Soil Fertility, Fertilizers and

Integrated Nutrient Management

Chetan Gyawali, M. Sc
Contract Lecturer
Collage of Natural Resource Management (CNRM)
Bardibas, Mahottari
Currently working as Soil Scientist (S-1) in
National Rice Research Program
Hardinath, Dhanusha
Course Code: 102
Credit Hour: 3(2+1)
Full marks: 75 Theory: 50 Practical: 25
References:
Tisdale, S.L., W.L., Nelson and J.D. Beaton. 1990. Soil fertility
and fertilizers. Macmillan publishing company, New York, USA
Nyle C. Brady and R.R. Weil. 2012. The Nature and properties
of soils. 14th Edition.
Foth, H.D. and B.E. Ellis. 1997. Soil Fertility. New York: Lewis
publishers.
Chopra, S.L. and J.S. Kanwar. 1999. Analytical Agricultural
Chemistry: Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
 Topics No. of
Lectures
1 Historical Development of soil fertility and plant nutrition 1
2 Essential Plant nutrients 5
i. Criteria for nutrient essentiality for plants
i. Primary essential nutrients- sources, functions, deficiency symptoms,
control measures and availability to plants
i. Secondary essential nutrients- sources, functions, deficiency symptoms,
control measures and availability to plants
3 Micronutrients- sources, functions, deficiency symptoms, control mesasures 2
and availability to plants
4 Fertilizers 4
i. Nitrogenous Fertilizers- their composition, uses and behavior in soils
i. Phosphatic Fertilizers- their composition, uses and behavior in soils
i. Potassic fertilizers- their composition, uses and behavior in soils
5 Organic matter; sources and composition and functions 2
6 Organic manures; sources, classification and preparation 2
Bio fertilizers and Green manuring
Biogas and its importance in Nepal
7 Soil Fertility Evaluation 3
i. Visual Diagnosis
i. Plant and tissue analysis
i. Biological test methods
i. Soil tests
8 Soil fertility problems with respect to Nepalese agricultural system; effect of 3
continuous use of organic versus inorganic fertilizers on soil fertility
9 Soil Management for sustainable agriculture 3
10 Factor affecting fertilizer use efficiencies; tillage and traction affecting soil 2
fertility
11 Integrated Nutrient management 3
i. Concept and relevance
i. Components
i. Management options
Total 30
S.N. Topic No. of
Practical
1. Identification and functions of soil fertility laboratory equipment 1
2. Soil sampling and preparation for soil fertility analysis 1
3. Use of Kit box for different elemental analysis in soil 2
4. Chemical calculation and preparation of standard solution 1
5. Determination of organic matter content in soil 1
6. Basic principles of micro- Kjeldahl distillation assembly, spectrophotometer and 2
flame photometer
7. Determination of available Nitrogen in soil 2
8. Determination of available phosphorus in soil 1
9. Determination of available potassium in soil 1
10. Plant sampling and their preparation for elemental analysis 1
11. Collection and identification of nutrient deficiency symptoms on major crops in 2
around CNRM, Bardibas farm
Total 15
Historical Development of soil fertility and plant nutrition
• Cultivation of plants for food allowed humans to convert from
a nomadic hunting and gathering lifestyle to a more settled
existence.
• Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates River in what
is now Iraq shows evidence of very early civilization.
• Writings dating to 2500 B.C. mention fertility of the land.
• Fertility was due to annual flooding of the land and a system
of canals were built for irrigation of crops.
• On uplands shifting agriculture was necessary "slash and
burn”
 Golden Age of Greeks 800-200 BC
• Manure increased productivity and prolonged land use
• Green manure crops, especially legumes, enriched the soil
• Marl increased productivity (liming)
• Wood ashes were beneficial
• Saltpeter (KNO3) was beneficial to plants
• Saline soils could be detected by taste test
First 18 centuries A.D.

• Pietro de Crescenzi (Roman). 1233-1320. Published a book on agricultural

practices

• Jan Baptista Van Helmont (1577-1644) His willow tree experiment "proved" that
water was the sole nutrient of plants.

