Python Application Programming (15CS664)

MODULE 1
HISTORY OF PYTHON

➢ Python laid its foundation in the late 1980s.

➢ The implementation of Python began in December 1989 (during Christmas vacations) by Guido
Van Rossum at CWI (Centrum Wiskunde and Informatica) in the Netherlands as a successor to
ABC Language capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba Operating
System.
Note:
• An exception is an unwanted or unexpected event, which occurs during the execution of
a program i.e., at run time, that disrupts the normal flow of the programs instructions.
• An exception handler is a code that tells what a program will do when exception occurs.
➢ CWI (National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science) is a research center in
the field of mathematics and theoretical computer science. It is part of the Netherlands
Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and is located at the Amsterdam Science Park.
➢ ABC is a programming language developed at CWI, Netherlands by Leo Geurts, Lambert
Meertens and Steven Pemberton.
• Interactive, structure, high-level and intended to be used instead of BASIC, Pascal or
AWK.
• It had a major influence on the design of Python Programming Language.
• Features:
✓ Only five basic data types.
✓ Does not require variable declarations.
✓ Explicit support for top-down programming.
✓ Statement nesting is indicated by indentation.
✓Infinite arithmetic precision, unlimited-sized lists and strings.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Inability to adapt to new requirements, such as creating graphical user
interface.
✓
Inability to directly access the underlying file system and operating system.
➢ Amoeba is a distributed operating system developed by Andre S Tanenbaum and others at the
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
• Aim was to build a timesharing system that makes an entire network of computers
appear to the user as a single machine.
• Amoeba network consists of a number of workstations (scientific applications)
connected to a pool of resources.
• Executing a program from a terminal causes it to run on any of the available processors,
with the operating system providing load balancing.
➢ Python was named after the BBC TV Show Monty Python’s Flying Circus (45 episodes airing over
4 series from 1969-1974).
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➢ In February 1991, Van Rossum published the code (labelled version 0.9.0)
➢ In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features like lamda, map, filter and reduce.
➢ In 2000, the entire Python team moved from CNRI (Corporation for National Research
Initiatives) to BeOpen.com (an open source software startup) to form BeOpen Python apps
team. Before this they were working on version 1.5.
➢ CNRI requested that version 1.6 be released, summarizing the development to the point where
team left.
➢ Two versions were being developed simultaneously
• CNRI – Python 1.6
• BeOpen.com – Python 2.0 (16th Oct 2000)
➢ With Python 2.0, it became an open source project. It was later moved to source forge giving
more access to users and providing easy way to simulate patches and bugs.
➢ Python 2.0 added new features like: list comprehensions, garbage collection system.
➢ With version 2.1, they moved to digital creation part of Zope, an object oriented web
application server rendering program.
➢ Major revision was Python 3.0 (sometimes called Python 3000 or 3k). It wasn’t backward
compatible with the Python 2.0. It was released on 3rd Dec 2008.

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1 WHY SHOULD YOU LEARN TO WRITE PROGRAMS

➢ Writing programs is a very creative and rewarding activity.
➢ Reasons to learn programming:
• Solving or helping in solve a difficult problem
• To have fun
• Helping someone solve a problem
• Improves problem solving and logical thinking
• To automate repetitive tasks
• Job prospects are more

COMPUTER HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE

When you try to look inside a computer you will find the following parts:

Fig: Hardware Architecture

The high-level definitions of these parts are as follows:

➢ Central Processing Unit (CPU): is the unit (heart of the computer) which performs most of
the processing inside a computer (“what is next?”). It is basically used to control instructions
and data flow to and from other parts of the computer.
➢ Main Memory: Also known as Random Access Memory (RAM) or Primary Memory. It is used
to store information that the CPU needs in a hurry (currently). The main memory is nearly as
fast as CPU. But the information stored in the main memory is lost (volatile) when the
computer is turned off.
➢ Secondary Memory: is used to store information permanently. It is much slower than the
main memory. The information stored in the secondary memory is not lost (non-volatile)
when the computer is turned off. Examples: Disk drives, flash memory (typically found in
USB stick and portable music players).

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➢ Input and Output Devices: are screen (monitor), keyboard, mouse, microphone, speaker,
touchpad, etc. These are all the ways in which we can interact with the computer.
➢ Most computers also have Network Connection to retrieve data/information over a
network. We can think of a network as a very slow place that stores and retrieves data that
might not always be “up”. This means that the network is slower and at times unreliable
form of Secondary Memory.

