each link in the mechanism.

62
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 9 DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

2-IN.
LEVER
1-IN. r
LEVER
0 01 10 0
0 0
2 3/4"
2-1

LINK U
h n
U
F 5-5 The Experimental Setup

63
EXPERIMENT 9 DRAG-LINK MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Driver Follower Angular Veloc- Driver Follower Angular Veloc-

Position Position ity (Rad/sec.) Position Position ity (Rad/sec.)

0° 0°

20° 20°

40° 40°

60° 60°

80° 80°

100° 100°

120° 120°

140° 140°

160° 160°

180° 180°

200° 200°

220° 220°

240° 240°

260° 260°

280° 280°

300° 300°

320° 320°

340 340°

360° 360°

B =
2
C = =
c «o

Fig. 9-6 Data Table First Trial Fig. 9-7 Data Table Second Trial

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Draw a sketch of your experimental setup using figure 9-3 as a guide. Indi-
cate on your sketch the maximum and minimum points of velocity of the follower shaft. Add
additional comments of your own to clarify the actions involved in drag-link mechanisms. Using
the measured lengths, show that the experimental mechanism satisfies the conditions given in the

discussion for a drag-link.

64
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 9 DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

PROBLEMS
Figure 9-3 has linkages with the following lengths: fi = 4 in.; C-j = 10.5 in.; £ =
1. Q c
7 in.; and C = 9 in. £ is a fixed link and £ 2 is the driver. How many degrees must
2 Q
crank £ 2 rotate to carry crank C-] from the extended colinear position to the over-
lapping colinear position?

2. If crank £ 2 in problem 1 rotates at 200 RPM, what is the time required for crank C-|

to rotate from the extended colinear position to the overlapping colinear position?
What is the time for its return? Assume that crank C 2 rotates in a counterclockwise
direction.

3. List and discuss three practical applications for the drag link mechanism.

4. Assume that link £ and link C-| shown in figure 9-3 are 6 inches and 10 inches, re-
Q
and 7 and 8 inches. link 600
rotating at
and that 2 are
spectively, links t' fi If £-| is
c
RPM, how long will it take link £ 2 to rotate from a vertical position upward to a
vertical position downward? Link C-| is rotating in a counterclockwise direction.

How long will it take for link £ 2 to rotate from the vertical downward position back

to the upright position? Compute the ratio of these two times.

65
 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM
expert men t

10
do not require any of the links to turn
practical four-bar applications
INTRODUCTION. Many can be
applications a type III four-bar mechanism
through a complete revolution. In many such th.s
of
experiment we shall examine the operat.on
used to achieve the desired motion. In this
type of four-bar mechanism.

other In general, any combination such that the

DISCUSSION. Double rockers, like all

sum of the longest and the shortest links is

four-bar mechanisms, must be possible mech-
greater than the sum of the other two
gives
shorter
anisms. That is, the sum of the three
a double rocker, no matter which link is fixed.
links must be longer than the longer link.

way We can get some insight into the operation

With this condition satisfied, the easiest
to make the coupling of this type of mechanism by considering its
to get a double rocker is
positions. The principal limiting
limiting
link shorter than any other. Figure 10-1 shows
positions are shown in figure 10-2.
this type of double rocker.

0
*WS«SMS5CTS«^^^
Fig. 10-1 A Double- Rocker Mechanism

(b) ec + £ 1 CRITICAL POSITION

(a) Cc + e 2 LIMIT

Fig. 10-2 Double- Rocker Critical Positions

66
 .

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 10 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

If we start with the driver (£•]) in the So, we see that if we wish to build a double-
counterclockwise limiting position as shown rocker mechanism which has the limiting
in figure 10-2a, we see that the link lengths positions shown in figure 10-2, then £ must
must satisfy the inequality. be less than £ Q and £ 2 must be less than #1-

fi
c
+ « 2 <fi 0 + £ 1 (10.1)
Now if you examine figure 10-2a again,
you will see that while £•] has reached its
Then, as we rotate the driver clockwise,
counterclockwise limit, £
2 has not. We find
we can reach the point where the follower
£
2 could continue to go counterclockwise until
reaches its clockwise limit as shown in figure
it reaches the position shown in figure 10-3.
10-2b. At this point the link lengths must
(Note that this figure is not to scale.)
satisfy the inequality

C
c
+ £
1
<£ 0 + £ 2 (10.2)
?

we add these two

If inequalities (10.1
and 10.2) we have

2£ c + £ 2 + £-, <2e 0 + C
2
+ £
1

Subtracting (£
2 + £]) from each side gives us

2C
C
< 2£ Q

or Fig. 10-3 £1 - £c Limiting Position

£
c
<£ o (10.3) If this kind of limiting is to occur, then
the link lengths must satisfy the inequality
or, in other words, £ c must be less than £ Q .

Similarly, if we subtract the two original

inequalities we have
8
0 <« 2 + «1-«c

or
e 2" fi
1
<C 1
" C
2

Adding (£ + 2-|) to both sides renders 8

0 + «c <« 2 + «1 (10.5)
2

2£ 2 <2£.,
In other words, if we want the mechanism to
have this type of limiting we choose link
or
lengths which satisfy this condition. Con-
versely, this type of limiting cannot occur if

(10.4)
greater than £ +
£
0 + £c is
2 £1

67
EXPERIMENT 10 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

It is also possible to construct a double- In this case the link lengths must satisfy

rocker mechanism which passes through the the inequality

critical position shown in figure 10-4.

£
0
-£
2
<e c + £ 1

or

e
0 -e c <£ 2 -«i (10.6)

As before, we can produce or prevent

this condition by choosing link lengths which

!/ <«o-*2>
\ do or do not satisfy this condition.

0'
There are other double-rocker limiting
and critical conditions; however, they do not
introduce new inequalities so we will not
10-4 £ - C Position consider them at this time.
Fig.
0 2 Critical

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Dial indexes with mounts
2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
2 Bearing holders with bearings 1 Lever arm 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
2 Shaft hangers with bearings *1 Reverse link 3/4 in. long
2 Shafts 4" X 1/4" 1 Steel rule 6 in. long
2 Collars 2 Sheets of linear graph paper
2 Disk dials *For link construction details see Appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to be sure they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 10-5.

3. Looking from the right in figure 10-5, move the longer lever arm to its clockwise limit.

At this point set both dials to zero.

4. Move the input link (longer lever arm) from zero in 10-degree steps. Record both dial

readings at each step. Continue in this way until you reach the counterclockwise limit
of the longer lever arm. Take particular note of what occurs if the mechanism passes
through a critical position.

5. Starting at the counterclockwise limit of the longer lever arm, slowly move it back toward
zero in 10-degree steps. Again record both the input and output dial readings.

6. On a sheet of graph paper plot the input displacement versus output displacement for
both sets of data.

68
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 10 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

0 0
0] [0 3 0

2-IN.
INDEX LINK LEVER
INDEX
0 0

0 0 0 0LU0 0
in
1-IN.
DIAL LEVER DIAL

0 0
0 0

Fig. 10-5 The Experimental Setup

69
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 10 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

linkage the mechanism (« 0 « 1f and K c ).

Measure and record the length of each
in ,

7.

shafts are separated by approximately

8. Move the bearing plate assembly sideways until the

2-1/2 in..

9. Repeat steps 3 through 8.

should discuss the

the data from this experiment you
ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing

h^
Te^ve motion between the driver

e ify
d
spacing How can you
he inequalities given
aw ng of each mechanism and
in
and follower in each case. Consider
explain this effect?
the discussion.
the effect of changing
Using your link d.mensions you can
Which ones were satisfied for each case? Make
discuss the limiting and critical
conditions that you encountered.

Clockwise
Counterclockwise
0O
01

e
o=-

=-
«1

Fig. 10-6 Data Table I

70
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 10 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

Counterclockwise Clockwise

©1 0- 0, 0-

«2--

=
*c

Fig. 10-7 Data Table II

PROBLEMS
1. The four-bar mechanism shown in figure 10-8 has the following dimensions:
= C = 14 = 10 in and =8
h o h -' £
c
in - WiM this mechanism work as a double
rocker?

Fig. 10-8 A Four-Bar Mechanism

71
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 10 DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

that shown
in figure 10-8 assume an E 1 - * c limiting position like
2. Can the mechanism
position.
in figure 10-3? If so, draw a sketch of it in that

like that shown

in figure 10-8 assume an C Q - £ 2 critical position
3. Can the mechanism
in figure 10-4? If so, make a sketch of it in that position.

in figure 10-9 must satisfy.

4. Write the inequality that the link lengths

Fig. 10-9 Mechanism for Problem 4.

discussion.
problem 4 is identical to inequality 10-5 in the
5. Show that your result in

figure 10-10 is to exist.

Write the inequality that must be
satisfied if
6.

0 °^5SSM»SS^^
e, <V £ i>

Fig. 10-10 Mechanism for Problem 6

discussion.
problem 6 is identical to inequality 10-6 in the
7. Show that your result in

72
 FOUR-BAR SUMMARY
experiment
11
INTRODUCTION. The four-bar mechanism is considered by some specialists to be the basic
linkage mechanism. In this experiment we sha I examine the link length requirements for each
of the four-bar mechanism classes.

DISCUSSION. A linkage is an assembly of rocker or type I mechanism. Figure 11-2

mechanical components wherein the various shows the relative motion of the input and
members move relative to each other and each output links of a crank-rocker mechanism.

component has a prescribed form of motion.

A mechanism is composed of
four-bar
interconnected links, one of which is fixed
Figure 11-1 shows a schematic of such a
mechanism. In this sketch 2 is the fixed
Q
link, £•] is the input (or driver) link, £ is
c
the coupling link, and £2 is tne output (or
driven) link. The connecting points 0, 0',

Pi, and P2 are all free to allow relative

rotation between the connected links.

If the input link, £ 1# can rotate through

a full revolution and this causes the output
link to rotate through only a part of a
revolution, the mechanism is called a crank- Fig. 11-1 A Four-Bar Mechanism

73
 FOUR-BA R SUM MA R Y MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 1 1

we + C must be greater than

see that
In analyzing any four-bar mechanism, 2 fi
c
the relative link length to insure + Otherwise the mechanism could not
we first test
fi
Q
that the mechanism is physically possible to
assume the position shown. Stated symbol-
ically this is
build. We can do this by checking to see if
the sum of the three shorter link lengths

is greater than the longest link. If they aren't, £

c
+ £
2
>e 0 + e 1

then they simply won't reach the required

connecting points. If the mechanism is
For any one of the critical positions we
possible to build, we then proceed with an can write three of these statements. The other
analysis of the critical positions. two for figure 1 T3a are

Critical positions are those positions in

c
2
<e 0 + £ +c c
which two (or more) of the links are colinear. 1

That is, two or more links are lined up with

each other. In the crank-rocker mechanism and
shown in figure 11-2 there are four possible
critical positions. Figure 11-3 shows all four e
c
<K 0 + e +K 2 1

of these positions. Notice that as C-] rotates

counterclockwise, it eventually becomes colin- If we were to write down the three

ear with £ 0 as shown in figure 11 -3a. When statements relating the lengths of the linkages
this occurs, the output link £
2 is sti " m° vin g for all four critical positions, we would have a

counterclockwise. total of twelve separate inequalities. Among

these twelve statements there would be a
As the input link continues its rotation, it
number of duplications. In fact there would
soon becomes colinear with 2 C as shown in fig- Of these six
be only six different inequalities.
ure 1 1 -3b. At this time £ 2 has traveled as far as
relationships, three of them would indicate
the counterclockwise direction. In
can in
that one link was shorter than the sum of the
it

other words, nas reacned tne limit of

£
2 other three links. This is, of course, the
its counterclockwise travel. This position
condition that we test for when we consider
could be called the counterclockwise limiting of a mechanism.
the physical possibility
position.

The remaining three inequalities are the

As £i continues its rotation counter-

finally reaches the position shown only ones that are useful for linkage analysis.
clockwise, it

again These three relationships are:

in figure 11 -3c. In this position C is
1

colinear with £ Q , and £ is moving clockwise.

2 e 1< e c + C 2- £ o
reaches the position shown in
+ £o
£l<-«c +
Finally, £•] e2 {11 2)
-

figure 1 1-3d where it is again colinear with £ £ .

This time £ 2 has reached its clockwise lim- K

1
<8c -«2 + eo (11 " 3)

iting position.
can get some further insight into the
We
positions we can relative link length requirements by manip-
In each of the critical
ulating these relationships. For example, if
write mathematical statements about the rel-

For example, in figure 1 1-3a we add 1 1 . 1 and 1 1 .2 we have

ative link lengths.

74
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 1 1 FOUR-BA R SUMMA R Y
EXPERIMENT 1 1 FOUR-BA R SUMMA R Y MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

2£., < 2fi 2 or 2-, <C 2 (11.4a) The first of these indicates that £ Q is shorter
than the sum of £
c
and £ 2 ,ess %"\-

Similarly, adding 11.1 and 11.3

On the other hand, the second and third
inequalities can be taken together to mean
2£-| <2C c orC 1 <£ c (11.4b)
than £ 1 plus the difference
0 is longer
that £
between £ c and We can state both these
And finally, adding 1 1.2 and 1 1.3
conditions as

2C n <2£ 0 ore <C Q 1

(11.4c)
l
C
c- C
2l
+e <C 0 <
1
C
c
+ C 2- fi
1
(11.5)

Comparing these three relationships we observe This relationship, together with the short-
that £-| must be the shortest link in a crank- est link being C-j, make up the conditions
rocker mechanism. necessary for a crank-rocker mechanism.

We can rearrange inequalities 11.1, 11.2, The mechanism shown in figure 1 1-4 is a

and 11.3 into the forms type II or drag link mechanism. When the
input link (£•]) of this mechanism makes a
revolution, the output link (£ also goes
e <c c + e 2 -£ 2 )

0 1
through a complete revolution.

e
c -*2 + c
i< c o Analyzing the drag-link mechanism using
8 2 -fi c + *1<«o the critical positions, we find that the fixed

P2

Fig. 11-4 A Drag- Link Mechanism

76
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 1 1 FOUR-BA R SUM MA R Y

link (fi
Q ) must be shortest and that the inequality 11.5 is not satisfied, then we will

inequality have a double-rocker instead of a drag-link.

+ should be noted that either a crank-

|
C
c- 5
ll
K
o< E 2<«c + 1-«o fi (11.6) It

rocker or drag link can be used as a double-

rocker simply by confining the input link
must be satisfied.
in some way.

Notice that in both of the mechanisms

considered so far, we get a good hint about
A type IV mechanism having an indefinite
motion relationship is produced whenever an
operation simply by identifying the shortest
equal sign appears in either inequality 1 1.5 or
link.
11.6 instead of an inequality sign. Such a
The type 1 four-bar mechanism shown
1 1

mechanism may operate in either type I,

in figure 11-5 is sometimes called a double-

type II or type III depending on outside
rocker mechanism. Critical position analysis
reconstraints and load conditions.
reveals that there are three alternate ways to
build one of these mechanisms.
In conslusion, we see that we can
If the connecting link (£ c ) is the shortest classify four-bar mechanisms by identifying
we will have a double-rocker. On the other the shortest link and testing inequalities

hand, if the input link is the shortest but 11.5 and 11.6.
 FOUR-BA R SUM MA R Y MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 1 1

MATERIALS
Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1

1 Lever arm 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub

2 Bearing plates with spacers
*1 Reverse link 2 in. long
2 Bearing holders with bearings
with bearings *1 Reverse link 3/4 in. long
2 Shaft hangers 1-1/2 in.
Steel rule 6 in. long
2 Shafts 4" X 1/4"
1

4 Collars

*For link construction details see appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1. Consider a mechanism having link lengths of:

C = 1.0 in. S = 2.0 in.

1 2

= .75 in. 6 = 2.0 in.

fi
0 C

physically possible. Show your work.

2. Test this mechanism to insure that it is

the discussion, classify the mechanism by type.

Show
3. Using the methods described in

your work and your conclusion.

construct a mechanism having the link lengths
4. Using components from the materials list,

specified in step 1.

Does agree with your classification?

5. Examine the operation of the mechanism. it

Stop at each critical position

6. Slowly go through one complete input motion cycle.
and make a sketch of the mechanism.
critical position.
7. Write three valid inequalities for each

through 7 for a mechanism having linkages of:

8. Repeat steps 1

= 1.0 in. fi
= 2 0in
- -
£., 2

£ = 1.5 in. fi = .75 in.

0 c

of:
9. Repeat steps 1 through 7 for a mechanism having linkages

= 1.0in. C = 2 0in - -
fi.,
2

£ = 2.5 in. fi = 2.0 in.

0 c

your results from this exercise you should consider which of

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing
Discuss
in analyzing the corresponding mechanism.
the inequalities you wrote would be useful
the critical positions.
any instability you observed in the mechanisms at

78
EXPERIMENT 1 1 FOUR-BA R SUMMA R Y MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROBLEMS
1. Write the twelve inequalities for the critical positions shown in figure 11-3.

2. Which of the inequalities in problem 1 simply state that one link must be shorter
than the sum of the remaining links?

3. Draw sketches showing four critical positions of a type II four-bar mechanism.

4. Repeat problem 1 for the mechanism in problem 3.

5. Repeat problem 2 for the mechanism in problem 3.

6. Which inequalities in problem 3 are the most useful in analyzing the mechanism?

7. Using your inequalities from problem 6, show that C

Q must be the shortest link

in a drag-link.

79
 FOUR-BAR PROBLEM
experiment
12
almost always designed to have specific input/output
INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms are

characteristics. In this experiment we shall examine one design approach which can be used
with double-rocker mechanisms.

To solve this problem we will invert the

DISCUSSION. A common problem in the

design of mechanisms is that of converting one mechanism by assuming that link £ 2 remains
fixed and rotate the frame (link £ 0 30
motion into another. Any type of
)
oscillatory
degrees counterclockwise.
four-bar mechanisms will accomplish this pur-
pose and this approach is usually the simplest
and most logical. assume the two levers
Let's

that are to rock are 8 inches apart and the

driving lever is 12 inches long. When the driv-
ing lever swings 20 degrees, we desire the

driven lever to swing 30 degrees.

The problem is to find the length of the

driven rocker and the length of the coupler

link. The given elements of the problem are
shown in figure 12-1. The driver link is

identified as link £-| and the distance between

the two rocker pivots is labeled link £ Q and is
shown as the frame. We will assume that the
position of the driven link, £ is
initial 2 ,

12-2 Double- Rocker Problem Solution

Fig.
parallel to link 8-j.

The position of point 0" will be in its

Pi
proper relationship to link £ 2 as if link c 2 nad

rotated 30 degrees clockwise. From this

point 0", link £•] is drawn in its second

position (angle 0-20 degrees).

Point in this "inverted" position

of link is labeled P"i as shown in figure

12-2. The next step is to connect point P-j to

point ?'\. You might note that point P-| is in

the proper relative position to link C 2 after

both links have rotated through their desig-
nated number of degrees.

The perpendicular bisector of line P-|-P"i

next drawn. On this line will be found the

Fig. 12-1 Double- Rocker Design Problems is

80
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 12 FOUR-BA R PROBL EM

center of any circle passing through the two

relative positions of P-j. Therefore, the
intersection of the line and link £
2
gives us

point P 2 ,
solving the linkage problem. The
completed mechanism shown in its two de-
sired positions is illustrated in figure 12-3. In

a practical situation the next step would be to

check the solution by assembling and trying
out the design.

Fig. 12-4 Reference Diagram for

Freudenstein's Equation

If we consider each of the links as a

vector, we know that the sum of the X

components must equal zero:

C
c
cos a - £-| cos 6 + £ 0 + C 2 cos 0 = 0

(12.1)

Fig. 12-3 Completed Double- Rocker Design Also, the sum of the Y components must
equal zero:
One of the most useful analytical equa-
tions for coordinating the motions of two C
c
sin a - «
1
sin 6 + £
2
sin 0 = 0 (12.2)

levers is the Freudenstein equation — named

for the engineer who derived it. The previous Squaring and rearranging equations 12.1 and
problem was solved using geometrical layout 1 2.2 gives the following expressions:
techniques, and with two positions of the
levers, this approach is fairly straightforward. 2 2
2
C
c
cos a= (K cos 0 - £ Q - £ 2 cos 0) (12.3)
Although you finish with only close approx- 1

imations, the geometrical approach is usually

2 2 2
£
c
sin a= sin 9 - £
2
sin 0) (12.4)
accurate enough for most purposes. In-

creasing demands for precision require that

a more analytical approach be taken. Expanding both sides of equations 12.3 and
12.4, then adding gives

Figure 12-4 shows a general layout for

any four-bar mechanism.
tions that we
The angular
are usually interested in are
posi-
V = K 2
1
+C o 2 +£ 2 2 " 2C 1 £ o cosd

those labeled 0 and 6. Angle a is labeled in - 22

2 C-|
cos0 cos0- 2C 2 e 1
the figure and is used in the derivation of the
sin 6 sin 0 - 22 £
2 Q
cos 0
Freudenstein equation.

81
 FOUR-BA R PROBL EM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 12

our problem we assumed a position

By rewriting this equation, we derive the In

for the driver link, now called link £), and

Freudenstein equation
we assume the driven link, now called link £
2

K1 cos 0 - K2 cos 0 + K3 = cos (0 - 0) (12.5) to be 2^ The initial angles

parallel to link

are: 6 = 100° and 0

= 1 10°. The movement
of link C-| is 20 degrees clockwise and we
where: movement of link £ 2
desired a corresponding
through 30 degrees. The second set of angular
Ki = V*1 positions is: 6 = 90° and 0 =
80°.