• Jethro Tull (1674-1741) - Thought small particles were ingested by plants, and
that cultivating the soil made it easier for plants to take up soil particles. He
wrote the Book - "Horse Hoeing Husbandry" and developed the horse hoe and
the seed drill.
Modern Period (1800-1900)
Justus Von Liebig (1803-1873) laid the foundation for the modern fertilizer
industry.
• (a) Stressed the value of mineral elements from the soil
• (b) Found that carbon in plants comes from CO2 of the atmosphere not from
humus in the soil as was thought at the time
• (c) Hydrogen and oxygen come from water
• (d) The alkaline metals (Ca, Mg and K) were needed to neutralize acids
formed by plants
• (e) Phosphates are necessary for seed formation
• He manufactured fertilizer but made the mistake of fusing P and K with
lime (unavailable to plants)
• Liebig's Law of the Minimum - If one of the essential nutrients is
deficient, growth will be poor even if all other elements are abundant.
Development of Soil Fertility in the U.S.
• 1733 James E. Oglethorpe - Experimental garden on bluffs of Savannah
River in Georgia to produce exotic food crops.
• Benjamin Franklin - Had an interest in agriculture and demonstrated the
value of gypsum. Applied to hill in a pattern which outlined the words
"This land has been plastered"
• Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) Founding father and agronomist.
• 1862 Department of Agriculture established.
• Connecticut first agriculture experiment station 1875
• 1877 N. C. Ag Experiment Station established
Looking to 21st Century
• Emphasize the importance of soil fertility on agricultural productions.
• Conservation tillage increases water use efficiency, decrease cost of
production and increases crop yield.
• Irrigation system should be developed that is efficient and boost crop
yield.
• Fertilizer use and its efficiency should be increased.
• Pesticides use and its efficiency should be increased.
• Molecular genetics for gene transfer of desirable genes for increasing
yield and resistance to disease and pest should be researched.
• Photosynthesis efficiency for higher plant need to be further accessed.
• Disease and pest resistant crop need to be further developed by gene
introgression.
• Geographical information system (GIS) is needed to boost the soil fertility
status, cropping pattern etc.
S. N. Soil Fertility Soil productivity
1 It is considered as index of available It is broader term used to indicate crop
nutrient to plants yield
2 One of the factors for crop production; It is interaction of all the factors
others are water supply etc
3 Can be analyzed in lab Can be assessed in the field under
particular climate conditions
4 It is the potential status of the soil to Resultant of various factors influencing
produce crops. soil management
5 Depends upon the physical, chemical and Depends upon location, fertility,
biological factors of soil physical conditions etc
6 Soil fertility is function of available Soil productivity is the function of soil
nutrients of soil fertility, management and climate.
Soil fertility = f (Nutrient status of soil) Soil productivity = f ( soil fertility +
management + climate)
7 It is an inherent property of soil It is not an inherent property of soil
8 The fertility of certain soil is same in all the Soil productivity differs according to the
climates variations in climate and location.
 cfjZos vfBtTjx? 1