INTERPRETER AND COMPLIER

➢ The actual hardware inside the CPU does not understand any of the high-level languages.
➢ The CPU understands only machine language. It’s nothing but zero’s (0’s) and one’s (1’s).

➢ It is very difficult and complex for the programmers to write in machine language. Instead we use
translators that converts the program from high-level language to machine language for actual
execution by the CPU.
➢ Since machine language is tied to the computer hardware, machine language is not portable
across different types of hardware.
➢ Programs written in high-level languages can be moved between different computers by using a
different interpreter on the new machine or recompiling the code to create a machine language
version of the program for the new machine.
➢ The programming language translators can be categorized into two:
i. Interpreter
ii. Compiler

Interpreter Compiler

Translates program one statement at a time. Scans the entire program and translates it as a
whole into machine code
It takes less amount of time to analyze the It takes large amount of time to analyze the
source code but the overall execution time is source code but the overall execution time is
slower. comparatively faster.
No intermediate object code is generated, Generates intermediate object code which
hence are memory efficient. further requires linking, hence requires more
memory.
Continues translating the program until the It generates the error message only after
first error is met, in which case it stops. Hence scanning the whole program. Hence debugging
debugging is easy. is comparatively hard
Programming language like Python, Ruby use Programming language like C, C++ use
interpreters. compilers.

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➢ Even though we give commands into Python one line at a time, Python treats them as an
ordered sequence of statements with later statements able to retrieve data created in earlier
statements.
➢ The Python interpreter is written in a high-level language called “C”.
➢ Python is a program itself and is compiled into machine code.
➢ When we install Python on the computer, we copy a machine-code copy of the translated Python
program onto the system.

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF PROGRAMS

➢ A program is a sequence of Python statements that is intended to do something.

➢ We use some general constructs while writing a program. These constructs are not just for
Python programs, they are part of every programming language from machine language to high-
level languages.
• Input: Get data from “outside world”. It can be reading data from a file or some kind of
sensor like a microphone or GPS. Generally input will be given from the user through
keyboard.
• Output: Display the result of the program on the screen or store them in a file or write
them to a device like a speaker to play music or speak text.
• Sequential Execution: Statements are executed one after the other in the order they
appear in the script.
• Conditional Execution: Check for certain conditions and based on that either execute or
skip a sequence of statements.
• Repeated Execution: Repeat some set of statements, usually with some variation.
• Reuse: Write a set of instructions/statements once and give them a name, then reuse
those instructions in the program whenever needed.

WHAT COULD POSSIBLY GO WRONG?

As the programs become more sophisticated, we will encounter three general types of errors:

➢ Syntax Errors: A syntax error means that you have violated the “grammar” rules of
Python.
OR

Syntax refers to the structure of a program or the rules about that structure.

Python points right at the line and character where the error occurred. Sometimes the
mistake that needs to be fixed is actually earlier in the program than where python
noticed. So the line and character that Python indicates in a syntax error may just be a
starting point of our investigation. The syntax errors are easy to fix.
Examples: missing colon, commas or brackets, misspelling a keyword, incorrect
indentation and so on.

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➢ Logic Errors: A logic error is when the program is syntactically correct but there is a
mistake in the order of statements or mistake in how the statements relate to one
another. It causes the program to operate incorrectly. It produces unintended or
undesired output. These are difficult to fix.
Examples: indenting a block to a wrong level, using integer division instead of floating-
point division, wrong operator precedence and so on.
➢ Semantic Errors: An error in a program that makes it to do something other than what
the programmer intended.
OR

A semantic (meaning) error is when the program is syntactically correct and in the
right order, but there is simply a mistake in the program.
Example: Colourless green ideas sleep furiously – This is grammatically correct but cannot
be combined into one meaning.
OR

A semantic error is a violation of the rules of meaning of a natural language or a

programming language.

Summary

✓ Syntax relate to spelling and grammar.

If the code fails to execute due to typos, invalid names, a missing parenthesis or some
other grammatical flaw, you have a syntax error.
✓ Logic relate to program flow.
If the syntax is correct but a piece of code is (inadvertently) never executed, operations
are not done in the correct order, the operation itself is wrong or code is operating on the
wrong data, you have a logical error. Using a wrong conditional operator is a common
example, so is inadvertently creating an infinite loop or mixing up (valid) names of variables
or functions.
✓ Semantics relate to meaning and context.
If both your program logic and syntax is correct so the code runs as intended, but the
result is still wrong: you likely have a semantic error.