K 2 = £0/ fi
2
Substituting the first set of angles into
K 3 =(e 02+£ 2 2+e
2 - 2)/(2£ 2 e l)
the Freudenstein equation (12.5) gives
fi
c 1

This may be used to

equation solve cos 110° = -.34202

linkage mechanisms when you desire three K-, (cos 110) - K 2 (cos 110) + Kg
different positions of both of the rocker arms. = cos(110 - 110)
Three different angular positions inserted into = -0.34202K-,
equation 12.5 would give you three equations + 0.34202 K 2 + K3 = 1

in three unknowns. You can then solve for

K 2 and K 3 Knowing, or assuming, the And since K} = 0.66667, (K^ = £
0 /#i
Ki, , .

value of one length of a link permits the = 8/12), then

complete solution.
0.34202K 2 + K 3 = 1.22801 (12.6)

Let's use this equation to solve the

problem previously solved by geometric means. Using the second set of angular positions
Figure 12-5 restates the problem using the gives
linkage nomenclature used in Freudenstein's
equation. (0.66667) (cos 80) - K2 (cos 90) + K3

= (80-90)

From which we find that

K3 = 0.86904 (12.7)

Substituting equation 12.7 into 21.6 gives

K2 = 1.04955
110°©

Since K2 = fi
0 /£ 2

8
= 7.6223
2 1.04955
Fig. 12-5 Double- Rocker Problem Relabeled

82
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 12 FOUR-BAR PROBLEM

Using the expression for K3 given with equa- positions are known. This technique may
tion 12.5 determines that also be used to determine the mechanism if

= 10.358 three sets of angular relationships are given.

C
c
Inserting the corresponding values of 6 and 0
You can see that these values compare will give you three separate equations in the
rather closely with those determined by three unknowns, K-j, K 2 and K3. Applying ,

graphical means shown in figure 12-3. You these values to a known or to an assumed
now have a technique of determining quite linkage length will give the rest of the
accurately the lengths of linkages when angular mechanism dimensions.

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Dial indexes with mounts
2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Lever arm 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
4 Bearing holders with bearings 1 Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
2 Shafts 4" X 1/4" 1 Wire link (length determined by student)
2 Disk dials 1 Steel rule 6 in. long

PROCEDURE
1. A certain double-rocker application has an input link (£•]) of 2 in. and an output link (£
2 )

of 1 in. The two links are parallel when they are vertical. When the input link rotates
45° clockwise, the output link rotates 90°. Using the Freudenstein equation, determine
C
0 and £
c
. Record your results in the data table.

2. Verify graphically that your values are correct. Turn in your graphical verification with
your data.

3. Construct a straight wire link to use for fi . Construction details may be found in
c
Appendix A.

4. Assemble the mechanism.

5. Attach dials to the input and output shafts. Set them to indicate 90° when both lever
arms are pointing vertically upward.

6. Rotate the input dial clockwise in 5° steps. Record both input and output angle at each
point until you have covered the range specified in step 1.

7. Plot a curve of input versus output angular displacement.

8. Reset the dials and indexes so that they read 90° when the levers are pointing straight
down.

9. Repeat steps 6, and 7.

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In your analysis of these data you should discuss the extent to which the
mechanism satisfies the original requirements. Was the input to output relationship linear? Did
the two data runs agree with each other?

83
EXPERIMENT 12 FOUR-BAR PROBLEM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

=
«c

First Trial Second Trial

0 0 0 0

Fig. 12-6 The Data Table

PROBLEMS
1. What type of mechanism was used in the experiment?

2. Give three different practical uses for the double-rocker mechanism.

3. Show how equation 12.5 is obtained from the previous equation given in the

discussion of this experiment.

4. Using either graphical or analytical techniques, design a four-bar mechanism that

will place the follower lever through 15 degrees as the driver lever goes
through 26

degrees; then, as the driver lever goes another 33 degrees, the follower moves
through 1 1 degrees. In all cases the angular movement is in the clockwise direction.

84
 experiment / "\ SLIDER CRA N K M E C HA NI S M S

INTRODUCTION. Another type of four link mechanism commonly used in engines, pumps,
and compressors is the slider-crank mechanism. One application of this type mechanism that
you are familiar with is that of the piston and the crank shaft your automobile engine.
in In
this experiment we will examine the mechanical details of this mechanism.

DISCUSSION. Figure 13-1 shows four pos- other three alternatives have the block sliding
sible versions of a slider crank linkage. Sketch along a link but one of the other links is fixed.
(a) illustrates the common mechanism used in These alternatives will not be analyzed in this
engines and pumps where the guide or frame experiment but you will occasionally see
is fixed and the block moves along it. The them used in different applications.

Fig. 13-1 Different Versions of a Slider- Crank Linkage

85
 MECHANSIMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

TDC
BDC

SLIDING
BLOCK

Fig. 13-2 Slider Crank Notation

The crank mechanism, like most

slider
Figure 13-2 illustrates the
mechanism to
analyzed for
The connect- four link mechanisms, can be
be discussed in this experiment. graphical
is known as the
most practical purposes by using
ion to the sliding block
techniques. This usually consists of a scale
wristpin. The crank in figure 13-2 is labeled positions as well
labeled 0. drawing showing the extreme
and its center of rotation is
intermediate dimensions. The
at its travel farthest as known
When the wristpin is
upon the in-
center, said to be at appearance of the computer
away from the crank it is
made fairly complicated
dustrial scene has
When it is closest to the
top dead center. For example,
equations much easier to solve.
crank center, it be at bottom
is said to
expressing
you have a complicated equation
dead center. The difference between top if

the motion of the slider

crank involving
dead center
dead center (TDC) and bottom
severaltrigonometric functions, the computer
(BDC) known as the stroke. When the
is
solve this
can readily be programmed to
of motion as
crank center is on the same line of angular
from the crank equation for many small increments
the slider, the TDC position In just a few
displacement of the crank.
center equals programmed, the computer
minutes after it is

displacements,
TDC = + £ (13.1) can give you a tabulation of
£-i c
and accelerations. Let's look at
velocities,
slider
The position of the wristpin at BDC equals a way of analyzing the motion of the
block shown in figure 13-2.
(13.2)
BDC = K
c -2i As shown, we will let the ratio of the
the crank, t be
connecting rod, i
c,
to v
equals the difference between
The stroke equal to k; that is,

BDC expressed in equations

TDC and as

13.1 and 13.2

Stroke = TDC - BDC = + »c ) and since

h = £ 1 sin 0= 2 sin 0
-(K c -»i) = 2K 1 (13.3) C

86
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

then You can see that you can quite readily solve
equation 13.7 forgiven values of crank angular

= sin 8 displacement.
sin 0
(13.4)

Since the error is quite small, we shall

The movement of the slider, d, is
also use equation 13.7 to determine approx-
imate solutions to the slider velocity and
acceleration for given crank angle positions.
d = (£
c
+ «
1
)
- 8
1
cos 0 - £ c cos 0
The velocity of the slider equals the first
= (1 -cos0) + £ <1 -cosfl)
c derivative of 13.7, or

(13.5)

2
( ©\
Vp = a
£ioj( sin
'

0+ sin
/~*\

2k
1
) (13.8)
From trigonometry we know that cos 0

= yj\ - sin 2 0. Substituting the value of

sin 0 from equation 13.4 into this gives
and acceleration equals the first derivative of
equation 13.8, or the second derivation of
equation 13.7 which equals

cos0= v4l-^®)
k2
cos 20
ap = £ico 2 (cos 0 + (13.9)

Therefore, substituting into equation 13.5

In equation 13.8 and 13.9, co is the angular

d = C1 (1 - cos©)
velocity of the crank link. K«, and positive
values indicate counterclockwise rotation of
+ 8c ^1_ v /l-^) (13.6) link£•]. Corresponding positive values of Vp
and ap indicate that the velocity or acceleration
is toward the crank center 0.
Although equation 13.6 does give an exact
expression for the slider displacement, it is
As the crank rotates, the connecting rod
difficult to use this for many values of the
will oscillate around point ?2, first in a
crank angle, 0, without the use of a computer.
clockwise and then in a counterclockwise
A close approximation to equation 13.6 is
direction. Normally the linkage (fi c will )
more commonly used and the error is quite
have an angular velocity and an angular
small. It should be noted that the slider dis-
acceleration. Keeping in mind that both
placement, d, is measured from TDC and is
velocity and acceleration are vector quantities,
considered positive in these equations.
the relative motion is the difference in motion
between two points. Velocity at point P-j

2
and point P-j with respect to point P2 is

d^«! h
(1-cos0) +\^- sin
2
0 (13.7)
found by
V P!P ~ V PiO ~ V P
2 20

87
 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 13

"P P
1 2

Vp p2
= Vp 1°" Vp 2°
1

Fig. 13-3 Slider Block Velocities

Another item that is of frequent interest

This relationship is shown in figure 13-3.
is maximum velocity of the slider and
the just

where this maximum velocity occurs. A

Knowing the directions and two of the
simple formula has been developed which
values, you can use graphical techniques as
possesses accuracy sufficient for most purposes
shown in the preceding figure to solve the
so long as the ratio of lengths between
various velocities. However, there are more
The following £ and £j (£,,/«! = k) is greater than 1.5. This
accurate analytical methods. c
formula gives the crank angle 0 present when
formulas are exact equations for calculating
the slider reaches maximum velocity:
the angular velocity and acceleration of the
connecting rod.
1
0= arc cos
1/2
(13.12)
(k 2 + 3)
" P1 p = ^
CO COS 0 (13.10)
2 2 - sin 2 0) 1/2
(k
This equation is accurate to within one minute
of the correct angle when the ratio £
c
/£-|

2 2 is 4.0.
= co (k - 1) sin©
(13.11)
°v 2 (k
2 - sin 2
0)
2/3 Formulas 13.1 through 13.12 will enable

aspects of existing
you to analyze nearly all

slider crank mechanisms. It might be wise to

When you solve the angular velocity of the
briefly discuss the offset slider crank mech-
connecting rod (link £ c ), you can then de-
anism before concluding this discussion. This
termine the velocity of the rod at point P-\ by
situation is illustrated in figure 13-4. In this

v Pl p 2 = ec xco Pl p figure the offset distance is indicated by the

2
letter "y". Right triangle solutions give the

remembering that angles are measured in expressions indicated for the distances shown

radians and not degrees. in the diagram.

88
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

I n figure 1 3-4 the angle of the crank when You can see from the figure also that the
the slider is at TDC is designated as 0
2
wm,e following relationships are true;
at BDC it is 0 1 . You can see that the motion of
the slider does not occur simply as the crank
0 =arcsin
rotates 180 degrees. Motion of the slider as it
1 fi^T£j
moves to the right begins when link £•] is

located at the upper arm of angle 0, and ends 02 = arc sin j^L-
when the crank is at the lower arm of the
angle 0
2 . we ca " this angular displacement
It is obvious that the offset distance, y, must
of the crank 0p and the angular displacement
be less than the distance 5 - fi-j for this
of the crank for the left motion of the slider C
mechanism to function. It bears repeating
then we see
that graphical drawings to scale of mecha-
9R = 180° + d<i
-0 2 nisms will often be sufficient for practical
purposes. As with all engineering type prob-
and
lems, the sketch can serve as a check on
0L = 180° -d } +0 2 your analytical computations.

89
EXPERIMENT 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Disk dial
2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Dial index with mount
*
2 Bearing mounts with bearings 1 Wire loop link 3 in. long
2 Shafts 4" X 1/4" in. 1 Steel rule 6 in. long
4 Collars 1 Spacer No. 6X1/8 in. long X 1/32 in.

2 Shaft hangers with bearings wall thickness

1 Lever arm 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub 1 Screw 6-32 X 1/4 in. round head
1 Rigid shaft coupling

•For details of wire link construction see appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to be sure they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 13-5.

3. Turn the lever shaft several times to insure that the slider moves freely. It may be de-
sirable to lubricate the slider shaft.

4. Adjust the bearing plate assembly so that the lever shaft and the slider shaft are the
same height above the breadboard.

5. Set the lever arm so that it is pointing directly toward the slider, then set the disk dial
to read zero.

6. Lay the steel rule across the shaft hangers so that its zero end lines up with the end of the
slider shaft. Tape the rule in place if necessary.

7. Starting at zero on the dial, record the lever angle (0) and the slider displacement (X)
every 20° for a complete revolution of the lever.

8. Measure and record the lengths of the lever arm (£] ) and coupling link (C
c ).

9. For each data point (0, X) compute and record the distance (d) that the slider has
moved from TDC.

10. Using the lengths of the lever and wire link, compute and record the value of K for this
mechanism.

11. Use equation 13.6 and your values of©, 2 1# fi , and K to calculate d for each data point.
c

90
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

Fig, 13-5 The Experimental Mechanism

91
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

examining the results from this experiment you should make a detailed
ANALYSIS GUIDE. In
displacement (d).
values of the slider
comparison of the measured and computed

in the experiment.
how the mechanism acted at the critical positions encountered
Also discuss

If so, why did it do it?

the slider to rotate on its shaft?
Did you observe any tendency of
Would rotation affect the results?

Fig. 13-6 The Data Tables

92
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 13 SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

PROBLEMS
1. List at least one practical application of each of the four inversions of the slider

block mechanism shown in figure 13-1.

2. An crank mechanism has a crank length of 2 inches and a connecting

in-line slider

rod length of 8 inches. The crank turns counterclockwise at 480 RPM. Find the
following values when the crank is at 60 degrees (zero degrees is at the horizontal
position when the slider is at TDC.)
a. Slider displacement in inches

b. Slider velocity in ft/sec.

2
c. Slider acceleration in ft/sec.
d. Connecting rod angular velocity in rad/sec.
2
e. Connecting rod angular acceleration in rad/sec.

f. The crank angle giving maximum slider velocity in radians and in degrees.

3. A sliding block mechanism has a 2-inch crank and a 6-inch connecting rod. The
stroke line of the slider horizontal and located 2 inches above the center of
is

the crank. Make a neat, scale drawing of this mechanism and determine the

length of the stroke in inches. Then, assume the crank rotates constant at 120 RPM
and determine the time in seconds for the forward and the return stroke. The crank
is rotating in a clockwise direction.

93
 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I
experiment
14
differ-
INTRODUCTION. In various types of machines we often desire that there be a definite
one direction and the return movement. When
this is
ence between the time of a movement in

called a quick-return mechanism. In this

experiment we will
the case, the mechanism we use is
motion.
examine some methods of obtaining a quick-return

tively small. We frequently want a greater

DISCUSSION. When only a small time differ-
time differential than is possible with this par-
ence is required in a forward and return
crank mechanism can ticular type of mechanism. The ratio 0/0 is
stroke, an offset slider
known as the ratio of time of advance to time
be employed. You can see by the mechanism
of return. can determine this ratio if we
We
illustrated in figure 14-1, there is a difference
know the offset distance and the lengths of
in the two strokes of the sliding block. With
links and £ by using the trigonometric
the crank link £j rotating counterclockwise, c
relationship between them.
the slider will move from TDC to BDC
while

the crank goes through an angle, 0.

The re-
mechanism that will give us a larger
A
turn stroke will be through a larger angle,
0.

is constant,
time difference between advance and return
If the crank angular velocity u>

BDC to TDC takes a motions is the drag link slider shown in figure
then the motion from known
14-2. This type mechanism is better
longer interval of time. However, the time
mechanism is always rela- as the Whitworth quick-return mechanism.
difference in this

STROKE -

BDC TDC

Fig. 14- 1 Offset Sliding Block Quick-Return

94
 .

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 14 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

CRANK CIRCLE

Fig. 14-2 Whitworth Quick-Return Fig. 14-3 Whitworth Quick Return

Mechanism with 2: 1 Ratio

In the Whitworth quick-return, the small Let's assume that you wish to have a

link, £
0 , is fixed. A slider is attached to the mechanism take twice as long to return as to
The follower, £ 2 provides the
driver link, i^. /
advance. This means that you want to have
output motion. The motion from the left to angle 0 be double the value of angle 0. Since

the right occurs as link £•) travels through 0 + 0 equals 360 degrees, then 0 would be
angle © and the return motion is through equal to 240 degrees and 0 would be equal to
angle 0. As you can see in figure 14-2, angles 120 degrees. Knowing this, plus either the

6 and 0 are made by crank £•) when £ 2 s n ' '

length of the crank or of the distance £ Q ,

the horizontal position. You can see that we can construct the desired mechanism. Let's
angle 0 is equal to assume that we know the length of the crank.
Figure 14-3 shows the layout necessary. We
0=180° + 2a (14.1) arbitrarily select a rotation point for the crank
on the frame. Then we draw a vertical line

where a is arc sin £

0 /£-|.
In other words, if we through this point. Next an angle of 240 de-

know the distance between the crank center grees is drawn symmetrical to thisvertical line.
and the driven link center (J2
0 ), and the length This locates the positions of crank J2-| on the
of the crank we can find the time of circumference of the crank circle. Location
travel in one direction by using equation 14.1 of the pivot for the driven crank £2 is found
and by knowing the angular velocity of crank by the intersection of a line between these

*V two circumference positions and the vertical

line through 62 s pivot. We now have a mech-
The end of the follower, 2 2 , can De con " anism giving a 0/0 ratio of 2 to 1

nected to whatever mechanism you wish to

drive. The ratio of 0 to 0 will give the time- In the mechanism shown in figure 14-2,

of-advance to time-of-return relationship. if the crank takes three seconds to make

95
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 14 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

Fig. 14-4 Crank Shaper Quick Return Mechanism

at a the cutting tool is idle in the reverse or non-

one complete revolution and is turning made as
wiM cutting direction, this operation is
constant speed, then the output link £ 2
hori- quick as possible. We will assume that the
take two seconds to rotate from its left

crank counterclockwise direc-

will rotate in a
zontal position to its right horizontal position.
Crank
120 degrees tion with a constant angular velocity.
And since the crank rotates only
will make a complete revolution
and the
starting position, the out- £
for the return to its 1

follower arm will oscillate. We will

also as-
return t0
put crank £ 2 wi » take one second t0 both the fol-
sume that the zero position of
horizontal position. You can see that
its left crank
lower arm and the crank is with the
aWhitworth quick return mechanism can give the fol-
pointing downward and, of course,
you almost any time difference you want. You can see
lower arm in its center position.

by the skeleton drawing that our angles 0 and

The device shown in figure 14-4 is a com- to
You 6 can be determined by drawing tangents
monly used quick-return mechanism. point of the
move the cut- the crank circle from the pivot
will see this technique used to from
one direction follower arm. Then we can draw a line
ting tool of a shaper that cuts in tangency.
Since the crank pivot to these points of
only and is idle in the return direction.

96
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 14 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

The follower moves left through angle © and or

back to the right through angle 8. Since the

x #i
sina
crank is rotating at a constant speed, the fol- =
move to the left because 2£-| +h + d (h + fi.,) -« cosa
lower takes longer to 1

angle © is larger than angle 0. The relative

time of motion in the two directions is again Thus:

0/0.

(2£ 1 +h + d)(fi
1
sin a)

The sketch on the left in figure 14-4 is (h + £.,) - cosa

typical of the application of this type mecha-
nism. The crank £•] rotates and the slider in
arm OP is caused to translate and oscillate You will notice that equation 14.2 gives x as
about pivot point 0. Point P moves from ex- a function of a. Also note that K-p h, and d in

treme right to extreme left as crank £] moves the right member of this equation are con-
from A' to A". The return movement is much stants. Equation 14.2 is the equation for the
faster. Let's see if we can calculate the dis- displacement of point P from its mid-position.
placement of point P.

To find the velocity of point P you can

We position with the displacement equation. The
Q be the zero
will let P differentiate

movement to the right as positive. We second derivative of this equation will give

will measure the angular displacement of £•] the equation for the acceleration of point P.

from the bottom position as indicated by the Both the velocity and the acceleration are
position of a and crank position CA. Further, useful parameters when analyzing a practical

we will let the distance from the line of device such as a shaper cutting tool.
movement of P to the upper point of the crank
circle be d. The distance from the crank
circle to 0 will be h. P 0 P, we will call x. Once values are inserted for a, d and h,
the derivatives of equation 14.2 are easy to
obtain. The first derivative of equation 14.2
Take an arbitrary position of the crank
will be dx/da. But the velocity we wish to
#1 and draw a perpendicular to the vertical
obtain is dx/dt. If we remember the following
centerline BA. Then we know that
relationship, we have little difficulty obtaining
dx/dt:

AB = £•] sin a

OB = OC + CB = + + cosa) _ dx _ dx da _
w dx
(h . .

VP " " (14.3)

dt da dt " da

You can see in figure 14-4 that triangles OAB

and OPP 0 are similar; thus Using the relationships in equation 14.3
we simply multiply the first derivative of equa-

!o_
p
AB tion 14.2 by the angular velocity of crank £-j

p
o0 OB to obtain the velocity of point P.

97
 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 14 I

Another type of quick return mechanism can be found by making a scale drawing of

more conventional four-bar arrange- the mechanism. It is not uncommon for the
employs a
ratio 0/0 to be as smal as 1 1 0.
ment. Figure 14-5 shows an example of such
I :

an arrangement. The four-bar mechanism is a

In some applications two or more quick-
drag-link assembly and the stroke of the block
return mechanisms are used in tandem to pro-
is limited as shown in figure 14-6. The actual
duce a compound 0/0 ratio.
length of the stroke and the time ratio 0/0

WMMMMMMMfflr

Fig. 14-5 A Four-Bar Quick Return Mechanism

Fig. 14-6 Stroke of Four-Bar Quick-Return

98
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 14 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Disk dial

2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Dial index and mount

2 Shaft hangers with bearings 1 Rigid coupling

4 Bearing holders with bearings 1 Screw 6-32 x 1/4 roundhead

2 Shafts 2" x 1/4" 1 Spacer #6x1/8 in. long x 1/32 in.

wall thickness
1 Shaft 4" x 1/4"
1 Steel rule 6 in. long
4 Collars
*1 Wire reverse link 2 in. long
2 Lever arms 1 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hubs
*1 Wire loop link 3 in. long
1 Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
•For details of wire link construction refer to appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect your components to be sure they are undamaged.