What are essential nutrients for

humans ?
 cfjZos vfBtTjx? 2

What are essential

nutrients for plants ?
CO2
H2
O

Zn
Cu Mn
Mo N S
K
Ni M
Fe B
Cl P g
C
a
Basic concepts used in soil fertility
Nutrient
It is a chemical compound required by an organism. Based on availability
nutrient in plant and soil may be deficient, sufficient or toxic.
Available Nutrient
It is that portion of nutrient in soil that can be readily absorbed and
assimilated by the plants.
Beneficial Elements
Beneficial elements are the mineral elements which stimulate plant growth
but are not essential or which are essential only for certain plant species.
Eg. silicon, sodium, aluminium, cobalt, selenium and vanadium.
Functional Nutrient
This term introduced by Nicholas (1961) is defined as an element that plays
a role in plant metabolism
Trace element
Trace element is an element found in low concentrations, perhaps less
than one ppm or still less.
Heavy metal
A metal having specific gravity of more than 5.0 or having atomic number
higher than 20 is termed as a heavy metal.
Nutrient content
Concentration of a nutrient or its amount per unit weight of a plant tissue
termed as nutrient content. Nutrient content is expressed in terms of
percent (kg/100 kg) or ppm (parts per million).
Nutrient Accumulation
Storage of a nutrient in a particular part or portion of plant is called nutrient
accumulation.
Nutrient uptake
• Amount of nutrient taken up by the growing crops from either the soil or
other sources, is called nutrient uptake.
Nutrient Removal
• The nutrient contained in the harvested portion of the crop is termed as
the nutrient removal.
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Essential Nutrient
• Nutrient required by plant without which plant cannot complete life cycle is
known as essential nutrient.
• Seventeen elements are considered essential to plants growth.
• They are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron,
molybdenum, chlorine and nickel.
Criteria for nutrient essentiality for plants
• Arnon and Stout (1939) proposed criteria of essentiality and states that
• Plant cannot complete its life cycle without essential nutrient
• Essential nutrient directly involves in the metabolism of the plant.
• Deficiency of a nutrient is specific and can be corrected by applying that
nutrient.
• Essential nutrient must be required by all higher plants in general
Classification of Essential Plant Nutrients
Based on the amount of nutrients present in plants
Basic nutrients
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, constitute 96 per cent of total dry matter
of plants.
carbon and oxygen constitute 45 per cent each and hydrogen constitutes
nearly 6 per cent of the total tissue.
Abundantly present in atmosphere and need not to be applied.
Macronutrients
• Required in large quantities are known as macronutrients.
• They are N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S.
• N, P and K are Primary nutrients or major nutrients
• Ca, Mg and S are Secondary nutrients
• Primary nutrients are often deficient in almost all types of soils because
of their heavy depletion.
• Primary nutrients are required in higher quantity while secondary
nutrients are required in relatively lesser quantity as compared to
primary nutrients
Micronutrients:
Required in small quantities (traces).
They are Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Mo, Cl and Ni.
Though micronutrients are required in traces but they are just as
important as the major nutrients.
Micronutrients are according to
form in which plant absorb them as
Micronutrient cations (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and Ni)
Micronutrient anions (B, Mo and Cl)
Forms of essential nutrients absorbed by plants
Nutrient Discoverer Plant usable form Average
concentration
present in plant
Hydrogen Since immortal H+, HOH 6%
Oxygen Since immortal CO2, O2-, OH-, CO32- 45%
Carbon Pristley et. al (1800) CO2 (mostly through leaves) 45%
Nitrogen Theodore de Saussure (1804) NH4+, NO3- 1.5%
Potassium C Sprengel (1839) K+ 1%
Calcium C Sprengel (1839) Ca2+ 0.5%
Magnesium C Sprengel (1839) Mg2+ 0.2%
Phosphorus C Sprengel (1839) H2PO4-, HPO42- 0.2%
Sulphur Sachs and Knop (1860) SO42- 6 ppm
Chlorine Broyer and Carlton (1954) Cl- 100 ppm
Nutrient Discoverer Plant usable form Average
concentration
present in plant
Iron E Gris (1843) Fe2+ 50 ppm

Boron K Warington (1923) H3BO3, H2BO3-, HBO32- B4O72- 20 ppm

Manganese J S Mc Hargue (1922) Mn2+, Mn4+ 20 ppm

Zinc Sommers and Lipman (1926) Zn2+ 20 ppm

Copper Sommers, Lipman & Mcknney Cu2+ 5 ppm

(1921)

Molybdenum Arnon and Stout (1939) MoO42- 0.1 ppm

Nickel Brown, Welch and Carey (1987) Ni2+ 0.1 ppm

 Nitrogen
• Nitrogen is found in different oxidation states.
• About 95 to 98 per cent soil nitrogen is in organic form
and is, therefore, decomposed by soil organisms.
Sources of Nitrogen in soil
• Fertilizers, Green manures, Biofertilizers, Organic
manures, Organic waste, Bacterial Nitrogen Fixation,
Crop residues and Rain water
Nitrogen cycle