GLOSSARY

bug An error in a program.

central The heart of any computer. It is what runs the software that we write; also
processing unit called “CPU” or “the processor”.
compile To translate a program written in a high-level language into a low-level
language all at once, in preparation for later execution.
high-level A programming language like Python that is designed to be easy for humans to
language read and write.
interactive A way of using the Python interpreter by typing commands and expressions at

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mode the prompt.

interpret To execute a program in a high-level language by translating it one line at a
time.
low-level A programming language that is designed to be easy for a computer to
language execute; also called “machine code” or “assembly language”.
machine code The lowest-level language for software, which is the language that is directly
executed by the central processing unit (CPU).
main memory Stores programs and data. Main memory loses its information when the
power is turned off.
parse To examine a program and analyze the syntactic structure.
portability A property of a program that can run on more than one kind of computer.
print function An instruction that causes the Python interpreter to display a value on the
screen.
problem solving The process of formulating a problem, finding a solution, and expressing the
solution.
program A set of instructions that specifies a computation.
prompt When a program displays a message and pauses for the user to type some
input to the program.
secondary Stores programs and data and retains its information even when the power is
memory turned off. Generally slower than main memory. Examples of secondary
memory include disk drives and flash memory in USB sticks.
semantics The meaning of a program.
semantic error An error in a program that makes it do something other than what the
programmer intended.
source code A program in a high-level language.

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INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON

➢ Python is a general purpose, dynamic (at runtime. Executes many common programming
behaviour), high level, object oriented and interpreted programming language.
➢ It supports Object Oriented programming (concept of objects (variable, a data structure, a
function, or a method, and as such, is a location in memory having a value and referenced by an
identifier) which may contain data in the form of fields (attributes) and code (methods)) and
approach to develop applications.
➢ It is simple and easy to learn and provides lots of high-level data structures.
➢ Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language which makes it attractive
for Application Development.
Note:
The main difference between the programming language and scripting language is that
the scripting language does not create any binary files (executables) and no memory will be
allocated. For programming languages on compilation make binaries (either executables or
libraries). These binaries executes from system’s memory. Scripting language is a very limited,
high-level language that is application-specific.
➢ Python's syntax and dynamic typing (the property of a language where type checks are
performed mostly at run time) with its interpreted nature, makes it an ideal language for
scripting and rapid application development.
➢ Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object oriented, imperative and
functional or procedural programming styles.
➢ Python is not intended to work on special area such as web programming. That is why it is known
as multipurpose because it can be used with web, enterprise, 3D CAD etc.
➢ We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed so we can
write a=10 to assign an integer value in an integer variable.
➢ Python makes the development and debugging fast because there is no compilation step
included in python development and edit-test-debug cycle is very fast.

NOTE:

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE AND HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

Low Level Language High Level Language

Faster Comparatively slower
Memory efficient Not memory efficient
Requires additional knowledge of the computer Does not require any additional knowledge of the
architecture computer architecture
Machine dependent and are not portable Machine independent and portable
Less or no abstraction from hardware High abstraction from the hardware
More error prone Less error prone
Debugging and maintenance is difficult Debugging and maintenance is comparatively
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easier
Used for developing system software’s (OS) and Used for developing a variety of applications such
embedded applications as – desktop applications, websites, mobile
software’s

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCRIPTING LANGUAGE AND PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

➢ All scripting languages are programming languages.

➢ The theoretical difference between the two is that scripting languages do not require the
compilation step and are rather interpreted. For example, normally, a C program needs to be
compiled before running whereas normally, a scripting language like JavaScript or PHP need not
be compiled.
➢ Compiled programs run faster than interpreted programs because they are first converted
native machine code. Also, compilers read and analyze the code only once, and report the
errors collectively that the code might have, but the interpreter will read and analyze the code
statements each time it meets them and halts at that very instance if there is some error.
➢ Another point to be noted is that while classifying a language as scripting language or
programming language, the environment on which it would execute must be taken into
consideration. The reason why this is important is that we can design an interpreter for C
language and use it as a scripting language, and at the same time, we can design a compiler for
JavaScript and use it as a programming language. A live example of this is V8, the JavaScript
engine of Google Chrome, which compiles the JavaScript code into machine code, rather than
interpreting it.
➢ Examples:
Scripting Languages (without an explicit compilation step) - JavaScript, PHP, Python, VBScript
Programming Languages (with an explicit compilation step) - C, C++