2. Construct the bearing plate assembly shown in figure 14-7.

DIAL
1" LEVER

J]
2" WIRE 1" LEVER
0
3 0 LINK

h-r0j l® 0
2" LEVER
3 1/2"

2 3/4"

Fig. 14-7 The Bearing Plate Assembly

99
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 14 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

Fig. 14-8 The Experimental Mechanism

as shown in figure 14-8. Also mount

Mount the bearing plate assembly on the breadboard
3.

the dial index assembly.

operates freely. Lubricate the
4. Rotate the dial several times to insure that the mechanism

4-in. shaft if necessary.

so that it points just opposite
5 Adjust the 1-in. lever arm that is outside the bearing plate
should be approximately horizontal
when the 1-m.
to the 2-in. lever arm. These two arms

input lever points vertically downward.

In this position, adjust the

dial
slider at top dead center.
Set the mechanism so that the
is
6.

and index to read zero.

zero end lines up with the
Lay the 6-in. steel rule across the slider shaft hangers so that its
7.
Tape in position if necessary.
end of the shaft. it

dial angle (0) and the slider

dial, measure and record the
8 Starting with zero degrees on the
revolution in the clockw.se d,rect,on.
placement (X) every 20 degrees for one full dial
revolution in the counterclockwise direction.
9. Repeat step 8 for one full dial

the four-bar mechanism (£ v « 0 8 C

and E 2 ><
Measure and record the length of each
link in , ,

10.
the slider-crank mechanism.
1 1 . Measure and record the lengths (*,, ^ and O of the links in

of the slider-crank mechanism.

12. Measure and record the stroke (S)

100
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 14 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

13. Adjust the 1 -in. lever that drives the slider so that it is pointing in the same direction as
the 2-in. lever.

14. Repeat steps 8 and 9. Record the data as 0' and X'.

8'
*o
c
c h x
c
x
o S

Clockwise Counterclockwise Clockwise Counterclockwise

0 X 0' 0'
e X X' X'

Fig. 14-9 The Data Table

101
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 14 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

for each set of 0 and

of these data you should plot a curve
ANALYSIS GUIDE In your analysis
of slider travel from TDC to BDC
and from BDC to TDC.
X On^the cu^e identify the regions
the four modes of operation.
Determine the ratio of time of advance to time of return for

PROBLEMS
showing why equation 14.1 is true.
1. Make a sketch
the
equation 14.2, make a scale drawing of
2 Using figure 14-4 as a guide and using
'
Then, assuming a crank angular ve oc-
mechanism having the following dimensions.
velocity of point P and the accelerat.on
ityof 4tt radians per second, compute the
of point P when a is 330 degrees.

Crank C-]- 1.25 in.

d = 0.25 in.

h = 0.75 in.

How much time does it take for P to move in

3. In problem 2 what is the 0/0 ratio?

each direction?
reached by P? What is the maximum
4. In problem 2 what is the maximum velocity
acceleration? Where, with respect to a,
do these occur?

of quick-return mechanisms.
5. List five practical applications

102
 experiment TRANSLATION AL CAMS
15
INTRODUCTION. Changes movements are common place happenings in mechanisms and
in

machinery. One method of changing movement, such as changing from rotary to up-and-down,
is through the use of a cam. In this experiment we shall investigate some basic features of cam

action with concentration on translational-type cams.

DISCUSSION. A cam is usually a plate or Serving this purpose, cams have been said to
cylinder which transfers motion to a follower be the brains of the automatic machinery in

by means of its edge or by a groove cut in its use today. They are responsible for the
surface. A cam can be a projection on a various motions of the many individual ma-
revolving shaft or a projection on a revolving chine parts.
wheel. It may be a sliding piece or a groove
All cam mechanisms can be separated into
which imparts on oscillating motion to the
three distinctive parts: the driving link or
follower. Or, in some cases, the cam does
cam; the driven link or follower; and the
not move at all but rather imparts a change in
fixed link providing support or frame. As
motion to a contacting part that is moving.
you might suspect, there are many ways of
calssifying and categorizing cams and cam
Cams seldom transmit power in the followers. Figure 15-1 illustrates cams class-

sense that gear trains do. They are most often ified as plate or disk; cylindrical; translational;
utilized to modify a mechanical motion. and face cams.

TRANSLATION A L CAM FACE CAM

Fig. 15-1 Classifications

103
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 15 TRA NSLA Tl ONA L CAMS

illustrations you The vertical axis represents the position

By examining these
to the times
one complete rev-
that for of the follower corresponding
should notice
makes marked on the horizontal axis. n other words, I

olution of most cams, the follower

are plotting follower displacement
(ver-
path. we
one complete trip out and back over its
tically) against cam positions (horizontally).
The position of the follower at any
instant
In the If we the vertical distance, y, and the
call
depends upon the shape of the cam.
horizontal position, x, then we have
the
practical design of cams an angular velocity
familiar mathematical expression: y = f(x).
ratio is not directly involved, but the follower
of positions while The value of y depends upon the value of x,
must be in a definite series
or, the position of the follower
depends upon
the cam occupies a corresponding series of
the cam position.
positions.

usually To illustrate this technique, let's suppose

The study of cam mechanisms is

of the that we have a machine that includes a

done graphically because it is the path Moreover, suppose that
that we pinion-driven rack.
follower and the amount of its motion working with
common forms the rack is 6 inches long. In
are interested in. The most need a motion
are uniform, this machine we find that we
of motion desired in the follower
that starts after the rack has moved 2
inches.
de-
harmonic, and uniform acceleration and rack rate and
cam, the This motion is to be at 1/2 the
celeration. In the planning of a
of must stop after the rack has traveled a total
initial position, length of stroke, character
of 5 inches. A translational cam can be used.
motion, and direction of motion of the
follower are usually known. The angular
To lay out this cam, we first mark the
the
motion of the cam and the location of
of the start and end points at 2 and 5 inches
cam axis with regard to the location
respectively on a piece of cam
material
follower are also known. The problem re-
shown in figure 15-2.
cam (plastic, steel, etc.) as
mains to determine the shape of the at the
desired follower Then we choose a reasonable margin
profilethat will produce the
bottom of the cam so that it can be mounted
motion.
to the rack. Let's sayabout 1 inch will be
sufficient. We mark off this margin as shown
In this experiment we will use a trans-

shown the lower in the figure.

itional cam like the one in

left of figure 15-1. In this case the cam Now, the follower must be a point
moves back and forth horizontally and the follower and will ride along the top edge of
follower moves up and down. to move-up-
the cam. And we don't want it

2-inch
planning a particular translational and-down before the rack reaches the
In
the
displacement graph is very useful. mark so we make the cam flat from zero to
cam, a
horizontal axis usually related to cam 2-inch mark.
The is

on
motion starting at some "zero" position
position From 2 inches to 5 inches we want the
the left and proceeding to the
final
that the
In our first attempt we will follower to move up at half the rate
on the right.
rack moves. Since the rack will move 3
inches,
arbitrarily mark the horizontal axis to indicate
the follower must move half that
much or
relative positions of the slide. For a constant
We mark this 1-1/2
axis rep- 1-1/2 inches upward.
speed of operation, this horizontal horizon-
inches above the margin at 5 inches
resents time.

104
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 15 TRANSLA TIONA L CAMS

77777777771

1-1/2 IN.

MARGIN LEFT FOR

MOUNTING THE CAM

Fig. 15-2 Laying out the Cam

tally. Then, we just connect the 2 in. and straight line sloping upward, the equation
5 in. points with a straight line. for such a line is

Finally, since the follower is not to move

y= Mx + b
in a vertical direction from 5 to 6 inches, we
complete the cam profile with a flat line in
where M is the slope and b is the y-axis
this region.
intercept. Since the line rises 1-1/2 inches
We can describe this cam analytically over a run of 3 inches, the slope is

with a set of three conditional equations. To

get these equations we divide the cam into
= rise 1% 1
M run
the three straight line regions of rack (or cam)
displacement. If we call the cam displacement
x, then the regions are: Then, since at x = 2, y must equal zero, we
have
1. Fromx = 0tox = 2 (0< x < 2)
2. Fromx = 2tox = 5 (2<x<5)
y Mx + b
3. From x = 5tox = 6 (5<x<6)
o (1/2)2 + b
o 1 + b
In the first region the cam height y
-1 b
(this is also the follower position) is constant
at the reference level which we shall call zero.
Consequently, the conditional equation for
So, in this region we can use the conditional
this region is
equation,

y = 0 0<x<2 y=-^-x-1 2<x<5

In the second interval that follows a Finally, in the third region y is a constant

105
 TRANSLATIONAL CAMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 15

unknown, then we can find it with

1-1/2 inches above the reference level, so but y is

y= 1 - 1/2 5<x<6 y = 2rsinf (15.2)

is the conditional equation for this region.

which is, of course, equation 15.1 solved for y.

Using these methods we can get equations

Inexperiment a translational cam
this
which describe any linear cam profile.
will be used to produce angular
motion by

used to allowing the follower to move around a pivot

In some cases the follower is
point. We will let gravity hold the cam
produce angular displacements by allowing With slow-
arm follower in position on the cam.
the follower to operate through a lever
moving machinery work this will satisfactorily;
about a pivot. In such a case the relationship
however, sudden changes in cam profile would
the angular displacement (0) of
between The sudden
cause problems at higher speeds.
lever arm and the cam profile displacement
changes would impart an inertial
in profile
(y) is
force to the follower (F = ma) and probably
cause it to "bounce" and lose contact with

0 = 2 sin'
1
(15.1) the cam. Various methods are used to avoid
-|p
this situation in high-speed cams. The primary
technique used is to avoid sudden changes in

of the lever arm. the cam profile. Other methods include the
where r is the length
use of cam-follower springs and constrained

the other hand, we know 0 and r motion such as that employed by a face cam.
On if

MATERIALS
Disk dial
Breadboard with legs and clamps
1
1
1 Dial index with mount
2 Bearing plates with spacers
Dial caliper (0- 4 in.)
3 Shafts 1/4X4 in. long 1

1 1-1/2 in. X 9 in. piece of sheet metal

6 Bearing holders with bearings
approx. 0.05 in. thick
8 Collars
long with 1/4 bore hub 1 Pair sheet metal shears
1 Lever arm 2 in. in.

cam follower approx. 1/4 in. C 1 Steel rule 6 in. long

1 Roller type

PROCEDURE
that they are undamaged.
1 . I nspect each of your components to insure
5-3.
2. On a piece of sheet metal lay out the translational cam shown in figure 1

3. Carefully cut out the cam.

figure 15-4. Mount the cam support

4 Construct the bearing plate assembly shown in
the right of the bearing plate center. Mount
shafts about 3-1/2 in. apart somewhat to
the follower shaft as high as possible.
Measure and record the length of the follower

lever arm.

106
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 15 TRA NSLA TIONA L CAMS

LEADING CORNER
OF THE CAM

[*-flN.~U-1 IN.

Fig. 15-3 The Experimental Cam

COLLAR

CAM WILL
BE INSERT-
ED HERE

Fig. 15-4 The Bearing Plate Assembly

107
EXPERIMENT 1 5 TRA NSLA TIONA L CA MS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

5. Mount the bearing plate assembly on the spring balance stand.

6. Insert the cam, leading corner from the left

first, side of the bearing plate assembly

so that it rests on the cam support shafts between the pairs of collars.

7. Adjust the collar pairs so that they will hold the cam upright.

Position the cam so that the center of the roller follower is resting against the leading
8.

corner of the cam.

9. Adjust the follower dial for zero reading. Put a reference mark on the side of the cam
directly below the center of the roller follower.

10. Move cam approximately 1/4 in. Measure and record both the cam displacement
the (x)

and the angle through which the cam follower dial has rotated (0).

11. Repeat step ten in increments of approximately 1/4 in. until you reach the trailing

corner of the cam.

12. Return the cam to its original starting position (as in step 8) and repeat steps 9, 10, and

1 1 two more times.

1 3. Using the data from the three cam passes, compute and record the average values of x and
0 for each set of data.

First Pass Second Pass Third Pass Average Values

X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0

Length of follower lever arm r =

Fig. 15-5 The Data Table

108
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMEN T 1 5 TRA NSLA TIONA L CA MS

ANALYSIS GUIDE. From the data obtained, plot a graph using the transverse cam position as
the abscissa and the cam-follower angle as the ordinate. Compare your results with the physical
layout of the cam. From your graph, compute the change in angle for each change in horizontal
distance. For each of these compute the ratio "delta y/delta x". Write the equations for the
lines represented by your graph. Summarize the function of a transverse cam and give at least
three practical uses of this type cam action.

PROBLEMS
1. If the mathematical equation for the motion of a transverse cam y = 3x + 4, how
is

many units will the cam follower move vertically for each unit of motion of the
horizontal cam? (Hint: Use the first derivative of the equation, or make a quick
plot of its graph.)

2. In the discussion three common forms of cam motion are mentioned: uniform,
harmonic, and uniformly accelerated and decelerated motions. Draw a sketch of
each type of motion. If necessary, look this up in a mechanical engineer's handbook.

3. What meant by the expression "cam-follower pressure angle"? What is the max-
is

imum pressure angle that you would expect to be used in practical cam designs?
Was this point illustrated in this experiment? Explain and discuss.

4. The graph used in this experiment is known as a displacement graph. By what

other name is the ratio dy/dx (change in displacement with respect to time) known?

5. Assume that the cam you used moved from the leading corner to the trailing corner
in two seconds at a uniform velocity. What is the cam-follower's velocity vertically

when the cam has moved 2 inches? Express your answer in both mm/sec and in
ft/sec.

6. Layout a 6-inch cam profile that will satisfy the following conditional equations:

V 1/4 x 0<x<2
V 1/2 2<x<3
y 1/3 x -1/2 3<x<5
y 1-1/6 5<x<6
7. Describe in your own words the cam follower motion that would result from the
cam profile in problem 6.

109
 DISK CAMS
experiment
16
cam which also sometimes ca led
popular type of cam the disk is
is
INTRODUCTION. The most oscillating
into reciprocating or
the plate cam. With type of cam, rotary motion is translated
this
motions will be
will be constructed and its resulting
motion. In this experiment a basic disk cam

examined.

often used on rapidly rotating

shafts. Any
DISCUSSION. The cam shown in figure 16-1

disk or plate sudden change in motion requires a sudden

is commonly referred
to as a
This results in a violent
contact with a application of force.
type cam. Its outer edge is in

take-up of bearing-slack with consequent

noise,
cam follower. In this case the cam follower
wear, and vibration. A better
approach would
the cam
has a roller which makes contact with
of the ex-
Further, the cam follower is limited be to gradually ease into and out
profile.
treme cam follower positions rather than
at-
by the frame so it can move only vertically.
direction or
tempting to abruptly change its

movement. An illustration of this is found

The follower moves upward as the cam
approaches
(de- in the shape of a sinewave as it
rotates from its initial or zero position
leaves
maximum excursion and as it it.

fined as position closest to the cam center)

to its

With this type of motion, a cam follower

its maximum or total displacement position
displace-
downward as the cam returns to the ini- would gradually approach its total
and in the
begin travel
The follower of a
position. disk cam is ment position and slowly
tial
At low speeds this leads
said to be opposite direction.
"pushed" upward by the cam; it is

to the type of motion that

used is commonly
constrained by the cam. However, its down-
motion.
with disk cams - simple harmonic
ward motion must be furnished by gravity, a
spring, or another mechanism.
When a cam follower has simple har-

monic motion, its velocity slowly increases

Although disk cams are frequently used obtains maxi-
from zero in its initial position;
also
relatively slow mechanisms, they are
in
mum velocity midway between zero and its

maximum displacement, then slowly decreases

to zero. A displacement graph of this type
motion is shown in figure 16-2.
'////////A WZZM
The motion illustrated in figure 16-2 is
various por-
CAM FOLLOWER the same motion described by
tions of a sine (or a cosine) curve
from its low-

est to highest point. You may remember that

equal to the
a sine wave's ordinate value (y) is

vertical distance for a specific

number of de-

grees as measured on the diameter of a unit

to
circle. This basic principle will be used
generate a displacement graph having har-

Disk Cam monic motion.

Fig. 16-1

110
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 16 DISK CAMS

Let's assume that you want a cam fol-

lower to move with harmonic motion from its
initial position through a distance of 1-1/4 in.

Further, to be practical, let's plot the posi-

tion of the cam follower corresponding to
each 30° rotation of the cam. Since the same
motion will be followed going down as in 2tt

going up, it is only necessary to determine

what the displacement will be for one-half of
Fig. 16-2 Simple Harmonic Motion-
the cam rotation.
Displacement Graph

The first step in laying out a cam is to dius with the circle circumference is located.
draw the displacement diagram. This diagram A line from that point is projected to the ver-
can be drawn to full scale or to appropriate tical diameter. This gives the distance the
scale if full scale is impractical. The horizon- cam-follower is to move after each 30° of ro-
tal axis will represent degrees of rotation of tation of the cam. At the appropriate point
the cam. The vertical axis will represent the along the horizontal axis, this vertical distance
displacement of the follower. As shown in is marked. For example, in figure 16-3, the
figure 16-3, the vertical axis is drawn to full vertical distance from 0 to 1 on the circle di-
scale - the maximum displacement desired is ameter is the distance indicated on the dis-

1-1/4 in. The horizontal scale was arbitrarily placement graph for the 30° position. And,
selected. Next, a circle is drawn with a diam- the distance from 0 to 2 is the distance for
eter equal to the maximum displacement: in the 60° position. In a similar fashion, the
this case, a diameter of 1-1/4 in. displacement graph is marked with a series
of points corresponding to each 30 degrees
The circle is divided into 30° angles as of cam rotation. The final step is to draw a

shown. The intersection of the 30° angle ra- smooth curve through these points (fig. 16-3).

— 90 1 3

30° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Fig. 1&3 Harmonic Motion Cam Displacement

111
EXPERIMENT 16 DISK CAMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOLLOWER

MINIMUM CAM RADIUS

PRIME CIRCLE

!CAM /
\ 'CENTER^

Fig. 16-4 First Steps in Cam Layout

Now the question is how to get this dia- Still referring to figure 16-5, use the

gram of the desired motion onto an actual cam center of the cam, C, as a center and mark on
layout. The first step is to select the center the radial lines the distance from the cam
point of our cam layout and to draw a vertical center as indicated by the mark on the cam
line through this point. Then, at a distance follower for each 30 degrees of rotation.

which equals the smallest radius of the cam, The arcs drawn on the radial lines give us the

the cam follower is drawn. These first steps center position of the follower. Draw the
are shown in figure 16-4. The next step in the follower circles. You can think of this

cam layout is to draw the prime circle. This is procedure as holding the cam still and ro-

a circle with a radius from the cam center to tating the followeraround it. The cam
the center of the cam follower. The prime profile is a smooth curve drawn tangent to
circle is shown as a dotted line in figure 16-4. these roller positions.

As shown in figure 16-5, the prime circle Another method of determining the

is divided into 30° segments, corresponding to roller center on a particular radial line (for
the 30° points of the displacement graph illus- example, on the 150° radial line) would be
trated in figure 16-3. to draw the prime circle outward on the 150°
radial.

Next, using the roller center as the

"0"
mark the displacements indicated on Complications can occur with roller fol-
position,
16-3 along lowers if there is a rapid change in the cam
the displacement graph in figure

the center line of the follower. For conven- profile. In many cases the point of contact of
the roller is not on the center line of the fol-
ience we usually label these distances. The
30° divisions of the cam are labeled. Assum- lower. Figure 16-6 illustrates a typical roller

cam rotation to be the clock- follower in contact with a cam. The force felt
ing that the is in

wise direction, the degrees of rotation are by the roller is perpendicular to the surface of
marked in the counterclockwise direction. contact and acts along the normal to that sur-

112
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 16 DISK CAMS

180
210

BASE CIRCLE PRIME CIRCLE

CAM PROFILE

Fig. 16-5 Cam Layout, Roller Follower, Harmonic Motion

face. Naturally, there will be a component of

thisforce along the center line of the cam-
follower. The rest of the normal force is felt
perpendicular to the PRESSURE ANGLE
cam follower center line
as shown.

The term pressure angle FORCE COMPONENT

is illustrated in NORMAL ALONG FOLLOWER
figure 16-6. It is the angle between the fol-
FORCE
CENTER LINE
lower center line and the normal force line. LATERAL FORCE
The importance of this angle
COMPONENT
is its relationship
CAM PROFILE
to the lateral force component. If this lateral POINT OF
force becomes too large, the roller will jam. CONTACT
Looking at figure 16-6, you can see that the
lateral force component is

f (x) = F sin 6

Thus, the lateral force varies directly with the Fig. 16-6 Cam Roller Forces
size of the pressure angle. We try to keep this
and Pressure Angle

113
 DISK CAMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
EXPERIMENT 16

positions, itwould be parallel to the cam pro-

pressure angle as small as possible, but
this
file and called the prime curve.
means making the roller large in diameter to
is

increase the distance between cam and roller

In some applications the cam follower is
centers. Or, the cam diameter can be in-

located at the end of the lever arm that is

creased with the same result. However, the
by pivoted about a point as shown in figure 16-7.
size of the cam and cam roller are limited

considerations and a compromise In such a case the angular displacement of the

practical
follower arm (0) is related to the vertical dis-
must be reached. In most of today's appli-
placement of the follower by
cations, followers will generally handle
pres-

sure angles up to about 30 degrees.