A. Ammonification F. Denitrification
B. Mineralization G. N2 Fixation,
C. Nitrification Non symbiotic
D. Nitrate reduction H. N2 Fixation,
E. Immobilization Symbiotic
Mineralization of nitrogen
• conversion of organic form of nutrient to its mineral
form (inorganic form)
• Organic form of nitrogen is protein, amino acids,
amines, nucleic acid and amino sugars
Aminization
decomposition of protein with the mediation of
heterotrophic bacteria and fungi
release of amines, amino acids and urea
Ammonification
The amines and amino acids produced by aminization of
organic nitrogen are decomposed by other heterotrophs,
with the release of NH4+
Fates of NH4+
• It may be taken up by the crops
• It may be converted to NO2- and NO3-
• It may be immobilized by microbes
• It may be fixed on exchangeable and non-
exchangeable sites of clays and organic matter.
• It may be lost through volatilization.
Nitrification

• is biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrate.

• It is a two-step process
•
Denitrification

• process of reduction of NO3- to N2O or N2

• mediated by microorganisms
• may be lost to atmosphere.
 Nitrogen Immobilization
• conversion of mineral form of element in to
organic form,
• a reverse process of mineralization.
• the ammonium ion is incorporated in to amino
acids and proteins.
• What phenomenon occurs when OM of high
C/N ratio and Low C/N ratio added to soil???
 Biological Nitrogen fixation
• nitrogen from inorganic molecular form in the
atmosphere is fixed and converted to an organic
form by a number of various kinds of soil
microorganisms
• contributes to the supply of nitrogen to the crops
 Symbiotic nitrogen fixation
Two types
Nodulated legumes and non legumes.
• either bacteria belonging to the genra Rhizobium or
Bradyrhizobium (in legumes), or Actinomycetes, of the genus
Frankia (non legumes i.e. casuarinas)
Symbiosis with cyanobacteria (Blue green algae).
• N2 fixing bacteria mainly drive their carbon (energy)
requirement from the photosynthesis. Examples of this group
of organisms are Cyanobacteria of the genus Nostoc
 Functions of Nitrogen
• Plays important role in plant growth and development
• Plays important role in synthesis of organic compounds. Eg.
Amino acid, protein, nucleic acid, flavins
• Integral part of chlorophyll
• Part of enzyme, coenzymes and alkaloids
• Imp role in synthesis and translocation of cytokinin
• imparts vigorous vegetative growth and dark green color to
plants.
• It governs the utilization of potassium, phosphorus and other
elements.
• Constituents of nucleic acid. i.e, RNA and DNA so plays important
role in maintaining hereditary characteristics of plant
Deficiency symptoms

•mobile element
•Thus shows deficiency symptoms in
older leaves at first
•However, symptoms spread rapidly to
young leaves.
• Symptoms of N deficiency are general chlorosis of
lower leaves (light green to yellow), stunted and
slow growth, and necrosis of older leaves in severe
cases.
• N deficient plants will mature early and crop
quality and yield are often reduced.
• In cereals, yellow discoloration starts from the leaf tip
and moves along middle of leaf in the form of a “V” is
common.
• Insufficient amounts of N in cereals will also result in
few tillers, slender stalks, short heads, and grains with
low protein content.
• Fields deficient in N can be either uniform or patchy
in appearance, depending on conditions favoring the
deficiency.
Initial stage Later stage
Amelioration:
• Apply N basal dose as per soil test-based
recommendation.
• Top dress soluble nitrogenous fertilizers such as urea in
split doses.
• For quick recovery in standing crops, apply 2 to 2.5%
urea solution as foliar spray and repeat every 10 to 15
days till the deficiency symptoms disappear.
Losses of Nitrogen
• Leaching Denitrification
• Volatilization Crop removal, Microbial removal
• NH4+ fixation by crystal lattice Soil erosion and runoff

What happens if excess of Nitrogen is added?