Applications of Scripting Languages:

➢ To automate certain tasks in a program
➢ Extracting information from a data set
➢ Less code intensive as compared to traditional programming languages

Applications of Programming Languages:

➢ They typically run inside a parent program like scripts

➢ More compatible while integrating code with mathematical models
➢ Languages like JAVA can be compiled and then used on any platform

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TYPE CHECKING

➢ The existence of types is useless without a process of verifying that those types make logical
sense in the program so that the program can be executed successfully. This is where type
checking comes in.
➢ Type checking is the process of verifying and enforcing the constraints of types, and it can
occur either at compile time (i.e. statically) or at runtime (i.e. dynamically). Type checking is all
about ensuring that the program is type-safe, meaning that the possibility of type errors is kept
to a minimum.
➢ A type error is an erroneous program behavior in which an operation occurs (or trys to occur) on
a particular data type that it’s not meant to occur on.

For example: There may be a situation where an operation is performed on an integer with the
intent that it is a float, or even something such as adding a string and an integer together:

X = 1 + “2”

While in many languages both strings and integers can make use of the + operator, this
would often result in a type error because this expression is usually not meant to handle multiple
data types.

STATIC TYPING vs DYNAMIC TYPING

STATIC TYPING

➢ Static typed programming languages are those languages in which variables must necessarily
be defined before they are used. This implies that static typing has to do with the explicit
declaration (or initialization) of variables before they’re employed. Java is an example of a static
typed language; C, C++, C#, JADE, Java, Fortran, Haskell, ML, Pascal, and Scala are also static
typed languages.

Note: In C (and C++ also), variables can be cast into other types, but they don’t get converted;
you just read them assuming they are another type.
➢ Static typing does not imply that you have to declare all the variables first, before you use them;
variables maybe be initialized anywhere, but developers have to do so before they use those
variables anywhere. Consider the following example:

/* C code */
int num, sum; // explicit declaration
num = 5; // now use the variables
sum = 10;
sum = sum + num;

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DYNAMIC TYPING

➢ Dynamic typed programming languages are those in which variables need not be defined
before they’re used. This implies that dynamic typed languages do not require the explicit
declaration of the variables before they’re used. Python is an example of a dynamic typed
programming language, and so is PHP, Groovy, JavaScript, Lisp, Lua, Objective-C, Prolog, Ruby,
Smalltalk and Tcl. Consider the following example:

/* Python code */
num = 10 // directly using the variable

PYTHON FEATURES

➢ Python's features include:

• Easy to Learn and Use: Python is easy to learn and use. It is developer-friendly and high
level programming language.
• Easy to read: Python language is more expressive means that it is more understandable
and readable.
• Interpreted Language: Python is an interpreted language i.e. interpreter executes the
code line by line at a time. This makes debugging easy and thus suitable for beginners.
• Cross-platform Language: Python can run equally on different platforms such as
Windows, Linux, Unix and Macintosh etc. So, we can say that Python is a portable
language.
• Free and Open Source: Python language is freely available at official web address. The
source-code is also available. Therefore it is open source.
• Object-Oriented Language: Python supports object oriented language and concepts of
classes and objects come into existence. With OOP, you are able to divide these complex
problems into smaller sets by creating objects.
• Interactive Mode − Python has support for an interactive mode which allows interactive
testing and debugging of snippets of code.
• Extensible: It implies that other languages such as C/C++ can be used to compile the code
and thus it can be used further in our python code. Suppose an application requires high
performance. You can easily combine pieces of C/C++ or other languages with Python
code.
• Large Standard Library: Python has a large and broad library and provides rich set of
module and functions for rapid application development.
• GUI Programming Support: Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.
• Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.
• Integrated: It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, JAVA etc.
• Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than shell
scripting.

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Apart from the above-mentioned features, Python has a big list of good features, few are
listed below −

• It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large
applications.
• It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.
• It supports automatic garbage collection.
• It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.

PYTHON APPLICATIONS

➢ Web Applications
Python has been used to create a variety of web-frameworks including CherryPy, Django,
TurboGears, Bottle, Flask etc. These frameworks provide standard libraries and modules which
simplify tasks related to content management, interaction with database and interfacing with
different internet protocols such as HTTP, SMTP, XML-RPC, FTP and POP. Plone, a content
management system; ERP5, an open source ERP which is used in aerospace, apparel and
banking; Odoo – a consolidated suite of business applications; and Google App engine are a few
of the popular web applications based on Python.