This
much
0 = 2sin-i(£)
means that the lateral force could be as

as one-half the normal force imposed upon or

the cam roller, (f (x) = F sin 6).
n
y = 2r sin"2
Again referring to figure 16-5, you can
where the length of the follower arm.
observe that the point of contact between the
r is

roller and the cam profile is not

always the
on a cam radius line. From Disk type cams are also frequently used
same point lying
to trip a microswitch at a given angular
dis-
thisdiagram the pressure angle of the roller
placement. Cams for this purpose are usually
can be estimated. This is one major reason
layed out in two concentric circles as seen in
for using the center of the roller as the
basis

cam profile. If you were figure 16-8. Such electromechanical switches

for determining the
through the centers of the roller are widely used in automatic controls.
to draw a line

\follower path
\
\

FOLLOWER
ARM^

FOLLOWER CAM
SHAFT

ROTATION

Fig. 16-7 A Pivoted Cam Follower

114
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 16 DISK CAMS

CONTACTS

MICROSWITCH
FOLLOWER

CAM

Fig. 16-8 A Cam-Operated Microswitch

MATERIALS
2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Lever arm approximately 1 in. long with
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1/4 in. bore hub
1 Dial caliper (0 - 4 in.) 1 Spur gear approximately 1-1/2 in. OD
1 Cam follower roller approx. 1/4" OD with 1/4 in. bore hub
1 Protractor 1 Spur pinion approximately 3/4 in. OD
1 Piece of sheet metal 4" X 4" X approx. with 1/4 in. bore hub
0.05 in. thick 2 Disk dials
1 Flat file 2 Dial indices with mounts
1 Hand drill and twist bit (3/8 in.) 3 Shafts 4" X 1/4"
1 Universal pin hub (1/4 in. bore) 1 Lever arm approximately 2 in. long with
6 Bearing holders with bearings 1/4 in. bore hub
3 Collars 1 Extension type spring approximately
1-1/2 in. long

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to insure that they are undamaged. Count the number
of teeth on the two gear wheels.

2. Measure and record the diameter of the cam follower roller (d).

3. Using the method presented in the discussion, lay out a simple harmonic cam on a piece
of 4" X 4" sheet metal. The follower should have travel of 1-1/2 inches from minimum
to maximum displacement.

115
EXPERIMENT 16 DISK CAMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

4. Carefully cut out the cam and file any rough spots in the profile smooth. Put a 3/8-inch

hole in the cam center.

5. Mount the cam on the universal pin hub.

6. Construct the bearing plate assembly shown in figure 16-9.

7. Mount the bearing plate on the breadboard.

8. Rotate the cam until the follower is at its minimum displacement location.

Fig. 16-9 The Bearing Plate Assembly

116
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 16 DISK CAMS

Cam Profile

0; 0,

Ng d

Gear & Follower Data

Fig. 16-10 The Data Tables

117
EXPERIMENT 16 DISK CAMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

holds the follower against

9. Adjust the tension arm and spring on the output shaft so that it

the cam.

10. Set both dials to zero.

11. Rotate the cam dial to the 30° position and record both dial readings (0, & 0O ).

12. Repeat step 1 1 for cam dial positions of 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330,

and 360 degrees.

1 3. Carefully return the cam dial to the zero position.

14. For each data point, compute the vertical displacement (y) of the follower.

15. Plot a curve of follower displacement (y) versus cam displacement (0j).

16. Remove the cam and trace its profile in the space provided in the data table.

ANALYSIS GUIDE. your analysis discuss the differences between harmonic motion and
In

linear motion. From your observations during this experiment, discuss the importance of accu-
rate machining operations when manufacturing cams. Discuss sources of errors possible when

laying out a cam profile and methods of minimizing these errors. Discuss
the follower pressure

angle as a function of cam displacement. If you felt more resistance to rotation at the maximum
pressure angle position, explain why and estimate how much more force was required at that

point. If you did not feel an increase in rotational resistance explain this. Add any other com -

ments you feel to be applicable regarding disk cams.

PROBLEMS
1. Write the mathematical expression (equation) for figure 16-3. Express this equation

both as y = f (sin 6) and y = f (cos 0).

2. If cam whose
the follower motion is represented by figure 16-3 rotates at a speed of

1800 RPM, what is the velocity of the follower at the 30 degree position; the 90 de-
gree position; the 180 degree position; and the 360 degree position?

3. With the cam used in this experiment, assume that the spring tension is three pounds

when the pressure angle is maximum. Compute the normal force and the lateral

force felt by the roller.

4. For a given cam it is found that the maximum pressure angle is 30 degrees. It is de-

cided to rebuild the cam using a minimum radius twice the original. Is the new
pressure angle increased or decreased? Explain.

5. Draw the displacement graph for a medium speed cam whose follower must rise one
inch during the first 90 degrees of camshaft rotation, dwell for the next 30 degrees,
return to the initial point during the next 50 degrees and dwell for the remaining
1 90 degrees.

118
 experiment I J PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

INTRODUCTION. It is frequently advantageous to use the properties of levers in conjunction

with cam operation. In this experiment we
cams having followers that are pivoted.
will investigate
Parabolic motion is used, instead of simple harmonic motion, in the cam layout and observations
will be made about the graphs of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

DISCUSSION. Cam followers often move in uniformly accelerated motion and it is similar
a straight line; that is, they have rectilinear to harmonic motion in that sudden changes in
motion. However, you will find that levers displacement are avoided.
are very frequently used as cam followers.
This is done to take advantage of the prop- A cam follower having parabolic motion
erties of the lever, such as motion change or will have a constant acceleration during the
force change. Two representative ways of first half of its motion and a constant deceler-
doing this are shown in figure 17-1. ation during the second half of its motion
when deceleration and acceleration have equal
You can see that the roller in contact times. The equation giving displacement as a
with the cam will not move in a straight line. function of acceleration and of time (cam
Since the roller is "constrained" by the ful- position increments) is

crum or pivot point, it will move along a

circular path having a radius equal to the s=1/2at 2 (17.1)
length of the lever arm as indicated by the
letter X in figure 17-1. To show how this where s is the distance, a is the acceleration,
affects cam layout,
a we will examine a and t is time. Since the acceleration is con-
translational cam and then a disk cam. stant during the first half of the follower rise,

the distance given by equation 17.1 will equal

A type of motion that is even smoother the square of the time multiplied by a con-
than simple harmonic motion is called para- stant. This means that the follower will travel
bolic motion. Sometimes this motion is called three times as far during the third time inter-

Fig. 17-1 Cams with Pivoted Followers

119
EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig. 17-2 Parabolic Motion Displacement Graph

val as it did during the first; and so forth. The The next step is to draw a line connect-

differences in travel, if the first time interval ing the end of OA back to OY (the actual

is "1", are 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 . . . Then when a con- follower displacement distance). Then draw
stant deceleration (negative acceleration) is lines parallel to AY connecting the divisions
applied during the second half of travel, the of line OA to line OY. This procedure will

reverse of this sequence is appropriate: for divide line OY into similar line segments. In

example, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1. This type of motion is other words, the distance 0-1' is one-third the

The horizontal axis distance 1'-2'.

illustrated in figure 17-2.

represents time or cam position increments

and the vertical axis represents the follower Then, connect the heights indicated on
displacement. The maximum displacement is line OY across the graph to the corresponding
shown as the distance OY in figure 17-2. cam position indicated on the horizontal axis.

The points thus obtained are then connected

To construct the displacement graph with a smooth curve as is shown. It may be

shown in figure 17-2, a line AO is drawn at of interest to you to compare this curve with

any convenient angle. Along this line, mark that of simple harmonic motion. From this

a distance equal to 1 unit. Then the next in- displacement graph it is possible to construct

terval is three times this long, the next 5, and the desired cam. In this particular case, only

so forth as is shown. You will notice that this the rise of the follower is graphed.
gives six divisions (1, 3, 5, 5, 3, 1). If you de-

sire more divisions, use 1, 3, 5, 9, 9, 5, 3, 1 Now let's see what difference a pivoted

which will give eight divisions. In fact, any follower will make. Instead of the vertical

even number of divisions can be obtained by lines drawn in figure 17-2, the cam follower

using longer series of subdivisions. will follow an arc. Let's assume the same

120
 MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 17-3 Displacement Graph - Cam with Parabolic Motion and Pivoted Follower

type of motion is desired over these first six

cam positions, but that we have a pivoted cam Follower Type - Pivoted Roller
follower with a two-inch lever arm. Also, the
Roller Diameter - 3/16 inch
pivot point is located midway between mini-
Follwer Arm - 2 inches long
mum and maximum travel of the follower.
Minimum Radius of Cam 7/32 - inch
The basic change this causes in our displace-
Follower Center on-line with Roller Mini-
ment graph is that the ordinates are no longer
mum Travel
straight lines; they are arcs. These arcs are
Motion Desired - Parabolic rise for 120 de-
drawn from the assumed pivot position using
grees, dwell for 120 de-
the correct length of lever arm. The various
grees, parabolic fall for
pivot points are labeled C-|, C2 , etc. Line OA 120 degrees. Follower
has been drawn to illustrate that the same
to rise through 45 de-
parabolic motion will be formed from these
line segments. If the downward travel is also
parabolic, then the mirror image of figure
17-3 would be used.

How can we transfer this type of motion First, although not absolutely essential,
into the profile of a disk cam? Let's look at let's draw the displacement diagram that has
an entire design problem. The following fea- these characteristics. This is shown in figure
tures are desired: 17-4.

121
EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig. 17-4 Displacement Graph - Disk Cam with Parabolic Motion and Pivoted Follower

In figure 17-4, the lever movements are arm move off this position. Instead of
will

given and the curve of the displacement is rotating the cam on paper, we will move the

drawn for the rise only. The fall will follow lever. Since the cam motion will be clock-
these same distances. The arc OY is drawn wise, the lever will appear to rotate counter-

with a 2-inch radius. The parabolic motion clockwise.

described on line OA is transferred to this arc

and labeled V through 6'. Since this motion The prime circle is divided into 20 degree

is cam
desired over a rotation of 120 degrees, segments. Locate Ci by moving the lever cen-
then each movement will occur during 20 de- ter 20 degrees counterclockwise, then draw a
grees of cam motion. tangent at this point to the prime circle. In a

similar manner the other centers and the ap-

The first steps in the layout of the cam propriate lengths are transferred to these arcs.

profile are to locate the cam center, its mini- This gives the locations of the roller center.
mum diameter, the roller position, and the
initial position of the follower pivot point. Next, the roller is drawn in these posi-
tions. A smooth curve tangent to the roller

The next draw the desired 45

step is to positions gives the desired cam profile as is

degree rotation of the follower and transfer shown in figure 17-5. It should be noted that
the distances from the displacement graph to the roller dwells at maximum position from

this arc. These are labeled V through 6' in positions 6 through 12; that is, from 120 de-

figure 17-5. Notice that the lever arm will be grees through 240 degrees of cam rotation. A
tangent to a circle drawn through the center careful examination of figure 17-5 will reveal

of the roller. As the cam rotates, the lever that this profile has been obtained.

122
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

Fig. 17-5 Disk Cam Profile for Pivoted Follower

There are times when a technician must Frequently, we do not have a basic equation
analyze not only the displacement versus time and must depend upon graphical techniques.
characteristics of cams, but also the velocity These approaches give you accuracies suffi-

and the acceleration of the cam action. As cient for most purposes.
you know, if you have the mathematical equa-
tion for displacements, the derivative of this Remember that acceleration is velocity
equation (ds/dt) will give you the velocity. change per unit of time (dv/dt). You can be
The derivative of the velocity equation (or the moving 200 ft/sec and have zero acceleration.
second derivative of the displacement equa- Negative acceleration will give a decrease in

tion) will give the equation for acceleration. velocity.

EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

>
H
CJ
O
_J
ill

>

z
o
I
DC
UJ
_J
UJ

77-6 Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration Graphs

Figure 17-6 is the graphical representa- ond. This same type of relationship holds

tion of parabolic motion. Remember that between velocity and displacement.

parabolic motion occurs when the acceleration
the velocity increases
is constant during the first half of follower Between t
0 and t-j

motion and the deceleration (negative accel- from zero to some finite value. The slope of

eration) is constant during the second half. the displacement curve must, accordingly, be-
representa- gin at zero and increase continually. At t-j,
The bottom graph in this figure is

tive of acceleration. Acceleration is the the velocity begins to decrease; thus, the slope
with respect to time of the displacement curve is high at t-| and
change in velocity
(dv/dt), so at any point in time, the height begins to tilt toward the horizontal until time
of the acceleration at the point equals the t - At this time velocity is zero and the dis-
2
slope of the velocity line. placement curve must be horizontal (zero
slope).

constant from tg to Between t-|the negative accelera-

and t
Since acceleration is 2
tion indicates a negative slope in the velocity
U, the velocity must be linear. For example,
2 the curve. This is evident because the velocity
if the acceleration is a constant 2 ft/sec ,

ft/sec every see- curve angles from upper left to lower right.
velocity must be changing 2

124
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

POSITIVE ZERO NEGATIVE

LINEAR

INCREASING INCREASING

DECREASING DECREASING

Fig. 17-7 Slope Representations of Curves of Motion

From this brief discussion you should be zontal line. A positive slope moves upward to
able to form some generalizations regarding the right and can be "increasingly positive"
these three related graphs. If these graphs are (as inthe displacement from tg to ti), or can
arranged in vertical order, then: be "decreasingly positive" (displacement from
t-| to t^), or linearly positive as in the velocity
The slope of the curve at any point on
graph between tg to t-j. A negative slope can
any diagram equals
take on three different forms also: linearly
the height of the ordinate at that negative (velocity from t-| to t^); increasingly
point on the next lower diagram. negative (displacement from t 3 to t
4 ); or de-
creasingly negative (displacement from t.4 to
There are seven different types of slopes tg). Graphical representatives of these seven
curve may have. Zero slope indicates a hori- different slopes are shown in figure 17-7.

MATERIALS
2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Lever arm approx. 4 in. long with
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1/4-in. bore hub
1 Dial caliper (0 - 4 in.) 1 Spur gear approx. 1-1/2 in. OD with
1 Cam follower roller approx. 1/4 in. OD 1/4-in. bore hub
1 Protractor 1 Spur pinion approx. 3/4 in. OD with
1 Piece of sheet metal 4 x 4 x approx. 1/4-in. bore hub
0.05 in. thick 2 Dial indices with mounts
1 Flat file 3 Shafts 4" x 1/4"
1 Hand drill and twist bit (3/8 in.) 1 Lever arm approx. 2 in. long with
6 Bearing holders with bearings 1/4-in. bore hub
3 Collars 1 Extension type spring approx.
2 Disk dials 1-1/2 in. long

125
EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROCEDURE

1 . Measure and record the diameter of the follower roller.

2. Using a sheet of white paper, draw the cam profile for a cam and a cam follower having

the following specifications:

Cam Rotation: Counterclockwise

Type Follower: Pivoted or oscillating roller
Diameter of Follower: As measured by you
Length of Follower Arm: 2 in.
Minimum Cam Radius: Left to discretion
Follower Pivot Center: On same line with cam center
Follower Movement: Vertical distance of 1 in. maximum
Type Motion: Parabolic motion from initial point to maximum displacement
during 180 degrees of cam rotation. Return motion during the
next 180 degrees rotation using parabolic motion.

3. Transfer your cam profile to the piece of sheet metal and carefully cut it out.

4. File smooth any irregularities in the cam profile.

5. Put a 3/8-in. hole in the cam center and mount it on a universal pin hub.

6. Assemble the bearing plate assembly shown in figure 17-8.

7. Mount the bearing plate on the spring balance stand.

8. Rotate the cam until the follower is at its minimum displacement location.

9. Adjust the tension arm and spring on the output shaft so that it holds the follower against
the cam
10. Set both dials to zero.

1 1 . Rotate the cam dial to the 30° position and record both dial readings (0j & 60 ).

12. Repeat step 1 1 for cam dial positions of 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330,
and 360 degrees.

13. Carefully return the cam dial to the zero position.

14. For each data point compute the vertical displacement (y) of the follower.

15. Plot a curve of follower displacement (y) versus cam displacement (0j).

16. Remove the cam and trace its profile in the space provided in the data table.

126
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

OUTPUT SHAFT
n CAMSHAFT

©
mmmm^v///////////////////////////////////////////.
COLLAR
GEAR
SPRING-

—^ FOLLOWER
|Q1 ARM
COLLAR CAM

rer rah

0 OUTPUT DIAL FOLLOWER SHAFT

m
INPUT DIAL 0

F/<7. 77-5 77?e Bearing Plate Assembly

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Plot a graph of the data obtained during this experiment. Compare the
measured displacement values with those computed during the layout of the cam. Explain any
differences noted. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of parabolic motion in comparison
with linear and with simple harmonic motion when applied to cams. Discuss the reasons for
using a pivoted cam follower. Add any comments of your own you deem appropriate.

127
EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Cam Profile

€)

0:

N N d
P 9

Gear & Follower Data

Fig. 17-9 The Data Tables

128
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 17 PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

PROBLEMS
1. If the graph of displacement versus time is a second-degree equation, what degree
equation represents velocity? What degree equation represents acceleration?

2. Is the displacement equation for parabolic motion during the first half of the fol-

lower rise a second-degree equation? Explain in detail, why or why not.

3. Draw a sketch showing the pressure angle for a roller follower having a short versus

a long lever arm. What effect does the lever arm length have on the pressure angle?

4. Assume that the cam you used in this experiment rotates at a speed of 600 RPM.
Draw the displacement, velocity, and acceleration graphs and list the maximum and
minimum values for the ordinates of each graph.

5. Determine the angle through which the follower traveled in this experiment. If the
cam 600 RPM, what was the maximum angular
rotated at velocity and the average
angular velocity of the cam follower assembly?

129
 experiment MULTIPLE CAM TIMING
18
INTRODUCTION. Cams are often used in groups to produce motions which have fixed time
relationships. In this experiment we shall examine a simple example of such multiple cam timing.

DISCUSSION. Cams are often used in groups by the profile of cam B. Since the two cams
to establish definite time relationships be- are gear-coupled, the followers' motions are
tween independent operations. Let's consider definitely related to each other.
the two cams shown in figure 18-1. In this If we sketch follower position versus
case the two cams are gear-coupled and, there- time, the result will be somewhat like figure
fore, have related angular positions. As the 18-2. In this particular case the gear ratio be-
lefthand gear rotates, the position of follower tween the two cams is one-to-one. Moreover
a is determined by the profile of cam A. Simi- the cams are set up so that when one follower
larly, the position of follower b is determined is "on" its cam, the other is "off" its cam.

FOLLOWER

Fig. 18-1 Coupled Cams

I
ON CAM I
ON CAM

FOLLOWER aj OFF CAM

I

I
ON CAM
FOLLOWER b
OFF CAM OFF CAM

«3

Fig. 18-2 Follower Positions Versus Time

130
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 18 MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

FOLLOWER
ROLLERS

COUPLED
CAMS
ON CAM ON CAM |

FOLLOWER a OFF CAM

ON CAM ON CAM

OFF CAM I
OFF CAM
>-

FOLLOWER b I j I

V 2 x
2
l
3

Fig. 18-3 Overlapping Cam Action

FOLLOWER b '

ROLLERS

COUPLED
CAMS

ON CAM ON CAM

FOLLOWER a OFF CAM

ON CAM
I

FOLLOWER b I

OFF CAM
OFF CAM j

I I I I I

l
3

Fig. 18-4 Unequal Synchronized Dwell

By one cam with respect to the

rotating duce any desired amount of overlap.
other, we can get overlapping action as shown
in figure 18-3. The colored areas represent So far we have used two cams which
the times during which both followers are on have had approximately equal dwell angles.
the cam simultaneously. In this illustration This is, of course, not at all necessary. Many
the follower rods and cam couplings have been applications require unequal but synchronized
omitted for simplicity. dwell times. Figure 18-4 shows such an ar-

It should be apparent that by rotating rangement. Also shown is a small amount of

one cam with respect to the other we can pro- overlap.

131
EXPERIMENT 18 MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

By adjusting the angular velocity of a ratios. Figure 18-5 illustrates two cams
cam and its dwell angle, we can produce a coupled by a ratio of approximately 2:1.
wide range of dwell times.
The coupling between cams may be vir- In the case of a 2:1 velocity ratio, the
tually any type of positive drive mechanism. cam on the pinion would rotate twice as fast
Gears, tooth belts, chains, rigid couplings and as the one on the gear.This would cause the
solid shafts are all used occasionally to couple pinion cam follower to go through its cycle
cams together. Up until now we have con- twice as often as the gear cam follower. The
sidered only cams coupled by a 1:1 velocity same possibilities for overlap and unsym-
ratio. It is certainly possible to use other metrical dwell are, of course, still possible.

FOLLOWER
ROLLER

FOLLOWER
ROLLER (O

CAM
CAM

ON CAM ON CAM
1

OFF CAM OFF CAM

FOLLOWER
_J f '
1
l

a 1

ON ON |
ON ON

.
OFF J 1 OFF J OFF
FOLLOWER 1 1 1
1 1

b
I
1 1 1 1 1

I 1 1 i 1 1 1

Fig. 18-5 Two-to-One Cam Coupling

132
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 18 MULTIPLE CAM TIMING

FOLLOWER
ROLLERS

Fig. 18-6 A Multilobe Cam Timing Device

3

FOLLOWER
ROLLERS
CAM

ON CAM ON CAM

r
|

FOLLOWER a OFF CAM OFF CAM

OFF CAM OFF CAM

FOLLOWER b ON CAM ON CAM f

I

I I I

I
I I

*2 *3 U
Fig. 18-7 Cam with Two Followers

Another way to produce substantially In many cases two or more cams have
the same type of follower relationship is to the same profile. In such instances it is often
use multilobe cams. Figure 18-6 shows such possible to use multiple followers. Figure
an arrangement. 18-7 shows one such case. Notice that while
both followers in this case have the same
In all these cam configurations the fol- motion, they are alternately on the cam. If

lower motions may be used to actuate me- the desired output is produced when the fol-

chanical, electrical, or other devices. lower is on the cam, then the two followers

133
EXPERIMENT 18 MUL TIPL E CAM TIMING MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

|
ON CAM

FOLLOWER a F
i

CAM 'r
I

FOLLOWER b |
OFF CAM

Fig. 18-8 Overlapping Follower Action

alternate output action. This arrangement are substantially the same as those of figure

then is equivalent to the one shown in figure 18-3.

18-1. When using multiple followers in this

way, we can produce overlap from 0 to 100%

By locating the followers appropriately depending on follower location, cam size, and

we can produce overlap in a multiple follower follower size. In order to get 100% overlap

configuration. One possibility is illustrated in it is necessary to use a cam that is thick enough

figure 18-8. In this case the follower motions to allow side-by-side follower mounting.