• Succulence of plant increases thereby causing lodging
• Nitrogen rich crop are more susceptible to insect, pest and disease attack
 Phosphorus
primary sources of phosphorus in soil are
geographical resources such as
rock phosphate,
commercial fertilizers,
animal manures,
crop residues,
industrial, human and domestic waste.
Why phosphorus availability is a big problem in acidic and
alkaline soils?
In acidic soil
• pH is low,
• Fe, Al and Mn are soluble and combine with P to form iron phosphate
or aluminium phosphate
• which are insoluble compounds and P is less available to plant.
In alkaline soil
• When P is added to alkaline soil,
• P may combine with Ca, Mg to form insoluble compound i.e, tricalcium
phosphate.

Thus, the availability of Phosphorus is big

problem in both acidic and alkaline soils.
Functions of Phosphorus
• Also called as energy currency because it is component of
ATP and ADP and plays important role in energy
transformation.
• great role in energy storage and transfer.
• constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids
• important for the reproductive parts of the plants
• essential constituent of majority of enzymes which are of
great importance in the transformation of energy, in
carbohydrate metabolism, in fat metabolism and also in
respiration of plants.
• stimulates early root development and growth and
there by helps to establish seedlings quickly
• Enhances the activity of rhizobia and increases the
formation of nodules thereby BNF
• Increases Mo availability
• Plays imp role in flowering, fruiting and crop
maturation and prevent lodging
Deficiency symptoms
•Mobile in nature so symptoms occurs in lower
leaves
•usually more noticeable in young plants, which
have a greater relative demand for P than more
mature plants
• Cool soils during the early growing season factor of P def
• turn dark green (both leaves and stems) and appear
stunted.
• Older leaves are affected first and may acquire a purplish
discoloration
• In some cases, leaf tips will brown and die.
• Plants suffering from P deficiency appear weak and
maturity is delayed.
• Leaf expansion and leaf surface area may also be
inhibited, causing leaves to curl and be small.
Amelioration:
•Drill/place basal dose of P as per soil test-
based P recommendations.
•Apply soluble P fertilizer with first irrigation in
standing crops.
Potassium

• cell varies from 1 to 5%.