➢ Desktop GUI Applications

Python has simple syntax, modular architecture, rich text processing tools and the ability
to work on multiple operating systems which make it a desirable choice for developing desktop-
based applications. There are various GUI toolkits like wxPython, PyQt or PyGtk available which
help developers create highly functional Graphical User Interface (GUI). The various applications
developed using Python includes:
• Image Processing and Graphic Design Applications:
Python has been used to make 2D imaging software such as Inkscape, GIMP, Paint
Shop Pro and Scribus. Further, 3D animation packages, like Blender, 3ds Max, Cinema 4D,
Houdini, Lightwave and Maya, also use Python in variable proportions.
• Scientific and Computational Applications:
The higher speeds, productivity and availability of tools, such as Scientific Python
and Numeric Python, have resulted in Python becoming an integral part of applications
involved in computation and processing of scientific data. 3D modeling software, such as
FreeCAD, and finite element method software, such as Abaqus, are coded in Python.
Python is popular and widely used in scientific and numeric computing. Some useful
library and package are SciPy, Pandas, IPython etc. SciPy is group of packages of
engineering, science and mathematics.
• Games:
Python has various modules, libraries and platforms that support development of
games. For example, PySoy is a 3D game engine supporting Python 3, and PyGame

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provides functionality and a library for game development. There have been numerous
games built using Python including Civilization-IV, Disney’s Toontown Online, Vega Strike
etc.
➢ Software Development
Python’s design and module architecture has influenced development of numerous
languages. Boo language uses an object model, syntax and indentation, similar to Python.
Further, syntax of languages like Apple’s Swift, CoffeeScript, Cobra, and OCaml all share similarity
with Python.
➢ Enterprise and Business Applications
With features that include special libraries, extensibility, scalability and easily readable
syntax, Python is a suitable coding language for customizing larger applications. Reddit, which
was originally written in Common Lips, was rewritten in Python in 2005. Python also contributed
in a large part to functionality in YouTube.
Python is used to build Bussiness applications like ERP and e-commerce systems. Tryton is
a high level application platform.
Python can be used to create applications which can be used within an Enterprise or an
Organization. Some real time applications are: OpenErp, Tryton, Picalo etc.
➢ Console Based Application
We can use Python to develop console based applications. For example: IPython.
➢ Audio or Video based Applications
Python is awesome to perform multiple tasks and can be used to develop multimedia
applications. Some of real applications are: TimPlayer, cplay etc.
➢ 3D CAD Applications
To create CAD application Fandango is a real application which provides full features of
CAD.
➢ Operating Systems
Python is often an integral part of Linux distributions. For instance, Ubuntu’s Ubiquity
Installer, and Fedora’s and Red Hat Enterprise Linux’s Anaconda Installer are written in Python.
Gentoo Linux makes use of Python for Portage, its package management system.

PYTHON INSTALLATION

➢ In Windows:
The steps to install Python on Windows machine:
• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.
• Follow the link for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the version you
need to install.
• To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support Microsoft
Installer 2.0. Save the installer file to your local machine and then run it to find out if your
machine supports MSI.
• Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really easy to
use. Just accept the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and you are done.

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Setting path at Windows

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Windows:

At the command prompt − type path %path%;C:\Python and press Enter.

Note − C:\Python is the path of the Python directory

➢ In UNIX/LINUX:
The steps to install Python on Unix/Linux machine:
• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.
• Follow the link to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux.
• Download and extract files.
• Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options.
• run ./configure script
• make
• make install

This installs Python at standard location /usr/local/bin and its libraries at

/usr/local/lib/pythonXX where XX is the version of Python.

Setting path at Unix/Linux

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Unix:

• In the csh shell − type setenv PATH "$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.
• In the bash shell (Linux) − type export ATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press
Enter.
• In the sh or ksh shell − type PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.
• Note − /usr/local/bin/python is the path of the Python directory

WRITING A PROGRAM

➢ A program is a set of instructions that specifies a computation.

OR
A program is a sequence of Python statements that does some specific task.
➢ Python interpreter is not recommended for solving complex problems.
➢ To write a program, we need a text editor to write the Python instructions into a file, which is
called script.
➢ To execute the script, we need to specify the name of the file to the Python interpreter. In
UNIX or Windows command window we need to type python filename.py

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Note: You can bring up an interactive help system using help().

• >>> help()

Welcome to Python 3.6's help utility!