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Bevel pinion with 1/4-in. bore hub
2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Bevel gear with 1/4-in. bore hub
6 Bearing mounts with bearings 2 Spur pinions approximately 3/4 in. OD
2 Shaft hangers with bearings with 1/4-in. bore hub
4 Shafts 4" x 1/4" 2 Spur gears approximately 2 in. OD with
2 Adjustable cams with 1/4-in. bore hubs 1/4-in. bore hub
2 Index mounts 1 DC motor with mount
2 Microswitches with mounting hardware 1 DC power supply 0 30V -

6 Collars 1 Lamp assembly (3 lamps)with

1 Worm connecting leads
1 Worm wheel

134
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 18 MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect each of your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Construct the worm drive assembly shown in figure 18-9. The dimensions indicated are
only approximate.

3. Construct the bearing plate assembly shown in figure 18-10. The dimensions indicated
are only approximate.

4. Mount the bearing plate assembly, the worm drive assembly, motor, switches, and lamp
assembly on the breadboard as shown in figure 18-11.

5. Adjust the various shaft spacings for smooth operation of the entire mechanism.

6. Connect the lamp assembly, switches, motor, and power supply as shown in figure 18-12.
Carefully arrange the wires so that they will not foul the mechanism.

7. Turn on the power supply and set the voltage to about 15V. The mechanism should run
freely, and the lamps should blink as the cams rotate. If all the lamps do not blink, check
the switch mountings to insure that the cams are operating the switches. If the lamps still

don't blink, check your wiring and the lamps themselves.

8. Adjust the cams so that the lamps light in the following sequence:

First lamp 3 on for 1/2 of a cam revolution,

then lamp 2 on for 1/6 of a cam revolution,
then lamp 1 on for 1/3 of a cam revolution,
finally return to lamp 3 on.

Fig. 18-9 The Worm Drive Assembly

135
Fig. 18-10 Bearing Plate Assembly

136
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 18 MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

—r& .

CAM 1
0 0| St

0 0 0
3a
0

5
0
0 0

CAM 2

MOTOR

^OTO^
^^^ ^^^j

F/g. 75- 1 1 The Experimental Mechanism

137
EXPERIMENT 18 MUL TIPL E CAM TIMING MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

LAMP
ASSEMBLY
"I NO I 1

I o-
I

COM i

RED
NC
L__.

0 r

I
n lN0
COM
AMBER

NC GREEN
I

L j I

COM

Fig. 18-12 The Electrical Circuit

9. Draw a scale sketch of the relative follower positions simiJar to those in the discussion.
Label each segment showing which lamp is on.

10. Readjust the cams so that the lamps light in a sequence that is the reverse of the one in

step 8.

1 1 . Repeat step 9 for the sequence in step 1 0.

RESULTS FROM STEP 9

Fig. 18- 13 The Experimental Results

138
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 18 MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

l
3

RESULTS FROM STEP 11

Fig. 18-13 The Experimental Results (Cont'd)

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In the analysis of these results you should compare the follower patterns
for each setup. Discuss the similarities and differences between the follower patterns. Finally,
list and discuss at least three applications of multiple cam timing.

PROBLEMS
1. Make a sketch showing how three cams could be used to produce the same results

as those observed in the experiment.

2. Repeat problem 1 using only one cam and two followers.

3. If a cam has a dwell angle of 180° and is rotating at 35 RPM, how long (in seconds)
is the follower on the cam?

4. What would be the result if the dwell angle in problem 3 were 1 10°?

5. How long is the follower in problem 4 off the cam?

6. The cam in problem 4 is directly coupled to a second cam with a dwell angle of
80°. If the lobes are displaced from each other by 45°, what would be the overlap
time? (Assume that the 110° cam has its follower come on the lobe 45° before the
other one comes up on its lobe.)

139
 experiment HARMONIC DRIVES
19
INTRODUCTION. In modern mechanical power transmission systems, high-ratio gear speed
reductions are often necessary. This task can sometimes be accomplished effectively with
a
harmonic drive transmission. In this experiment we will examine one type of harmonic drive.

DISCUSSION. The harmonic drive transmis- eration as a gear speed reducing device. The
sion is an efficient, small, light-weight method wave generator distorts the shape of the
for getting gear speed reductions. Ratios of smaller diameter flexspline, and when rotated
more than 300:1 can be efficiently achieved the reduction ratio is

in a single reduction. Harmonic drives are

relatively inexpensive, simple, and can have
low to zero backlash. (19.1)

The basic harmonic drive transmission

where n is the number of teeth on the flex-
consists of three parts: a wave generator,
spline and N, the number on the circular
flexspline, and circular spline. Figure 19-1
spline. Because of the greater circumference
illustrates the parts. For speed reductions the
of the circular spline, it contains more teeth
input goes to the wave generator, and output
and the ratio will be a negative quantity, in-
is taken from the flexspline with the circular
dicating that the output rotational direction
spline held stationary.
is opposite to the input.

Figure 19-2 illustrates the components Various metals and plastics may be used
of the transmission meshed together for op- in the manufacturing of harmonic drives.

WAVE GENERATOR

FLEXSPLINE (n)

CIRCULAR SPLINE (N)

Fig. 19-1 Components of a Harmonic Drive

140
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 19 HARMONIC DRI VES

WAVE
GENERATOR
(INPUT)

Fig. 19-2 Harmonic Drive

Stainless steel is a common material for also come in a variety of configurations, all

making flexsplines for units to be used in utilizing the same mechanical principles. Fig-

heavier load applications. Harmonic drives ure 19-3 illustrates some of the possibilities.

WAVE GENERATORS FLEXSPLINES CIRCULAR SPLINES

Hydraulic or A Hermatically Built Into a

Pneumatic Operation Sealed Unit Housing

Friction Type Contoured Cup Toothed Ring

Fig. 19-3 Variations of Harmonic Drives

141
EXPERIMENT 19 HARMONIC DRI VES MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
Harmonic drive with mount 1 Breadboard with legs and clamps
1

Adjustable cam with 1/4-in. bore hub

2 Bearing plates with spacers 1

1 Stroboscope 2 Spur gears, approx. 3/4-in. OD

1 DC motor with mount with 1/4-in. bore hubs

1 Universal joint 2 Spur gears, approx. 2 in. OD

1 Microswitch mounted on an index mount with 1/4-in. bore hubs

1 Lamp and holder 2 Collars

1 Power supply 2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

4 Bearing holders with bearings

PROCEDURE
1 . Examine all of the components to insure they are not damaged.

2. Locate the spur gears. Count and record the number of teeth on each. Calculate the

ratios of each reduction shown in figure 19-4.

3. Identify the flexspline and circular spline of the harmonic drive. Count and record the
number of teeth on each.

m
4. Calculate the speed ratio from the motor to the output shaft

HARMONIC
DRIVE

LAMP

Fig. 19-4 Experimental Setup

142
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 19 HA RMONIC DRIVES

5. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure Connect the lamp to the microswitch
19-4.

and power supply so that it will turn on when the plunger is depressed by the lobe on
the cam.

6. Hand rotate mechanism to insure proper operation before applying power to the motor.

7. Connect the motor to the DC power supply and set the voltage to about 20 volts.

8. Using the stroboscope measure the angular velocity of the motor shaft (coj) and the
universal joint (oj ).
u

9. Count the output angular velocity 0

by using the second hand on your watch and
(to )

counting the light flashes. Better accuracy can be achieved by counting for three min-
utes and dividing result by 3 to get revolutions per minute.

n N1 n
2
N2 N1 N2
1

(3/4 in. OD) (2 in.OD (3/4 in. OD) (2 in. OD) n1 n

2

Spur Gears

no
n
3
N3 n
3 -N 3 Ratio nrr
n -N
3 3

Harmonic Drive

wo —w0
i
+
.

ratio

Calculated

Measured

Fig. 19-5 The Data Table

143
 .

EXPERIMENT 19 HA RMONIC DRI VES MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In the analysis of your results you should explain how a velocity reduction
is accomplished. Explain the relation of the harmonic drive to the cams you have studied. (That
is, explain why a harmonic drive could be considered a special cam application.) Give some ap-
plications for the harmonic drive transmission.

PROBLEMS
1. Is the harmonic drive positive or does some slippage exist?

2. Explain how the harmonic drive should be connected to get a gear speed increase.

3. The input is applied to the wave generator, the flexspline is held stationary and the
output is taken from the circular spline. What is the direction of output rotation
compared to the input?

4. The circular spline is held stationary, flexspline used as the input and the output
taken from the wave generator. Is this application of the harmonic drive a speed re-

ducer or increaser?

5. Determine a set of gears for a harmonic drive that will give a reduction of 200: 1

6. If for some application the motor is delivering a torque of 50 in.-oz, what would
be the output torque for 80% overall efficiency?

144
 NTRODUCTION TO THE
experiment
20: GENEVA MECHANISM

INTRODUCTION. A mechanism producing intermittent motion with a constant velocity input

is sometimes needed in mechanical drive systems. In this experiment we will explore the basic
operation of such a mechanism, the geneva wheel. Such wheels are often used to get an inter-

mittent mode of operation.

DISCUSSION. Geneva wheels come in three varies with each style of geneva wheel and the

basic configurations; they may be external, number of slots.

internal, or spherical. Each of these types of

geneva mechanism is illustrated in figure Because the roller always enters and

20-1 The wheels may have from 3 to a great

.
leaves the slot of a spherical wheel at the
equator of the sphere, engaged for 180
many slots but usually have from 4 to 18. it is

Fewer slots give high accelerations and a large degrees and therefore has a dwell angle of

number of slots make the diameter of the star 180 degrees. The external type has a dwell

wheel relatively large. of more than 180 degrees and the internal
one's dwell is less than 180 degrees. The
As the driving member of the geneva long drive time of the internal type gives the

wheel is rotated, the roller engages the slots advantage of lower accelerations because of
of the driven member (star wheel) and turns the greater time available to reach necessary

it. The distance turned depends on the num- velocity. However, the internal geneva wheel
ber of slots in the star wheel. The dwell time mechanism is more mount because
difficult to

(time the roller is not engaged in the slots) the input shaft cannot be a through shaft. The

DRIVER

(A) SIX SLOT EXTERNAL (B) FOUR SLOT INTERNAL (C) FOUR SLOT SPHERICAL

Fig. 20- 1 Geneva Drive Mechanisms

145
EXPERIMENT 20 INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

crank must be fastened to the overhanging

a = £-| cos a
end of the input shaft. Because of the rela-

tive mechanical simplicity, the external geneva

and
drive most often used in cases where dwells
is

of more than 180 degrees are acceptable.

b = £Q - SI] cos a.

An external geneva wheel with 8 slots

would turn a total 1/8 of 360 degrees for each

rotation of the driving wheel. A 4-slot wheel Since the maximum value of a measured
would turn 1/4 of 360 degrees and, in general,
from the center line is 180%, then

the rotation angle of the star wheel, 0, is

(20.2)
(20.1)

where n is the number of slots. which is the distance required between the
input and output shafts. £-| is the length of

Observing the diagram in figure 20-2 the crank arm and n is the number of slots.

Fig. 20-2 Geneva Wheel with Simplified Sketch

146
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 20 INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Geneva wheel mechanism
2 360° disk dials 2 Shaf ts 4" x 1 /4" 4 Collars
2 Dial indices with mounts 4 Bearing mounts with bearings 1 Dial caliper. (0 - 4 in.)

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect each component you plan to use to insure that it is undamaged.
2. Identify the geneva wheel and place the parts together with the roller not engaged in a
slot of the star wheel.

3. Measure the length of the crank arm of the driving mechanism and the distance between
the shafts. Record them in the data table.
4. Calculate the distance between the shafts using equation 20.2.

Distance between
Crank arm length, shafts, £
#i 0

Measured

Calculated

Input Angle Output Angle Input Angle Output Angle

(degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)

0 65

5 70

10 75

15 80

25 85

29 90

30 100

35 150

40 200

45 250

50 300

55 350

60 360

Fig. 20-3 The Data Tables

147
EXPERIMENT 20 INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig. 20-4 The Experimental Setup

5. Construct the mechanism as shown in figure 20-4.

6. Set the geneva wheel so that the roller is just beginning to enter the slot of the star wheel.

7. Hold the geneva wheel fixed and set both the input and output dials to zero.

8. Read and record output angular displacement for each value of input given in the data
table.

9. Plot a graph of the angular displacement of the driving crank (input) versus the angular
displacement (output) of the driven member.

148
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 20 INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In your discussion of the results achieved in this experiment include a de-

scription of the output motion discussion. Explain how the velocity of the output changes as the
input rotates through 360 degrees. Use your graph to illustrate your explanation.

PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the distance between the shafts of an 8-slot geneva wheel that has a driving
crank length of 1 inch.

2. How does the ratio of input and output velocity vary with the number of slots of a

geneva wheel (averaged over long time periods)?

3. What are some of the possible problems that one might encounter in driving geneva
wheel mechanisms at high RPMs?

4. The external geneva wheel has a greater dwell than drive time and the opposite re-

lationship is true for the internal device. For equal input velocities, which would
you expect to experience lower acceleration and why?

5. How many degrees does a 10-slot star wheel turn during each revolution of the
driven member?

6. What is the dwell time for a 10-slot external geneva wheel mechanism?

7. What is the major advantage of the internal type compared to the external type
geneva mechanism?

149
 LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS
experiment
21
INTRODUCTION. Varying load conditions are an important consideration in the operation of
mechanical devices. In this experiment we willexamine an example of how the load on a driven
shaft can vary even though there is a constant frictional load on the output of the mechanism.

DISCUSSION. The driven member of the During the rotation from C to E, lengths
geneva mechanism is part B in figure 21-1 and a-j and b2 vary according to
the driving member is part A. As the driver
rotates and engages the driven member, the a-\ = £•] cos a
effectivelever arm length SL^ changes as the

rollermoves through the arc between points and

C to E. The relationship of £2 t0 tne an 9' e a
is b2 = £q " ^1 cos 01

9-2 = #1 + m2 - 2m cos a The distance between the shafts, £q, is

where

m= 180'
b and n = No. of Slots
sin
The input force is applied to the shaft of

Fig. 21-1 The Geneva Wheel

150
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 21 LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS

the driving member and is delivered as a force longest, providing the maximum mechanical
tangent to the arc C E. - Neglecting the roller advantage, but only the component acting to
diameter, the lever arm length £-j remains produce rotation (the part of the force that is

fixed. The force delivered to the star wheel tangent to the circle inscribed by the circum-
may vary because the effective lever arm ference of part B) constitutes the effective
length £ 2 var"ies from its shortest length at force. As the roller moves through the arc
point D to its longest length at point C and from C to D, the lever arm of the driven mem-
E. For example, £ 2 at 0° (point D) is ber effectively gets shorter but the angle be-
comes such as to deliver more torque to part
£
2
= + m2 - 2m cos a B. As an example let's suppose a = 22.5 de-
grees. Referring to figure 21-2, the roller is

m=
sin
~W n
=
sin
J
45"0
= 1 - 414 half-way between points
vector producing the torque
C and
is
D. The force
along the tan-
gent line from F to G.
g = £ 1v/l + (1.414) 2 - 2(1.414)(1) = 0.414C
2 1

whereas £ 2 at 45° (points C to E)

If the lever arm length of the driven
is
member decreases in effective length but the
angle becomes more favorable for producing
£ - «-|V3- 2.818(0.707) = 0.9695
2 •,
the torque and these occur in equal propor-
tions, the load would not change from C to E.
As the lever arm length varies, the angle However, if one of these values changes more
at which the force is applied also varies. At than the other, the load would vary as the
points C and E the torque arm, £
2 , is at its roller moved through the arc from C to E.

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps

1 360° disk dial

1 Dial index with mount

2 Bearing plates with spacers

2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

4 Bearing mounts with bearings

1 Geneva wheel mechanism

4 Collars

2 Spring balances

2 Spring balance posts with clamps

2 Lever arms 2 in. long with

Fig. 21-2 Forces in a Geneva Mechanism 1/4-in. bore hubs

151
EXPERIMENT 21 LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROCEDURE
1 . Examine all your parts to be sure they are not damaged.

2. Construct the mechanism shown in figure 21-3. Leave the adjustments on the spring
balances loose.

3. Set the geneva mechanism so that the roller is just entering a slot in the star wheel from
the bottom.

4. Hold the mechanism fixed and set the dial to read zero degrees.

5. Be sure that both of the lever arms are vertical and that both of the spring balances are
horizontal before making any data readings.

6. Set the dial to the first angle listed in the data table and readjust the levers so that they
are both vertical.

7. Hold the mechanism in this position and adjust the input spring balance to about 4 oz.

8. Adjust the output spring balance until the lever arms will remain in the vertical positions
when released.

9. Record the input to output forces and compute their ratio.

10. Set up the next angle listed on the data table and repeat steps 7 through 10. Proceed
until all of the data has been recorded.

I
I
I
V |

=
[
fi
=
l-[
P^
[-»
2
"
LEVVER ARM
POINT ING UP OUTPUT FORCE

STAR WHEEL OFF

GENEVA MECHANISM

INPUT FORCE
CALIBRATED DIAL

Fig. 21-3 Experimental Setup

152
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 21 LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS

Angle
(degrees) Ft (oz) F
2 (oz) Ratio

oU

JO
/in

45

RD

RR
oo

ou

DO

70

75

Fig. 27-4 The Data Table

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Discuss your data emphasizing the pattern that the data makes with respect
to the input angle. Explain why the results turned out as they did by extending the ideas pre-
sented in the discussion section.

PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the length of the driven crank, 9.^ at 0 and 90 degrees for a four-slot
geneva wheel.

2. Calculate the length of the driven crank, ^ at 22.5° and 45° for a six-slot geneva
wheel.

3. What is the approximate angle at which the roller will first engage in the slot of an
eight-slot geneva wheel mechanism?

4. If a row of holes is to be drilled in a piece of steel plate by a semi-automatic machine

tool, explain briefly how a geneva mechanism might be used to position the table
of the machine tool.

5. If a four-slot geneva mechanism is used to drive a six-slot geneva mechanism, de-

scribe the output rotation pattern in relation to a constant input. How are the
input and output RPM related?

153
 experiment SLIDING- LINK MECHANISM

INTRODUCTION. A cam application which is used in many rotary machines is

specialized
sliding link. In this experiment we shall assemble and examine a simple example of
this I
of mechanism.

DISCUSSION. A sliding link can be used to From these sketches we can observe
couple parallel shafts and produce predictable severalconditions that must be satisfied to
output motion. Figure 22-1 shows a typical produce such a mechanism. For example,
example of one type of sliding-link mechanism. figure 22-3a illustrates that must be the
shortest link.Also we see that the minimum
length £ of the output link must be
As the input link C rotates counter- 2
1
clockwise, the slider moves along the output
*2-«0-«1
2 causing it to turn also. In such an
link £

arrangement there are two limiting positions.

These positions are shown in figure 22-2. while the maximum length £
2 must be
Notice from the figure that the limiting po-
sitions occur when the angle between £
£
2 is 90 degrees. At
and
this point we
1

see that
*2
=
V £
1 I

Since the slider moves from

2 t0 %2>
J2

the working length (S) of C

2 must be

S = J2
2 -fi 2
or

0 = 2 sin" -J-1
(22.1)
S=(« 0 + C
1>-<V fi
1>

where 0 is the angle through which the output

link moves as the input link rotates. Notice
that the operation of this type of sliding link
isvery similar to that of a crank rocker four-
bar mechanism. However, in this case, the
coupling link has zero length and the output
link length is variable.

The slider must be able to move freely

from the minimum output link length to the
maximum output link length. These positions
occur when the output C o-
link, input link, and 0
fixed link are colinear. Figure 22-3 shows
both these positions. Fig. 22- 1 A Basic Sliding-Link Mechanism

154
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 22 SL I DING- LINK MECHA NISM

Fig. 22-2 Limiting Positions for a Sliding- Link Mechanism

SLIDER 0'
° Pf
TT7
1

(A) MINIMUM OUTPUT LINK LENGTH

SLIDER

^ - %
_e 2"

(B) MAXIMUM OUTPUT LINK LENGTH j£

Fig. 22-3 Maximum and Minimum Output Link Lengths

155
EXPERIMENT 22 SL I DING- L INK MECHA NISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

so we have Either type of sliding-link mechanism can

S = 2C, (22.2) be used as a double rocker provided that the

as the working length of the output link.

link lengths are appropriate for the desired
output. Except for a double-rocker applica-
If we change
the relative lengths of £g tion the working length of SL^ must not be
and #i so that £q is the shortest link, we will physically limited. If it is, the slider will
have a mechanism like the one shown in fig- "bottom" against the limit and prevent nor-
ure 22-4. This mechanism works in a manner mal operation. In some double-rocker appli-
that is similar to a four-bar drag-link. That is, cations physically limited sliders can be used
when the input link turns a complete revolu- if the limits lie outside the normal output
tion, the output follows it around. stroke range.

\
/ \
/ \
/
\

//
/
/

,'/

\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
N

Fig. 22-4 Sliding Link with <£ 7

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Slotted lever 2 in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub
2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 Flat head machine screw 2-56 x 1/2 in.

2 Bearing holders with bearings 2 Flat washers No. 2 x 1/2 in. OD

2 Shaft hangers with bearings 2 Hex nuts 2-56 x 1/4 in.

2 Disk dials 1 Steel rule 6 in. long

2 Dial indices with mounts 1 Shaft 2" x 1/4"
1 Lever arm 1 in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub 1 Shaft 4" x 1/4"

156
 )

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 22 SLIDING-LINK MECHANISM

PROCEDURE
1. Inspect your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 22-5. Be sure the slider operates freely and that
the shafts are in line vertically.

3. Measure and record £q, ^2- anc ' ^ for tnis mechanism. (Each of the symbols is de-

fined in the discussion.

4. With both lever arms pointing straight upward, set the dials to read zero.

5. Rotate the input dial in 10-degree steps and record both input angle and output angle.
Continue for at least 360 degrees of input rotation.

6. Move the sliding link to the 1/2-in. position on the input lever and relocate the output
shown in
shaft as figure 22-6. The output dial must be located through one of the bread-
board slots.