• . Plant requirement for this element is quite high.
• It doesnot combine with other elements to form such plant
compounds as protoplasm, fat and cellulose.
Sources of potassium
• Till from glacial outwash
• Layer silicate clay are also rich in potassium
• Loessial wind deposits
• Minerals like elite
• Fledspar (microline, orthoclase)
• Mica (Biotite, muscovite)
 Functions of Potassium
• Potassium exists in mobile ionic (K+ form) and its function appears to be
primarily catalytic in nature.
• Enzyme activation: Over 60 enzymes have been identified that require
potassium for their activation. These enzymes are involved in so many
important plant physiological processes. The enzyme activation is regarded
as potassium’s single most important function.
• Water relations: The predominance of potassium over other cations, in
plants makes its role in osmotic regulation very important. Potassium
provides much of the osmotic “pull” that draws water into plant roots.
Plants that are deficient in potassium are less able to withstand water
stress, mostly because of their inability to make full use of available water.
• Translocation of assimilates: Potassium is essential for translocation of
assimilated sugars and starch from sites of production to storage
• Potassium regulates the opening and closing of stomata, which are
essential for photosynthesis, water and nutrient transport, and plant
cooling.
• Potassium helps in formation of proteins and chlorophyll
• Potassium produces strong stiff straw in cereals and thereby reduces
lodging in cereals
• Potassium imparts increased vigor and disease resistance to plant
• Potassium enhances the crop quality, high concentrations of available K
improve physical qualities and self-life of fruit and vegetables
 Deficiency symptoms
• K deficiency does not immediately result in visible symptoms. Initially, there
is only a reduction in growth rate, with chlorosis and necrosis occurring in
later stages.
• Affected older leaves will show localized mottled or chlorotic areas with leaf
burn at margins.
• Chlorotic symptoms typically begin on the leaf tip, but unlike the ‘V’ effect
caused by N deficiency, K deficient chlorosis will advance along the leaf
margins towards the base, usually leaving the midrib alive and green
(inverted V shape).
• As the deficiency progresses, the entire leaf will yellow. Small white or
yellow necrotic spots may also develop, beginning along leaf margins.
• Another indication of K deficiency is reduced straw or stalk strength in
small grains and corn, resulting in lodging problems, reduced disease
resistance, and reduced winter-hardiness of perennial or winter annual
crops.
• Produced grains will be low in protein and appear shriveled.
Amelioration:
• Apply K as basal dose as per soil test-based
fertilizer recommendations.
• In standing crops, apply soluble K fertilizers with
irrigation water. Foliar sprays are usually not
recommended since large numbers of sprays are
needed to fulfill the K requirement of the crop.
 Calcium
•Calcium is present in earth crust around
3.64%.
• taken by plant as Ca2+
•concentration ranges from 0.2 to 1.0%
•supplied through mass flow method.
•present in mineral such as Calcite, Dolomite
and Feldspar.
•Deficiency of calcium is rarely observed.
Functions
• Role in cell division and elongation
• Imp for the structure of cell membrance, if
absent cell membrance becomes leaky
• constituent of cell wall and increases in stiffness
of plants
• Promotes root development and growth of plant
• translocate the sugar in the plants.
• It involves chromosome stability and that it is a
constituent of chromosome structure.
• Affects translocation of CHO in plants.
• Encourages seed production.
• Activates enzyme phosphate and kinease.
• Helps in pollen grain germination
• Inhibits the formation of abscission layer; senescence
would be delayed
•Accumulated protein during respiration
by mitochondria and it increases their
protein content.
•It binds DNA to protein molecules
Deficiency symptoms

•< 0.1% in plants , deficiency symptoms

occurs
•Rarely occurs
•Immobile in plant
•So deficiency occurs in younger leaves
• Young leaves of terminal buds dieback at the tip and
margins.
• Normal growth in affected.
• Root may become short, stubby and brown.
• Causes acidity of soil.
• Cell may become rigid and brittle.
• Young leaves of cereals remain folded.
• As deficiency advances, young leaves remain rolled
and their tips stick together giving ladder like
appearance.
Amelioration
• Application of Gypsum
Magnesium

•Mg2+
•varies between 0.1 and 0.6%
•In sandy soil-0.05%
•in clay soil-0.5%.
Sources of Magnesium

• Primary minerals: Biotite and Serpentine

• Secondary minerals: Illite, montmorinollite,
vermiculite
• Soluble salts: Magnesium carbonate, Magnesium
sulphate
 Functions of Magnesium

• constituent of chlorophyll
• structural component in ribosomes and stabilizing
the ribosome configuration for protein synthesis.
• numbers of physiological and biochemical function.
• Activates phosphorylating enzymes in CHO
metabolism.
•Act as a cofactor for certain enzymes other
than Po4 transfer enzyme.
•Helps in movement of sugar within plants.
•Increases in the oil content of oil seed crops.
•Regulates the uptake of other nutrients.
Deficiency of Magnesium

•<0.1%, plant
•relatively mobile
•deficiency symptoms in lower leaves.
•At early stage, Interveinal chlorosis(light green
to yellowing to mild red) of the leaf in which
only the leave veins remain green.
•Stiff brittle, twisted leaves, wrinkled and
distortion of leaves.
•If deficiency advances, the rust brown strips
develop on older leaves.
•In cotton –lower leaves may develop a reddish
purple finally necrotic (Redding of leaves)
•In brassica, Chlorosis with interveinal mottling
uniformly distributed in older leaves while the
other vascular tissues remain green.
“Puckering”.
•Reduced Mg concentrations in wheat forage
can lead to grass tetany (low blood serum Mg)
in animals grazing on winter wheat.
Amelioration
Use of lime or limestone.