7. Repeat steps 3, 4, and 5.

8. Compute the value of S' for each setup using equation 22.2.

9. From your data determine the total angular swing of ^ Record this value as 0'.

10. Using equation 22.1 compute the output lever swing 6".

OUTPUT
DIAL

INPUT DIAL

Fig. 22-5 The First Experimental Mechanism

157
EXPERIMENT 22 SLIDING-LINK MECHANISM MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

SLOTTED LEVER

Fig. 22-6 The Second Experimental Mechanism

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing your results you should plot the input angle versus the output
angle for each mechanism. Then discuss the nature of the plots. Consider also how well your
values of S and S' agreed in each case. How well did 0' and 0" agree?

PROBLEMS
1. List several practical uses for a sliding-link mechanism.

2. A certain sliding-link mechanism has an input link that is 14 in, long. How long is

the working length of SL-£

3. If the fixed link in problem 2 were 18 in. long, what kind of output motion would
result?

4. Through what angle would the output link in problem 3 swing?

5. If the fixed link in problem 2 were 12 in. long, what kind of output motion would
result?

6. Through what angle would the output link in problem 5 swing?

7. If the input velocity in problem 5 were constant, would the output velocity also be
constant? Explain your answer.

158
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 22 SLI DING-LINK MECHANISM

First Setup Second Setup

= «0" S =
*0

= S' =
£
1

0' =
C9 =

= 0" =
«2

S =

S'
=

Input 0j Output 0O Input 0j Output 0O

(degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)

First Setup Second Setup

Fig. 22-7 The Data Tables

159
 experiment S -i QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II

INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms which produce motion with different velocities in dif-

linear

ferent directions are widely used in practical applications. Quick-return mechanisms are one
example of this type of motion. In this experiment we will examine a sliding-link type of
quick return.

DISCUSSION. The sliding-link mechanism stroke. If the input link is rotating at some
shown in figure 23-1 is operating in a manner constant angular velocity (w), then the load
similar to a four-bar crank-rocker. As the must travel faster during the return stroke

input link (£•]) rotates through angle 0 in the than it does during the advance stroke. Be-

clockwise direction, the output link (£2) cause of this difference in speed we can call

swings through the arc (a) from A' to A and the whole mechanism a quick-return assembly.
the load moves from bottom dead center
(BDC) to top dead center (TDC). We will
call this motion the advance stroke. Then, The travel of the load is limited by the
as the input link rotates through angle 6, the limiting positions of the output link. Figure

output link swings back to A' and the load 23-2 shows the limiting positions somewhat
returns to BDC. We will call this part of the more clearly. Notice that the limiting posi-
cycle the return stroke. tions occur whenand #2 are perpendicular.
C-j

Also notice that the angle between £ Q and

Notice that the load moves the same at the limiting position is one half of the total

distance during both the advance and return swing of %2- Because of this and the fact that
strokes. The input link (£•]), however, rotates and 9.2 are perpendicular, we can observe
through a larger angle (0) during the advance that the angle between £ 1 and i
Q
at the lim-

stroke than it does (d) during the return iting position is

Fig. 23-1 A Sliding-Link Quick Return

160
 .

IV1ECAHNSI MS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 23 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II

Fig. 23-2 The Sliding-Link Mechanism

2. = 90° _« We can relate these angles to the link

9U
2 2 lengths by observing from figure 23-2 that

6 = 180° -a (23.1) s,r

Wc:
which is the angle through which C-| rotates
From this equation we can solve for a in the
during the return stroke of the quick-return
form
mechanism.

From figure 23-2 we can observe that

the angle through which E-j rotates during the
advance stroke is related to that of the return
stroke by As a result we may write

6 = 360° - 9

Substituting the relationship for 6 we have 0= 180° +^sin" 1

(23.3)

0 = 360° -(180° -a)

and
or

6= 180° + a (23.2)
6 = 180°
1
-ysin" (23.4)
ft)
for the advance stroke rotation of C-j

161
EXPERIMENT 23 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Then the ratio of these two angles 0/0 is A' is equal to stroke distance S. This distance
called the ratio of the speed-of -advance to the is a chord subtending the arc AA' at a radius
speed-of-return: equal to J^- ' n tms case #2 is tne total effec-
tive length of the output, link.

180° + | sin"
1 1 From analytical geometry we know that
0 such a chord can be found by
(23.5)
d
1 .

180° sin
2 a
S = J>2 sin-j

We can use this equation to determine this

but we have already determined that
important ratio from the lengths of £•] and £
Q
.

C
making calculations based on
. a= 1
In this sm
2 eT
equation you should remember that 0 is nor-
mally more than 180 degrees while 6 is nor-
so we have
mally less than 180 degrees.

Now let's go back and examine the out-

(23.6)
put link and load relationship. Figure 23-3
shows a simplified sketch of this part of the

mechanism.
for the stroke distance of the load.
For simplicity let's assume that the line

of action of the load is perpendicular to the Actually this is the maximum value that
fixed link £
Q . This will not always be true but S can have. If we allow the fixed link to have
analysis is simpler when it is the case. an angle other than 90 degrees to the line of

load action, the stroke will be reduced. When

When the line of action of the load is the fixed link and load action are colinear, the
perpendicular to £
Q , then the distance A to stroke will be at its minimum value.

90°
LOAD

///////;///// ////////////////a rrr

BDC * S + TDC

Fig. 23-3 The Stroke Distance

162
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 23 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Flat washers No. 2 x 1/2 in. OD
2 Bearing plates with spacers 2 Hex nuts 2-56 x 1/4 in.
2 Bearing holders with bearings 1 Steel rule 6 in. long
4 Shaft hangers with bearings 1 Shaft 2" x 1/4"
1 Disk dial with 1/4-in. bore hub 2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"
1 Dial index with mount 2 Collars
1 Lever arm 1 in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub 1 Rigid coupling
1 Slotted lever 2 in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub 1 Roundhead machine screw 6-32 x 1/4
1 Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub 1 Spacer No. 6 x 1/8 with 1/32 wall
1 Flat head machine screw 2-56 x 1/2 in. thickness
h

1 Wire loop link 3 in. long

•For details of wire link construction refer to appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Construct the experimental setup shown in figure 23-4(a) and 23-4(b).

fit.
3
 1

EXPERIMENT 23 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

\ ° \ L—~1/ /

— -
i

) ( )

< >
c

*»

Fig. 23-4(b) Experimental Setup Front View

3. Rotate the dial several times to insure that the mechanism is properly aligned and rotates
freely. Lubricate the load shaft if necessary.

4. Rotate the mechanism until the crank lever (i^) and the slotted lever both point straight
upward. Now adjust the 2-inch lever that drives the load so that it points in the same
direction as the slotted lever.

5. With the load at TDC, set the input dial to zero.

6. Lay the 6-inch steel rule across the load shaft hangers so that its zero end lines up with

the end of the shaft. Tape it in position if necessary.

7. Starting with zero degrees on the dial, measure and record the dial angle (j3) and the load
displacement (X) every 20 degrees for one full dial revolution in the clockwise direction.

8. Repeat step 7 for one full dial revolution in the counterclockwise direction.

9. Measure and record the length of each link in the mechanism (£], C Q , £ c and fi
2 )-
(Notice

that £ is not tne slotted lever.)

2

10. Measure and record the stroke (S) of the load.

1 1 . Adjust the 2-inch lever that drives the load so that it is pointing in the direction at 90° to

that of step 5. Relocate the load shaft as necessary.

12. Repeat steps 7 and 8. Record the data as j3' and X'.

13. From your data determine 0 and 6 for the first setup arrangement only. (0 and 0 are

defined in the discussion.)

14. Using the results from step 13 compute 0/0.

164
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 23 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II

h s 0 6 0/0

Clockwise Counterclockwise Clockwise Counterclockwise

X X X' X'

F/g. 23-5 777e Data Table

165
EXPERIMENT 23 QUICK RETURN MECHANISM II MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In your analysis of these data you should plot a curve for each set of j3 and
X. On the curve identify the regions of the load travel from TDC to BDC and from BDC to TDC,
For the first experimental arrangement determine the ratio of time-of-advance to time-of-return
using equation 23.5. Also determine the stroke using equation 23.6. How do these results com-
pare to your experimental values? Why were the results different when you moved the output
lever?

PROBLEMS
1. A quick-return mechanism of the type shown in figure 23-1 has the following
dimensions:

= 8 inches £ = 6 inches
Q
£2 = 18 inches C
c
= 28 inches

Will such a mechanism work satisfactorily? Explain your answer.

2. If the fixed link in problem 1 were increased in length by 6 inches, would the
mechanism work like the one in figure 23-1 ? Explain your answer.

3. What would be the ratio of speed-of-advance to speed-of-return in problem 2?

4. What would be the stroke in problem 2?

5. List three applications of a quick-return mechanism.

166
 experiment / LL COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA)

INTRODUCTION. Mechanical devices are often used to perform computing functions. In this

experiment we will investigate some of the more popular mechanisms used for computing alge-

braic functions.

DISCUSSION. Mechanisms used in comput- Figure 24-1 shows a mechanism that can
ing operations could be classed as analog com- be used for adding quantities. The sum, 2, is

puters. The term analog comes from the word the displacement of the center pointer and is

analogy which means a similarity between two related to x and y by

different things. With mechanisms, a distance

or angle may be used to represent time, miles 2= x + y

per hour or gallons per minute. Another dis-

placement could represent pounds of force, The device could be used to find any one of
work or power. In each case the displacement the quantities if the other two are known. If
of the mechanical device is used to represent x is 3 and 2 is 12 and the values are set on the
(or be analogous to) something else. device, then y would register 9.

A gear and pinion is a simple type of

computing device. Recall that the velocity
ratio of the gear and pinion is RACK

Wp N

where ojg and ojp are the angular velocities of

the gear and pinion, and n and N are the num-
ber of teeth of the pinion and gear, respec-
tively. Solving for the angular velocity of the
pinion gives us

C0„
P
' - —N
n
co„
g

The ratio of -N/n is a constant for any given

gear and pinion set; thus, the pinion angular
velocity is a constant times the gear angular
velocity. Then in this case, we have a type of
analog computer that multiplies by a constant.
It should be noted that the constant can be
less than one in which case the device becomes
a "divide by a constant" analog computer. Fig. 24- 1 Mechanical Summing Mechanism

167
EXPERIMENT 24 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Sprocket approximately 1-1/4 in. OD with
2 Dial indices 1/4-in. bore hub
3 Dial index mounts 1 Spring balance
1 Shaft 2" x 1/4" 1 Spring balance post with clamp
1 Roller chain approximately 10 inches 1 Pulley approx. 1 in. OD with 1/4-in. bore
long hub
PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect all of the parts to insure that they are in proper working condition.

2. Reproduce the two scales shown in figure 24-2 and prepare them to be taped onto the
breadboard.

o — — o

2 — :r r: 2

4 = = 4

6 — 11 6

8 — — 8 Fig. 24-2 Calibrated x and y Scales

10 — 10

12 ^ ^ 12

14 — ^ 14

16 — — 16

3. Assemble the sprocket and pulley on the shaft as shown in figure 24-3. The pulley is used
only as a standard for the sprocket and shaft.

4. Remove the master link from the chain and put the link in a safe place so that it doesn't
get lost.

5. Construct the mechanism shown in figure 24-4. Be sure to use a flat washer between the
chain and nut to avoid burring the chain links.

6. Position the spring balance and the index mounts so that zero is indicated on each when
the chain is taut. The ounce scale of the spring balance will be used as a displacement
measure in this experiment.

7. Set each of the values of x and y indicated in the data table and record the respective
output readings (ounce scale) from the spring balance. Make all readings to the nearest
whole number.

8. Remove the chain and replace the master link. Then disassemble the rest of the apparatus.

168
 1

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 24 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA)

PULLEY

Fig. 24-3 Sprocket and Pulley Assembly

CHAIN

7
SPROCKET
SCALES
INDEX
PULLEY
X NJ

=2? tscgr

0
Fig. 24-4(a) Experimental Setup Side View
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

ill ill ill • I

VTH.I '' ''I '•'

~To "o) to™

( ((50 )

\Q oi To ~oL_fo"

|
8

1
1 1
1
1 1 lYp 1

1
1
> 1

1
1 1 1

1
1 1
1

1
1 1 1
1
1
1
1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Fig. 24-4 (b) Experimental Setup Top View

169
 1 0

EXPERIMENT 24 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

X y output (z)

A
4 0

1 1 2.

0
0 A

1 n 19

1 A 1 ft
I D

1 I /

1
I
7/ 1
1
n
u
c
D 1

12 12

8 11

Fig. 24-5 The Data Table

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Examine the results of the data table and determine the relationship be-
tween x, y and z. Discuss some of the possible sources of error in this experiment. What are

some of the practical applications that this kind of mechanism could satisfy?

PROBLEMS
1. Suppose that we misalign the x and y scales in the experimental mechanism an inch
or so by sliding one to the left and the other to the right in figure 24-4. If the three
pointers were zeroed on the scales, would the misalignment affect the accuracy of

subsequent data?

2. Compare the calibration of the x and y scale to the scale on the spring balance.
How do they compare?

3. Explain why the scale is different for the x and y compared to the z scale.

4. Use the spring equation to explain why the force calibration of a spring balance can
be used to express linear displacement.

5. Explain how to program and solve the equation

A+ 16 = 25

on the experimental setup of this experiment.

6. Sketch a mechanism using a lever and spring balances in such a way as to allow you
to substitute forces for the displacements used in the experiment.

7. Explain in detail an example problem solution using your device from problem six.

170
 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)
experiment
25
INTRODUCTION. Computations of physical quantities that involve angles frequently require

the use of trigonometry. In this experiment we will examine some basic trigonometric com-
puting mechanisms.

DISCUSSION. A mechanism used to solve or tangent function generator when its output
trigonometric functions would be classed as displacement, velocity, or other quantitative

an analog device. The relationship between measure is proportional to that function of a

the input and the output may involve sine, chosen angle. In other words, when the out-

cosine or tangent functions. Sometimes they put is plotted versus the input angle, the graph

also involve secant, cosecant or cotangent would be proportional to the curve you would
functions but no information that is not con- get by plotting the values for that function
tained in the first three is added. from a trig table. The shapes of the sine, co-

sine and tangent functions are illustrated in

A device can be considered a sine, cosine figure 25-1.
EXPERIMENT 25 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
v

(C) y = TAN x

Fig. 25-1 Graph of Trigonometric Functions (Cont'd)

You should already be familiar with a placement equivalent to the sine function (or
disk cam that drives a follower in a simple cosine, which is simply displaced 90° from
harmonic motion. The cam shown in figure the sine). It is important to understand that
25-2 would be a device for generating a dis- the follower displacement graph is called a

MAX.

MID.

MAX
MIN.

MID

n/2 — MIN
2n

FOLLOWER DISPLACEMENT

CAM AND FOLLOWER

Fig. 25-2 Sine Cam Used as a Function Generator

172
IVIECAHN ISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 25 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

sine or cosine function because of its shape.

We can start at any point recording data and

then pick the reference which gives the de-
sired curve.

The scotch yoke in figure 25-3 is another

popular mechanism for solving problems in-
volving the trigonometric functions. Link £-|

is a crank with a length and is fixed at

point P. The input angle is the crank angle
shown as a in the diagram. The magnitudes
of the x and y components correspond to the
by the slotted parts and are
distances traveled
marked accordingly on the diagram. Length Fig. 25-3 The Scotch Yoke
is the analog distance used to represent the
£l
hypotenuse and while it is shown as a fixed a scale factor of 1 inch = 500 yards, the dis-
distance in the figure, a slot in part A could tance, would be adjusted to three inches.
make it a variable. The relationships between The crank would be rotated to give an angle a
x, and y are of 20 degrees. If the distance x is measured
and it is 2.8 inches, we have
y = #i sin a
Horizontal Range = 2.8 X scale factor
x = £i cos a
2.8(500 yds) =* 1400 yards
Solving each equation for £ 1 gives us
Then, if the distance y is measured to be one
inch, we have
(25.1)
•
cos a sin a.

Height = 1 .0 X scale factor

As an illustration of this, let's say that a 1 .0(500) = 500 yards
radar receiver shows that a flying target is

1500 yards away, and the antenna is posi- Precision mechanisms can be used to give high

tioned at an angle of 20 degrees above the levels of accuracy but the principle of opera-
horizontal as shown in figure 25-4. Choosing tion is the same as that described above.

TARGET

^0°
HEIGHT

20°
RADAR
SET 0 GROUND RANGE

77777M7777777777777777777M777777777777P777?
Fig. 25-4 Example Problem

173
EXPERIMENT 25 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 3 Collars
*1 Wire loop link approx. 3 in. long 1 Rigid coupling
1 Steel rule 6 in. long 1 Lever arm, 1 in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub
1 Disk dial with 1/4-in. bore hub 1 Machine screw 6-32 x 1/4 roundhead
1 Dial index with mount 1 Spacer No. 6 x 1/8-in. long x 1/32-in.
1 Shaft 2" x 1/4" wall thickness
2 Shaft 4" x 1/4" 2 Bearing plates with spacers
4 Shaft hangers with bearings 2 Bearing mounts with bearings
*See appendix A for wire link construction details.
1 Slotted lever, 2 in. long, with
1/4 in. bore hub
PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect your parts to be sure they are in satisfactory working condition.

2. Construct the mechanism shown in figure 25-5.

3. Begin with the crank arm pointing up and the dial at 0°. Adjust the ruler to measure the
travel of the follower. Be sure the screw holding the link to the rigid coupling is in the
same place for each reading you make.

4. Record the displacement of the follower for each 20 degrees of rotation of the crank arm
from 0 to 360° (call displacements left of the starting point a negative quantity).

0 0
0

Fig. 25-5 Experimental Setup I

174
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 25 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

5. Construct the mechanism shown in figure 25-6.

6. Start with the slotted lever pointing vertically and adjust dial to read zero degrees.

Fig. 25-6 Experimental Setup II

175
EXPERIMENT 25 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig. 25-5 Fig. 25-6

Crank Angle a Displacement Lever Angle a. Displacement

in degrees in inches in degrees in inches

0 0

20 1/8

40 1/4

60 3/8

80 1/2

100 5/8

120 3/4

140 7/8

160 1

180 1-1/8

200 - 1/8

220 - 1/4

240 -3/8

260 - 1/2

280 -5/8

300 -3/4

320 -7/8

340 - 1

360 - 1-1/4

Fig. 25-7 The Data Table

7. Place the ruler so that one edge of the rigid coupling indicates three inches and call this
zero displacement. Position the ruler and sliding mechanism so that you can measure the
displacement equally in both directions.

8. Record the angles for the displacements listed in the data table.

9. Plot the curves of your data on separate sets of axes but on the same sheet of graph paper.

176
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 25 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

ANALYSIS GUIDE. your data explain the type of curve you got in each case.
In analyzing

Explain how you know the function generated to be as you stated. Discuss any difficulties you
encountered in the experiment.

PROBLEMS
1. The mechanism of figure 25-4 has a maximum error (e) of

where £
c
is the link length and £•] is the crank length. Calculate the maximum error

for your setup.

2. Explain how you could use the experimental setup of figure 25-4 to get the cosine
function.

3. Calling the displacement, y, write the equation relating the angle a and y for figure
25-4.

4. Write the equation relating the displacement, y, and the angle, a, for figure 25-5.

5. Look at the experimental setup in figure 25-5. Try to imagine rotating the lever to
90°. What would the distance of displacement approach?

6. Did your results of problem five agree with equation 25.1? Explain your reply.

7. Knowing the and horizontal components of two quantities that are at right
vertical

angles to each other, which of the mechanisms of this experiment would you use to
determine the angle? Explain.

8. If you knew the vertical component and hypotenuse of a right triangle, which of
the mechanisms you constructed would produce data proportional to the angle?
Explain your answer.

177
experimen •26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

INTRODUCTION. Certain physical quantities represent areas or integrals and others represent
rates or derivatives. In this experiment we will examine some simple ways of mechanically
computing some of these quantities.

DISCUSSION. A rate of change tells us how An instantaneous rate is called a derivative and
rapidly one quantity is changing in relation each delta, A, (rate of change) used in the
to another quantity. For example, if the equation would be replaced by d.

gasoline mileage of a car goes from 22 mpg at

40 mph to 10 mpg at 60 mph, the average

average rate =-^ = 50 mph for
rate of change is the change in mileage, A
mpg, divided by the change in speed, AV or
the 3-hour interval

A mpg 10 22 -12
average rate = dS
^v 60-40 20 instantaneous rate = -^-= 62 mph at t = 1 hour

= -0.6 hr./gal

Notice for average rates we talk about

This means that your gasoline mileage would time intervals while for a derivative we
decrease an average of 0.6 mpg for each mile specify instants of time.
per hour increase in speed over the interval
considered. Mechanisms that have a measurable out-
put quantity proportional to a rate of change
Many rates are changes in quantities are often called differentiators. A good
compared to time. Suppose you drove from example is the speedometer of a car which
here to a point 1 50 miles awav in three hours. gives the speed of the car at any given time.
Your average rate of change of position One method of doing this is shown in figure
would be 26-1.

AS = 150
average rate "Tup —
mi. = cn
50 mph The cable from the wheel turns a per-
manent magnet inside a coil so that an
This is your average rate of change so on the electrical current is generated and measured

average, your position changed 50 miles each by the current meter. The faster the car goes,
hour you drove. It isn't difficult to perceive the faster the magnet turns, inducing more
the car you drove as being stopped part of the current, causing the speedometer pointer (me-
time or doing 70 mph part of the trip and still ter needle) to read higher. The meter face is
averaging 50 mph. then calibrated in mph. The output current
or meter deflection is a quantity that is pro-
Suppose exactly one hour after you left portional to the rate of change of the position
on this tripyou looked at the speedometer and of the car so this instrument is a differentiator.

it read 62 mph. The instantaneous speed then It uses electrical currents to be analogous to a
would be 62 mph at time equal to one hour. speed so it is also an analog computer.

178
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

COIL
SPEEDOMETER

KB
SHAFT ROTATION
CABLE
3 € 3-

MAGNET
N
S
CURRENT
METER 6
TAKEN FROM WHEEL

Fig. 26-1 Speedometer

Figure 26-2 shows a purely mechanical Solving for work gives us

method of producing the same results. The

faster the shaft rotates, the farther the weights
are moved outwardly causing the sleeve to W= Pt
move up. The linkage makes the pointer
needle indicate up scale.

Now let's look at integrating mechanisms. If we want to compute work in terms of

As an introductory example let's recall that power and time, we would be calculating the
area under a curve. Considering the ordinate
one horsepower is 550 ft- lbs/sec. In other
values on the graph in figure 26-3 to be
words, power is work per unit of time.
multipliers for the actual units, let's inves-

of some
P =
work _ W tigate the graphical relationship

time t physical quantities.

Y777W777
POINTER
ROTATING
SHAFT

Fig. 26-2 Centrifugal Rate Indicator

179
EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

6 r

LU
g
O
CL

25-3 Computing Work Graphically

Supposes machine expends a continuous The computation of areas is relatively

easy so long as the curve produces only

two units of power for each one unit of time.
When the curve under which the
We would plot this on the graph of figure 26-3 rectangles.

as shown for time increment one, the work area to be computed becomes other shapes,
performed is the problem becomes more complex and must
be solved mathematically using integral cal-
W = Pt = (2) (1 ) = 2 units of work culus, or by some machine. Definite integrals
are a method for calculating areas. For
Note that the product is the area under the example, the integral from 0 to 1 (time axis)
power curve of a rectangle is length
(area is the area under the curve of the function,
x width). Now, if no power is expended f (t) and is written
during the next time interval, no work is
W (0-1 = unit as before
accomplished and the area from 1 to 2 is zero.
For the time interval of 2 to 3, the power
-r f (t)dt 1

the curve The interest here is not how you solve

is 3 and the work is the area under
the integral but what it means in terms of
from 2 to 3 {At = 1)
the area, so
W = Pt = (3) (1) = 3 units 2
w (1-2) = 0
The area C under the curve (work) is
-r f (t)dt

W= Pt= = 10 units w (2-3)

(2) (5)
-r f(t)dt= 3

Area O, by the same technique, is 6 units.

The
area:
total work performed, then, is the total
W (3-5) =p f(t)dt = 10

Wt = W v2 + W 2 _3 + W3.4 + W 4 5 = _ 2 + 0+ 3

+ 10 + 6 = 21 units
W -r f (t)dt = 6

180
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

Fig. 26-4 Area of Haifa Sine Wave

Thus, when we say a device is an example, an intermediate step to cajculating

integrator, we mean that it can compute the that the area of half a sine wave is 0.636
area under a curve for us. involves taking the indefinite (orantiderivative)
of the function:
Let's carry the example further by look-
ing at figure 26-4. When we say that the sin x dx = - cos x + k
definite integral from zero to ir of a half sine
Here k is called the constant of integration
curve is 0.636, we are saying that the area
and shifts the waveshape up and down on
under the curve equals 0.636 and would be
the x, y axes. When k = 0, the cos x wave
written
would be varying about (above and below)
= the x axis line.
Area f (x)dx
j sin x dx = .636
0.(
=J
Figure 26-5 shows the integrator that we
In some cases we are only interested in will use in this experiment. The relationship
the way in which the area changes rather than between input, coj, output, co
Q and R is

its specific value. In these cases we are not

interested in the end values shown at the top
Rdco:
and bottom of the integral curve. For

^^ji OUTPUT, Wo
vm
FRICTION WHEEL

Fig. 2&5 Mechanical Integrator

181
EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS

1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Pulley approximately 1 in. OD with

2 Bearing plates with spacers 1/4 in. bore hub

1 DC motor 28 VDC 1 Disk dial

1 Pulley approximately 2 in. OD with 1 Steel rule 6 in. long

1/4 in. bore hub 2 Collars

2 Shafts 1/4 X 4" 1 Flexible coupling

2 Bearing mounts with bearings 1 Stroboscope

2 Shaft hangers with bearings 1 DC power supply (0-40V)

1 O-ring approximately 1X1/8

PROCEDURE

1 . Inspect your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Construct the bearing plate assembly shown in figure 26-6.

3. Snap the O-ring onto the smaller of the two pulleys. It should fit quite tightly.

4. Mount the bearing plate on the breadboard as shown in figure 26-7.

5. Loosen the clamps and whole bearing plate assembly up snugly (not tightly)
slide the

against the small pulley with the o-ring on it. Note: The
metal parts of the two pulleys

should contact the o-ring only. Retighten the clamps.

BEARING PLATE

LARGE
PULLEY
COLLAR
/ INPUT DIAL

f
INPUT
4 SHAFT

Fig. 26-6 The Bearing Plate Assembly

182
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

DIRECTION REFERENCE
POSITION

MOTOR

Fig. 26-7 Experimental Setup II Top View

6. Adjust the mechanism so that the rubber friction drive wheel is on the outer edge of the
pulley wheel.

7. The forces tend to move the rubber friction wheel away from the center of the
will

drive wheel so the collar riding against the shaft hanger can serve to adjust the position
of the friction wheel.

8. Place the ruler so that one edge of the dial indicates 3 inches. This will be the reference
and will be called zero.

9. Set the power supply voltage to 10 volts and strobe the dial to determine the output RPM.
10. Move the dial the distance indicated
(in 1/64 inches) in the data table (so that the friction

wheel moves toward the center of the drive wheel) and reset the collar against the shaft
hanger.

11. Strobe the output and repeat step 10 for each position indicated in the data table. The
input is made to represent a sine wave by taking the values of displacement from the
sine curve.

12. Your data represents slightly less than 90° of a cycle. Plot your data on the graph
provided, choosing a scale to make the amplitude approximately the same as the sine
wave provided.

183
EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS) MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Reading Distance From

Output RPM
l\IO. Reference

1 U (at net point)

2 6/64 in.

J l Z/D4 in.

4A I / /o4 in.

5 zziw in.

6 26/64 in.

7 31/64 in.

8 38/64 in.

Fig. 26-8 The Data Table

13. Using your data for the first 75° and your knowledge of integration, plot how the
remaining output curve should look if a complete cycle could be run.

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing your results from this experiment you should examine the
data and discuss the relationship that exists between the input and output. Explain in your own
words how the experimental mechanism could be used in a computing machine. Discuss any
difficulties you encountered with the experiment.

a.

PROBLEMS

1. After integrating a function you get a constant of integration which can be

determined with some additional information. Suppose we solve the problem
y = /dx=x + k. In order to see the effect of k, ploty = x + k belowfor k = 0,
k = 1 and k = 2. Three points (say x = 0, 1 and 2) for each line should be sufficient.

-- 4

H 1 1
1
x

Fig. 26-9 Problem Axes

184
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)
EXPERIMENT 26 COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS} MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

2. The distance from the friction wheel to the center of the drive pulley, R, is varied by
moving from the outside edge to the center at a constant velocity. This distance is

changing at a linear rate and

yxdx=-y+k

Sketch the output waveshape. Ignore the vertical position by letting k = 0.

3. If a flywheel changes its velocity from 10 RPM to 40 RPM in three seconds, what is

the rate of change (average) in RPM per second?

4. A load is moved along a conveyor belt such that it takes 30 seconds to travel the
full length of 100 feet. What is the average rate of change (velocity) in feet
per second.

5. Sketch way in which a mechanism could be connected to your experimental

a
setup order to drive the friction wheel back and forth in a sine function
in

(R - sine ©) (Check previous experiments for ideas about sine function generators).

6. Sketch the input and output waveforms for problem 5 above.

186
 RATCHET MECHANISMS
experiment
27
INTRODUCTION. Many mechanisms require that motion be in only one direction. Others re-

quire that motion be intermittent although the input motion may be continuous. One method
of achieving both of these types of motion is to use a ratchet. In this experiment we will ex-
amine some of the basic features of ratchets.

DISCUSSION. Ratchet mechanisms or rat-

chet gearing may be used to transmit motion
of an intermittent nature, or to prevent a
shaft from rotating backward. As an inter-
mittent motion device, these mechanisms are
useful for stepping or indexing. And, as a PAWL
one-way motion device, they are useful as
preventative or safety devices.

Figure 27-1 shows a ratchet in perhaps

its simplest form. In this mechanism a move-
ment of the wheel in a counterclockwise di- Fig. 27- 1 Basic Ratchet Wheel
rection will occur when the lever is moved in

that direction. When the lever is returned to ting in the clockwise direction, the pawl could

its original position, the pawl or detent will be secured to a stationary member. If the

slide over the wheel teeth but will not cause teeth of the ratchet wheel were square in

wheel rotation. In other words, when the shape, the pawl would then prevent motion
lever is given an up and down oscillatory mo- in either direction. Square-toothed ratchet

tion, the ratchet wheel will be given an inter- wheels are also used to provide reversing

mittent rotary motion. action. This approach is illustrated in figure

27-2. Here, the pawl is in the form of a plun-

To prevent the ratchet wheel from rota- ger which has one tapered side and is free to

Fig. 27-2 Reversing Ratchet Mechanism

187
EXPERIMENT 27 RA TCHET MECHA NISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

move but is held against the ratchet wheel by placing a number of pawls by side and
side
a smallamount of spring force. When the proportioning their lengths according to the
pawl is lifted and turned 180 degrees, the flat pitch of the teeth on the ratchet wheel,
a
driving face is reversed which will give the quite fine feed can be obtained even though
ratchet wheel motion in the opposite di- the ratchet wheel has a coarse pitch.
rection.

Another important type of ratchet is the

In all of the ratchets discussed so far, the frictional type. In this type there is no direct,
number of indexing positions equals the num- positive engagement between the pawl and
ber of teeth on the ratchet wheel. One way the ratchet wheel; rather, the intermittent
to increase the number of index positions is motion is transmitted by frictional resistance.
to increase the number of teeth; however, a The ratchet wheel has a smooth surface. The
large number of teeth mean smaller ones and pawl shape shown in figure 27-4 is such that
thus less strength. Another method used to motion in only one direction is encouraged.
increase the number of stops made by the If the pawl is moved in the proper direction,
ratchet wheel is to use multiple pawls. For the ratchet wheel will rotate. Conversely, if
example, adding another pawl which is of a the ratchet wheel attempts to move in the
shown in figure 27-3 will
different length as opposite direction, the pawl friction will tend
double the number of indexing positions. By to prevent it. The action in this type of fric-

Fig. 27-3 Multiple Pawl Ratchet

Fig. 27-4 Friction Ratchet

188
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMEN T 27 RA TCHE T MECHA NISMS

tion ratchet is substantially the same as the

positive-action ratchet illustrated in figure ROLLERS
27-1.

A second type of friction ratchet is illus-

trated in figure 27-5. Rollers, or sometimes

balls, are placed between the ratchet wheel
and an outer ring which, when turned in one
direction, causes the rollers or balls to be
wedged between the wheel and ring as they
move up the inclined edges. Rotation in the
opposite direction will cause the rollers to
RATCHET
move into the recessed areas of the teeth and WHEEL
thereby reduce the friction between the two
surfaces.

When designing a positive-action ratchet

some consideration must be given to the way Fig. 27-5 Another Friction Ratchet
the pawl mates with the ratchet teeth. To in-

sure that the pawl is automatically pulled in

and engaged properly, an appropriately cont- the ratchet all lie on the same circle. The
oured tooth shape is important. One way to normal to the line of contact at the point of
insure that relatively small forces are acting in initial contact between the pawl and the
the system is to make sure that the ratchet tooth face should pass through the center line
wheel center, the pawl pivot center, and the of the ratchet and pawl pivot between their
point of initial contact between the pawl and center points. This is illustrated in figure 27-6.

PAWL PIVOT CENTER

CENTER OF RATCHET

Fig. 27-6 Pawl-Tooth Mating Design

189
EXPERIMENT 27 RA TCHET MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

In some cases a four-bar mechanism is The drive pawl used may have a single
used to move a ratchet pawl. Figure 27-7 tooth or many teeth. In some instances a
shows one of the many possible arrangements rack is used as a drive pawl. The intermittent
employing a four-bar mechanism. In this type motion may be either rotary as in figure 27-7
of assembly the pawl steps over the ratchet or linear. A linear motion mechanism would
teeth, engages one and pulls it to the right use a rack in place of the ratchet wheel and
each time the crank rotates. The resulting would probably have some means of returning
ratchet wheel motion is, of course, inter- the rack to its starting position from the end
mittent. of its travel.

DRIVE
PAWL

CRANK

Fig. 27-7 A Four-Bar Ratchet Assembly

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Lever arms 1 in. long with 1/4-in.
2 Bearing plates with spacers bore hubs
4 Bearing holders with bearings 1 Spur gear approx. 3/4 in. OD with
2 Shafts 4" x 1/4" 1/4-in. bore hub
1 Shaft 2" x 1/4" 2 Flathead machine screws 2-56 x 3/4 in.

2 Shaft hangers with bearings 4 Flat washers No. 2 x 1/2 in. OD

2 Disk dials with 1/4-in. bore hubs 4 Hex nuts 2-56 x 1/4 in.
2 Dial indices with mounts 1 Steel rule 6 in. long
5 Collars 1 Rubber grommet approx. 1/2 in. OD x
1 Rack 1/4 in. thick with 1/4-in. hole

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect each of your components to insure that it is undamaged.

2. Mount the rack to the crank and rocker as shown in figure 27-8. The crank should be
1/2 in. long and the rocker should be 1 in. long.

190
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMEN T 27 RA TCHE T MECHA NISMS

0 0

INPUT DIAL

3 1/2"-

Fig. 27-8 The Experimental Setup

3. Construct the remainder of the mechanism shown in figure 27-8. The dimensions shown
on the drawing are only approximate. Measure and record each link length
^
C' o''

4. Adjust the height of the rocker shaft and the spacing between the bearing plate assembly
and crank shaft so that the rack properly meshes with the gear when both levers point

vertically downward.

5. Adjust the dials to read zero when the rack is at its righthand limiting position.

6. Fit the output dial so that it squeezes the rubber grommet firmly against the bearing
plate.

7. Starting at zero carefully rotate the input dial clockwise in 20-degree steps. Record both
the input and output dial readings at each step. Continue until the output dial has ro-

tated more than 360 degrees.

8. Reset the dials to the position given in step 5. Be sure the rubber grommet is firmly
squeezed between the output dial and the bearing plate.

9. Repeat step 7 but rotate the input counterclockwise this time.

10. On graph paper plot the output positions versus the input positions for both sets of data.

191
EXPERIMENT 27 RA TCHET MECHANISMS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Clockwise Rotation Counterclockwise Rotation

Input 0 Output 0 Input 0 Output 0

«1" = =
«c *o

Fig. 27-9 The Data Table

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing this experiment you should consider several possible applica-
tions of a ratchet. How
might a ratchet be used to obtain both quick return and intermittent
motion? Discuss means of varying the timing of the intermittent motion. What was the purpose
of the rubber grommet? Discuss any difficulties you encountered in assembling the mechanism
and any other pertinent comments which you might have.

192
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 27 RA TCHET MECHANISMS

PROBLEMS
1. Discuss at least three similarities and three differences between a geneva mechanism
and a ratchet mechanism.

2. What are the advantages of the friction type ratchet over the positive action type?

3. Draw a simple stick diagram of the experimental mechanism.

4. Graphically determine the amount of horizontal and vertical displacement experi-

enced by the rack in the experiment.

5. Verify that the mechanism in the experiment satisfies the conditions required for a
crank rocker.

193
 experiment / >C FRICTION RATCHETS

INTRODUCTION. In many applications it is necessary to restrict rotation in one direction while

allowing rotation in the opposite, direction. Friction ratchets are sometimes used to provide
single direction rotation. In this experiment we will examine a simple example of such a ratchet.

DISCUSSION. A friction ratchet is composed that we know the value (f -j

) of the component
of a wheel and a pawl. Figure 28-1 shows one of the spring (or gravity) force acting perpen-
of the possible arrangements. In this type of dicular to the pawl arm. When we don't know
mechanism the wheel may turn relatively this value, we can determine it from the spring
freely counterclockwise. When it does, it (or gravity) force and the pawl arm angle.
tends to lift the end of the pawl against the
force exerted by the pawl spring and that If the wheel is to turn, it must impart a
arising from the weight of the pawl itself. force f2 to the lever which is such that the
In some cases no spring is used and the pawl moments acting on the pawl arm balance.
is held in contact with the wheel by gravity. That is, from figure 28-2,
In this event only small amounts of torque
are required for counterclockwise rotation of Sf -fi 1 f (28.1)
1 2
the wheel.
where both f-j and ^2 are perpendicular to the
In other cases the spring is used and the pawl arm.
torque required to turn the wheel counter-
clockwise depends more or less directly on Now let's look at the angles between the
the spring force. Figure 28-2 shows a simpli- forces and distances in the mechanism. Figure
fied diagram of a friction ratchet operation 28-3 shows the ones we will be interested in.

under this type of condition. Let's notice that the force ^2 acting to lift the
pawl arm is one of the quadrature components
For purposes of analysis let's assume of the tangential force F. The relationship

Jmrn

Fig. 28-1 A Friction Ratchet

194
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 28 FRICTION RA TCHETS

Fig. 28-2 Forces Acting on a Friction Ratchet

between these two forces is or

f
a = 180° -|3 (28.3)
F = —=-
cos a
(28.2)

So, if we know fJ, we can find a. Applying

To evaluate this equation we must first deter- tne | aw of sines to the triangle in figure 28-3
mine the angle a between ^2 ar| d F. To do we nave
this we observe that at the vertex of ^ anc ' F

C R
a + 0+ 180 = 360° sin j0 sin 0
EXPERIMENT 28 FRICTION RA TCHETS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

or to the pawl arm.

sin (3 =-p sin 6 (28.4) The wheel torque is, of course,

SRf 1
where R is the wheel radius, C is the center
T = FR = (28.6)
0 #1 cos a
distance between shafts and is the angle
between the center line and the pawl arm.
and the tangential force required at the wheel
With this equation (28.4) we can determine j3.

shaft is
Then using 28.3 we get a. Finally, if we know

a, we can combine equations 28.1 and 28.2 t SRfi

rendering F; =- = (28.7)
i
r r cos a
&i

Sfi where r is the shaft radius.

F = (28.5)
#1 cos a
If the wheel in figure 28-1 attempts to
rotate clockwise, the pawl arm is forced down-
which relates the tangential wheel force to the ward. This tends to jam the pawl against the
spring (or gravity) force acting perpendicular wheel opposing its clockwise rotation.

MATERIALS
1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Washer 1/4 in. ID, 1/2 in. OD, 1/16 in. thick

2 Bearing plates with spacers 1 O-ring 1 in. average diameter

4 Bearing holders with bearings 2 Spring balances
4 Collars 1 Spring balance post with clamp
1 Pulley approximately 2 in. OD with 1 Waxed string approximately 18 in. long
1/4-in. bore hub 1 Protractor
2 Lever arms 1 in. long with 1/4-in. 1 Steel rule 6 in. long
bore hubs 1 Dial caliper 0 - 4 in.

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect all of your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the levers and O-ring as shown in figure 28-4.

3. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 28-5.

4. Adjust the shaft center distance so that the lever arm is vertical when the O-ring is in firm

contact with the pulley groove.

5. Tie a loop in one end of the waxed string.

6. Wind the string tightly in a single layer onto the pulley shaft so that the loop is accessible.
The string must be wound on the shaft in the direction that will cause the pulley to turn
forcing the pawl arm away when the loop end of the string is pulled.

7. Adjust the pawl spring balance so that it is horizontal and reads 4 ounces.

196
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 28 FRICTION RA TCHETS

NOTE: THE O-RING IS STRETCHED

AROUND LEVERS AND RESTS
IN THE SLOT BETWEEN THEM.

O-RING WASHER

0 <S>

Fig. 28-4 Levers and O-Ring

Fig. 28-5 The Experimental Mechanism

8. Hook the end of the remaining spring balance into the string loop.

9. Smoothly pull the spring balance causing the pulley to rotate at a constant velocity.
Record the force required to maintain a constant pulley velocity. You may have to
practice this operation several times to get it smooth enough.

10. Wrap the string back onto the shaft in the opposite direction.

197
EXPERIMENT 28 FRICTION RA TCHETS MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

1 1 . Now repeat step 9.

12. Repeat steps 6 through 1 1 for pawl forces of 8, 12, and 16 ounces.

13. Measure and record the ratchet parameters listed near the bottom of the data table. (0 is

the angle between the pawl center line and the center line between the shaft centers.)

Pulley Pulley
Pawl Force Force
Force Forward Backward

4 oz

8 oz

12 oz

16 oz

h S 0 R r

Fig. 28-6 The Data Table

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing your results from this experiment you should consider two
main points:
1. Was the forward force required to rotate the pulley more-or-less proportional to the
pawl force?

2. Did you observe a difference between the forward and backward pulley forces for a

given pawl force?

Based on your answer to these points discuss the effectiveness of the experimental ratchet.

PROBLEMS
1. Using your ratchet parameters from step 13 and equation 28.4, compute the angle p.

2. Make a sketch of the mechanism similar to figure 28-3 and label 0 and j3.

3. Using equation 28.3 compute the angle a and label it on your sketch.

4. With equation 28.7 compute the pulley force Fj and label s, R, fi, r, £-| on your
drawing. (Assume fi = 12 oz for this calculation.)

5. Compare Fj from problem 4 to the corresponding value in the data table. How
well do they agree?

198
 experiment TOGGLE LINKA GES
29
INTRODUCTION. Basically, a toggle linkage is composed of two members joined together in
such a way that a small force at the joint produces a large force at the ends. Toggles are used in
a variety of presses, clamps and fasteners. In this experiment we will examine basic toggle action.

DISCUSSION. Let's consider the simple mech- Looking at the load (point B), we see
anism shown in figure 29-1. If we assume for that the force here has two components. It

a moment that the link lengths (£-| and has its share of the vertical load (f/2) and a
are equal, then we can draw the force diagrams horizontal component (F), From figure 29-2b
shown in figure 29-2. we can determine the relationship between
these two components as being
Notice that in figure 29-2a the compres-
f/2
sion forces, f-j and ^ in links ^1 and ^2'
-= tan e
respectively, are equal to each other in or
magnitude. Moreover, these forces must add
up vectorially to equal the force f applied -p- = 2 tan 0 (29.1)
to the toggle joint.

\\\\\\\\\\\\\^

(A) FORCES AT POINT A (B) FORCES AT POINT B

Fig. 29-2 Forces in a Simple Toggle Mechanism

199
EXPERIMENT 29 TOGGLE LINKAGES MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

where 6 is the angle between £ 2 and tne center In many applications the link lengths

line BC. will not be equal. Figure 29-4 shows a typical

case using unequal link lengths. In this case

Another way that this equation is some- we can draw the force diagrams shown in

times written requires that we recall that figure 29-5. Notice that 2 f-j and f are now
the vertical force components at points C and

tan0 =
sin 0 B, respectively.
cos©
If the mechanism is in equilibrium, then

Substituting into equation 29.1 gives us the sum of fi and f

2
must equal the force f

applied at the toggle joint:

_f__ - sin©
F cos© f 1+ f 2 f

or
Also, the moments acting on points C and B
f cos@= 2 F sin© (29.2) must be equal so

as an equivalent expression. bf = af
-J 2

If we plot equation 29.1, the result is

Notice Focusing on the forces at point B (figure

approximately as shown in figure 29-3.

approaches zero degrees, the ratio 29-5b), we see that f 2 and F are related by
that as ©
f/F also approaches zero. Now, if f is a finite
f
(non-zero) force, then F becomes extremely 2
-^ = tan@ (29.3)
large. In theory at least, F would be infinite

at ©= 0. However, in a practical case, such an

idealistic condition is impossible due to play Using the moment equation we can solve

in the joints, compression in the links, etc. for fi in terms of f 2 with the result

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

© IN DEGREES

Fig. 29-3 f/F Versus 0

200
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 29 TOGGLE LINKAGES

Fig. 29-4 A Toggle With Unequal Arms

f
1
=-j- ^2 Substituting this into equation 29.3 allows us
to solve for the ratio f/F:

Substituting this into the sum-of-vertical-forces

equation will give us

j= (1 +-^)tan© (29.4)
+
t f
2
f
2=
f

or
In this type of mechanism, when 0
changes, the values of a and b also change.
f
2 n+f)=f Consequently, the relationship between f/F
and 0 is different for each position of the
mechanism. However, as© is quite small, then
which can be solved for ^2 n terms of ' f

f 2"
f
a « #2 ar| d b ~ Ci
1 +a/b

(A) FORCES AT POINTS A, B, &C (B) FORCES AT POINT B

Fig. 29-5 Forces in Unequal Link Toggle

201
EXPERIMENT 29 TOGGL E LINKA GES MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

So, we can approximate the ratio f/F using of tan 0 and use the form

f
X2
!»<1 tan0 I tan© (29.5)
F

when 0 is a small angle. It is often slightly

more convenient to rearrange the coefficient in actual practice.

MATERIALS
1 Steel rule 6 in. long 1 Pulley approx. 3/4 in. OD with
1 Protractor 1/4 in. bore hub

1 Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Rigid coupling

2 Bearing plates with spacers

*1 Wire loop link approx. 3 in. long
1 Shaft hanger with bearing 1 Machine screw 6-32 x 1/4
4 Bearing holders with bearings 1 Spacer No. 6x1/8 with

3 Shafts 4" X 1/4" 1/32 in. wall thickness

2 Spring balances with clamps and posts 5 Collars

1 Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub 2 Pieces of string approx. 6 in. long

*See Appendix A for wire link construction details.

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect all of your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 29-6.

3. Measure and record the link lengths used in the toggle mechanism.

4. Check to see that both spring balances read zero when no force is applied.

5. Position the input spring balance completely back against its post.

6. Move the output spring balance forward until it reads zero. Then carefully move it back

until the input force is 1 ounce.

7. Check to be sure that:

(a) The string connecting the input force to the toggle joint approaches the
joint vertically. Adjust the position of the lever arm shaft as necessary
to make the input string vertical.

(b) The point of attachment of the wire link to the slider block must be as
shown in figure 29-7. You may have to hold the screw in this position
while taking your force and angle readings.

(c) Both spring balances must be horizontal and they must not touch any
part of the mechanism.

202
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 29 TOGGLE LINKAGES

J~l Q.

<2>
CO

w
i i
i i

i
i
i
' i

0 TOGGLE
JOINT

U LJ

Fig. 29-6b Experimental Setup Top View

LINK LINK

(A) CORRECT (B) INCORRECT

Fig. 29-7 Slider and Link Alignment

203
EXPERIMENT 29 TOGGLE LINKAGES MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

8. With the conditions in step 7 satisfied, repeat step 6.

9. Record the input (f) and output (F) forces, then carefully measure and record the angle
(0) between the wire link and the slider shaft center line.

10. Repeat steps 6 through 9 for input forces of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 ounces. Considerable care

must be exercised in taking these data to insure that they are reliable.

1 1 . For each data set compute the ratio f /F.

1 2. Plot the angle 0 versus the ratio f/F on a sheet of graph paper.

1 3. On the same set of axes plot equation 29.5.

*1-
f f/F e
F
(ounces)

1V

Fig. 29-8 777e Data Table

ANALYSIS GUIDE. you should compare the two curves and discuss
In the analysis of these data

their differences and and discuss

similarities. some of the possible sources of error in the
List

experiment. Discuss each of the conditions given in step 7 and explain why each is important.

204
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 29 TOGGLE LINKAGES

PROBLEMS
1 . A machine employs equal length arms in a toggle mechanism.
certain stone crushing
is required to
If the toggle angle never exceeds 2.0 degrees, what input force

a minimum load force of 1,000,000 pounds?

2. Make a sketch showing how a nutcracker using a toggle mechanism can be adjusted
to accommodate nuts of various sizes.

3. A pair of toggle pliers requires a force of 22 pounds to hold the toggle angle at 3
degrees. If the toggle links are of equal length, what is the load force?

4. A certain toggle mechanism has unequal links of £-| =8 in. and ^ = 5 in -

Wnat is the

ratio f/F at a toggle angle of: 1 .0 degree? 5.0 degrees? 30 degrees?

5. Work out problem 4 using both equations 29.4 and 29.5. What difference, if any,

do you observe?

6. List several practical applications of a toggle mechanism.

205
 experiment
30 TOGGLE LA TCHING

INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms that latch or hold a load in position are widely used in many
practical applications. In this experiment we shall examine a simple example of a latching

mechanism.
DISCUSSION. Toggle mechanisms are fre- Combining the results of equations 30.1 and
quently used to latch a load in position. 30.2 gives us
Figure 30-1 shows a simplified toggle used
in this way. In this mechanism £-| and £2 (S., + s2
are the toggle links with £3 the load sup-
tan 0 (30.3)
«1 S2
port link.

as the relationship between the unlatching

When the toggle links are to the right of
force and the load force. In actual practice
the center line as shown in figure 30-1, the
there will be some friction and slack in the
load support is latched. The load force tends
mechanism so that an unlatching force slightly
to hold the toggle in the position shown.
greater than that predicted by equation 30.3
is usually required for unlatching.
we apply an unlatching force from the
If

right, we can push the toggle joint past its

center line and release the load. The amount

of unlatching force required depends on the
geometry of both the toggle and the support
arms as well as on the load force. In the case

of figure 30-1 we can determine the effective

toggle end load (F') applied through the load
support using figure 30-2.

The load support is a class-two lever and

the force effective at the end of the toggle can
be found by observing that the moments act-

ing on the lever must be equal

F(St +S 2 )
= F'(S
2 )

or

F'= F (30.1)

Then if the toggle angle (0) is relatively

small, the unlatching force necessary to just

hold the system in equilibrium is
CENTER LINE
,£l + «2
f ~ f tan 0 (30.2)
Fig. 30- 1 A Latching Toggle

206
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 30 TOGGLE LA TCHING

if the angle between £-| and the center line is

small when the mechanism is resting on the

stop.
•A
Toggle mechanisms of this type are used
in a variety of practical applications. Figure
TOGGLE STOP 30-3 shows a typical example of a toggle latch
used in a pair of pliers. In this case the lower
jaw is, in effect, a bell crank used to change
the direction of the load force.

Fig. 30-2 Determining Unlatching Force Notice also that the left end of fi-j is not
It is worth noting that if the toggle stop fixed. It can be adjusted with a positioning
is located a distance (S3) above the £•] pivot, screw in the handle. This allows the spacing
then the force (f) acting on the stop will be of the latched jaws to be set to a desired value.
Because of this adjustability a force analysis

of the type discussed above only valid at

f'-f^ 1
(30.4)
is

one setting.

ADJUSTING
SCREW

JAWS

BELL CRANK

Fig. 30-3 Toggle Latch Pliers

MATERIALS
Steel rule 6 in. long 1 Pulley approx. 3/4 in. OD with
Protractor 1/4-in. bore hub
Breadboard with legs and clamps 1 Rigid coupling
Bearing plates with spacers
f
1 Wire loop link approx. 3 in. long

Shaft hanger with bearing 1 Machine screw 6-32 x 1/4

Bearing holders with bearings 1 Spacer No. 6 x 1/8 with 1/32 in.

Shafts 4"x 1/4" wall thickness

Spring balances with clamps and posts 5 Collars

Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4-in. 2 Pieces of string approx. 6 in. long

bore hub
•See appendix A for wire link construction details.

207
EXPERIMENT 30 TOGGLE LA TCHING MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROCEDURE
1 . Inspect all of your components to insure that they are undamaged.

2. Assemble the mechanism shown in figure 30-4.

3. Measure and record the link lengths used in the toggle mechanism.

4. Check to see that both spring balances read zero when no force is applied.

5. Position the input spring balance so that it reads zero with the toggle against the stop.

6. Move the output spring balance forward until it reads zero. Then carefully move it back
until it reads 14 ounces.

7. Check to be sure that:

(a) The string connecting the input force to the toggle joint approaches the
joint vertically. Adjust the position of the lever arm shaft as necessary
to make the input string vertical.

(b) The point of attachment of the wire link to the slider block must be
as shown in figure 30-5. You may have to hold the screw in this posi-
tion while taking your force and angle readings.

(c) Both spring balances must be horizontal and they must not touch any
part of the mechanism.

8. With the conditions in step 7 satisfied repeat step 6.

9. Record the input (f) and output (F) forces, then carefully measure and record the angle
(0) between the wire link and the slider shaft center line.

10. Repeat steps 6 through 9 for input forces of 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. oz. until the toggle unlatches.

Keep the output force at 14 oz. Considerable care must be exercised in taking these data
to insure that they are reliable.

11. Using the link lengths, work out an equation for the approximate unlatching force you
would expect for the experimental mechanism. Use an analysis approach similar to the
one in the discussion.

12. With your equation and your values of link lengths (also your value of output force),

compute the expected unlatching force and record it.

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In the analysis of these data you should compare the experimental and
computed values of unlatching forces, then discuss their differences and similarities. List and
discuss some of the possible sources of error in the experiment. Discuss each of the conditions
given in step 7 and explain why each is important.

208
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES EXPERIMENT 30 TOGGLE LA TCHING

Fig. 30-4a Experimental Setup Side View

n q

O D
Fig. 30-4b Experimental Setup Top View
EXPERIMENT 30 TOGGLE LATCHING MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

t F 0

Unlatching
force
equation

Unlatching
force
value

Fig. 30-6 The Data Table

PROBLEMS
1. A pair of toggle latch pliers has equal length toggle links and a toggle angle of two
degrees. What is the unlatching force if the load effective at the toggle end is 300
pounds?

2. What type of four-bar mechanism is represented by the pliers in figure 30-3?

Assume £•, = 1-3/8 in., 2 = 1-3/8 in., 3 = 1 in. and fig = 2-1/2 in.
fi J2

3. A mechanism like figure 30-1 is used to lock an automobile lift in its "up" position.
If the links are C-j = 4 ft, £3 = 2-1/2 ft, fi 4 = 6 in. and the effective
£ 3-1/2 ft,
2
load is 4500 pounds, what would be the unlatching force for a toggle angle of 3.5
degrees?

4. What would be the force on the toggle stop in problem 3 if S = 2-1/2 ft? Assume
the mechanism to be fully latched when 0 = 3.5 degrees.

5. List three practical applications of a toggle latch mechanism.

210
DELMAR PUBLISHERS, MOUNTAINVIEW AVENUE, ALBANY, NEW YORK 12205
 .

Appendix

WIRE LINK CONSTRUCTION

The wire links used in these experiments should be constructed using steel wire with a
diameter of 0.05 in. Figure A-1 shows the construction details for a straight link.

Fig. A-1 Straight Link Construction

The link should be constructed as follows:

1 . Cut the wire slightly longer than the desired length (£) plus 0.65 in.

2. Smooth off the rough ends with a file and remove any excess length. (The total length
should be the desired value plus 0.65 in.)

3. Bend the ends of the wire as shown in figure A-1

4. Twist the wire if necessary to align the ends.

1 +-

Fig. A-2 Reverse Link Construction

Reverse links are constructed in the same way but with the ends bent in opposite directions
as shown in figure A-2.

213
MECHANISMS/LINKAGES APPENDIX A WIRE LINK CONSTRUCTION

Loop links are constructed in a similar manner but have a loop bent in one end as shown in

figure A-3. The remaining end is constructed like a straight or reverse link.

In most cases the exact dimensions of a link are not critical. Don't worry if your link isn't

precisely the prescribed dimensions.

When you make one of the links keep it with the other components so that it can be used

in later experiments.

Fig. A-3 Loop Link Construction

214
APPENDIX B
EXPERIMENT 1 Name
Date: Class Instructor

% Diff.

f=1 s1 M 1
•=2 s2 M2 in M

Fig. 1-5 Data for Cop/anar Arms

% Diff.

Si F
2 s2 M2 in M

Fig. 1-6 Data for Noncoplanar Arms

EXPERIMENT 2 Name
Date: Class Instructor

First Second
Qty. Trial Trial

F 1

»1

*2

M 1

M2
m't

M'2

MA.,

MA 2
(MA-,)(MA 2 )

Fjj/F,

% Diff.

F/^r. 2-4 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 3 Name
Date: Class Instructor

0/

Qty. Fl ^2 *1 *2 «1 *2 f f Diff.

First
Trial

Second
Trial

Third
Trial

F/V7. 5-5 7/je Dafa 7a6/e

I
EXPERIMENT 4 Name
Date: Class Instructor

LL F2 *1 *2 *2

% %
f M M2 Diff. M'-j M2 Diff.
1

%
MA-j MA 2 MAy MA T Diff.

F/fir. 4-5 7/7e Data Tables

EXPERIMENT 5 Name
Date: Class Instructor

%
LL
F2 C
1 «2 ©1 ®2 f
1
f
2 M 1
M2 Diff.

Fl /F 2 V f
2 *2«1

F/fif. 5-S The Data Tables

EXPERIMENT 6 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Qty
Trial n N F
1
>=2
h
1

F/ff. 5-5 Data Table A

Qty %
Trial
©A ©B ©C ©D f f Diff.

Fig. 6-3 Data Table B

 EXPERIMENT 7 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Type of
Name of Mechanism
Mechanism

Dimensions of
= *1- =
Mechanism «o *c

Sketch of Mechanism Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7- 10 Data for the First Mechanism

Type of
Name of Mechanism
Mechanism

Dimensions of = =
Mechanism
fi
o h~ *c

Sketch of Mechanism Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-11 Data for the Second Mechanism

Type of
Name of Mechanism
Mechanism

Dimensions of = =
*o *c
Mechanism

Sketch of Mechanism Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7- 12 Data for the Third Mechanism

Type of Name of Mechanism

Mechanism

Dimensions of = = c =
*o *1 c
Mechanism

Sketch of Mechanism Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7- 13 Data for the Fourth Mechanism

EXPERIMENT 8 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Driver Follower Angular

Position Position Velocity (Rad/sec.)

0°

20°

40°

60°

80°

100°

120°

140°

160°

180°

200°

220°

240°

260°

280°

300°

320°

340°

360°

S = £ =
c o _

Fig. 8-8 Data Table for the First Trial

Driver Follower Angular Velocity
Position Position (Rad/sec.)

0°

20°

40°

60°

80°

100°

120°

140°

160°

180°

200°

220°

240°

260°

280°

300°

320°

340°

360°

= c s
«2 c= o=_

Fig. 8-9 Data Table for the Second Trial

EXPERIMENT 9 Name
Class Instructor
Date:

Driver Follower i Angular Veloc- Driver Follower Angular Veloc

Position ity (Rad/sec.) Position Position ity (Rad/sec.)

Position

0° 0°

20° 20°

40° 40°

60° 60°

80° 80°

100° 100°

120° 120°

140° 140°

160° 160°

180° 180°

200° 200°

220° 220°

240° 240°

260° 260°

280° 280°

300° 300°

320° 320°

340° 340°

360° 360°

«1- e
2
=
«r h=
=
*c
=
*o
=
h= *0

Fig. 9-6 Data Table First Trial Fig. 9-7 Data Table Second Trial
EXPERIMENT 10 Name
Class Instructor
Date:

Counterclockwise Clockwise

0i 0- 0. 0.

*o=-

«2-

Fig. 10-6 Data Table I

Counterclockwise Clockwise

0 1 ©2 ®1 02

Fig. 10-7 Data Table II

EXPERIMENT 11 Name
Date: Class Instructor
EXPERIMENT 12 Name
Date: Class Instructor

=
*c

First Trial Second Trial

e 0 9 &

Fig. 12-6 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 13 Name
Date: Class Instructor

*1 K

e X d d
(Meas.) (Comp.)

Fig. 13-6 The Data Tables

EXPERIMENT 14 Name
Date: Class Instructor

8'
*c
x
c
x
o S

Clockwise Counterclockwise Clockwise Counterclockwise

0 X 0 X 0' X' 0' X'

Fig. 14-9 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 15 Name
Date: Class Instructor

First Pass Second Pass Third Pass Average Values

X 0 X e X e X e

Length of follower lever arm r =

Fig. 15-5 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 16 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Cam Profile

G;

Ng d

Gear & Follower Data

Fig. 16-10 The Data Tables

r
EXPERIMENT 17 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Cam Profile

e)

©i 9,

Gear & Follower Data

Fig. 17-9 The Data Tables

i
 1

EXPERIMENT 18 Name
Date: Class Instructor

h l
2
l
3 H *5

RESULTS FROM STEP 9

Fig. 18-13 The Experimental Results

x x l l
<1 2 3 4 5

RESULTS FROM STEP 1

Fig. 18-13 The Experimental Results (Cont'd)

EXPERIMENT 19 Name
Date: Class Instructor

n N1 n
2
N2 N1 N2
1

(3/4 in. OD) (2 in. OD (3/4 in. OD) (2 in. OD) n

1

Spur Gears

n
N3 n -N 3 3
"3 3 Ratio
n
3 - N3

Harmonic Drive

CO; wo —w 0
i
+
.

ratio

Calculated

Measured

Fig. 19-5 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 20 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Distance between
Crank arm length, £-| shafts, £
Q

Measured

Calculated

Input Angle Output Angle Input Angle Output Angle

(degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)

0 65

5 70

10 75

15 80

25 85

29 90

30 100

35 150

40 200

45 250

50 300

55 350

60 360

Fig. 20-3 The Data Tables

EXPERIMENT 21 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Angle
(degrees) F t (oz) F 2 (oz) Ratio

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60
—
65

70

75

Fig. 21-4 The Data Table

j

1
EXPERIMENT 22 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Input 0j Output 0Q Input 6j Output 0O

(degrees) (degrees) (degrees) (degrees)

First Setup Second Setup

Fig. 22-7 The Data Tables

EXPERIMENT 23 Name
Date: Class Instructor

*c *2 S 0 0 0/0

Clockwise Counterclockwise Clockwise Counterclockwise

X (3 X (3' X' X'

F/g. 23-5 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 24 Name
Date: Class Instructor

X y output (z)

4 8

7 12

8 4

10 12

14 16

11 17

17 10

5 13

12 12

8 11

Fig. 24-5 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 25 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Fig. 25-5 Fig. 25-6

Crank Angle a Displacement Lever Angle a Displacement

in dearees in
III inrhps
Ivl IUJ
II in fipnrpp*; in
III inrhpQ
ICO
II lis 1

0 o

20 1/8

40 1/4

60 3/8

80 1/2

100 5/8

120 3/4

140 7/8

160 1

180 1-1/8

200 - 1/8
/ o
1

220 - 1/4

240 - 3/8

260

280 -5/8

300 -3/4

320 -7/8

340 - 1

360 - 1-1/4

Fig. 25-7 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 26 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Reading Distance From

Output RPM
No. Reference

1 0 (at Ref point)

2 6/64 in.

3 12/64 in.

4 17/64 in.

5 22/64 in.

6 26/64 in.

7 31/64 in.

8 38/64 in.

Fig. 2&8 The Data Table

7?
Fig. 26-10 Curves
EXPERIMENT 27 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Clockwise Rotation Counterclockwise Rotation

Input 0 Output 0 Input 0 Output 0

C = =
1 «c

Fig. 27-9 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 28 Name
Date: Class Instructor

Pulley Pulley

Pawl Force Force

Force rorwaru DdUlx well vJ

4 oz

8 oz

12 oz

16 oz

g
1
S 0 R r

Fig. 28-6 The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 29 Name
Date: Class Instructor

*1- =
«2
T
F f/F
(ounces)

1V

F/fif. 77?e Data Table

EXPERIMENT 30 Name
Date: Class Instructor

£ 1=
h=
f F 0

Unlatching
force
equation

Unlatching
force
value

Fig. 30-6 The Data Table