If this is your first time using Python, you should definitely check out
the tutorial on the Internet at http://docs.python.org/3.6/tutorial/.

Enter the name of any module, keyword, or topic to get help on writing
Python programs and using Python modules. To quit this help utility and
return to the interpreter, just type "quit".

To get a list of available modules, keywords, symbols, or topics, type

"modules", "keywords", "symbols", or "topics". Each module also comes
with a one-line summary of what it does; to list the modules whose name
or summary contain a given string such as "spam", type "modules spam".
• help> keywords
• help> symbols
• help> topics
help> LOOPING → press q (quit to come out from that particular topic)
help> METHODS
• help> modules
help> math

For Example:
Use help(function) to get the details about that particular function in the python interpreter.

>>> help(print)
Help on built-in function print in module builtins:

print(...)
print(value, ..., sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)

Prints the values to a stream, or to sys.stdout by default.

Optional keyword arguments:
file: a file-like object (stream); defaults to the current sys.stdout.
sep: string inserted between values, default a space.
end: string appended after the last value, default a newline.
flush: whether to forcibly flush the stream.

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print() in Python
➢ print() is a function in Python that is used to print values, variables, strings.
➢ For Example:
• If u want to print Hello World on the screen.
>>> print('hello world')
hello world
• If u want to print It’s a beautiful day on the screen.
>>> print('It's a beautiful day')
File "<stdin>", line 1
print('It's a beautiful day') → This gives u error
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Instead use “ “ to print it.

>>> print("It's a beautiful day")

It's a beautiful day
OR
>>> print('It\'s a beautiful day') → Use escape character
It's a beautiful day
• If you want to print any values
>>> print(3)
3
>>> print(23.5)
23.5
>>> print(-12)
-12
• >>> print('\n')

>>>
• >>> print(5*'\n')

>>>

• >>> print(6+4)
10

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Note: The strings in the print statements are enclosed in quotes. Single quotes and double quotes do
the same thing; most people use single quotes except in cases like this where a single quote (which is
also an apostrophe) appears in the string.

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2 VARIABLES, EXPRESSIONS AND STATEMENTS

VALUES AND TYPES

➢ A value is one of the basic things a program works with, like a letter/character or a number.
Eg: 1, 5.5, “Hello”
➢ The values belong to different types:
• 1 is an integer
• 5.5 is float
• “Hello” is a string (contains string of letters/characters).
➢ If you want to know what type a value belongs to, use python interpreter as below:
• >>> type(1)
<class 'int'> → integers belong to type int.
• >>> type(5.5)
<class 'float'> → decimal point belong to type float.
• >>> type('Hello')
<class 'str'> → strings belong to type str.
• >>>type('15')
<class 'str'> → These are treated as strings.
>>>type('3.2')
<class 'str'>
➢ Whenever we write large integers, we generally use commas (,) between a group of three or two
digits. For example: 1,000,000. This is not a valid integer in Python, but it is valid
i. >>> print(1,000,000) Python interprets 1,000,000 as a comma
100 separated sequence of integers, which it prints
with spaces between.
ii. >>> print(98,058,576,03948)
File "<stdin>", line 1
print(98,058,576,03948)
^
SyntaxError: invalid token
iii. >>> print(852,48,170)
852 48 170

Note: This is an example for semantic error.

KEYWORDS

➢ Keywords are words which are predefined/have fixed meaning and these meanings cannot be
changed.
➢ The interpreter uses keywords to recognize the structure of the program and they cannot be
used as variable names.

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➢ Python reserves 33 keywords:

and del from None True

as elif global nonlocal try
assert else if not while
break except import or with
class False in pass yield
continue finally is raise
def for lambda return

VARIABLES

➢ One of the most powerful features of a programming language is the ability to manipulate
variables.
➢ A variable is a name that refers to a value.
OR

Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values.

➢ Programmers generally choose variable names that are meaningful and document what the
variable is used for.
➢ The general rules for naming a variable is:
• It can contain both letters and numbers, but cannot start with a number.
• We can use uppercase letters, but it is a good practice to begin variable names with
lowercase letter.
• The underscore character (_) can appear in the variable name. It is often used
whenever we want a variable name with multiple words. For example: my_name,
sum_of_no.
• Keywords, whitespaces and special characters are not allowed.
• Variable names can start with an underscore character but we should generally
avoid doing this unless we are writing library code for others to use.
➢ If we try to violate the above rules of naming a variables, then it will give you syntax error.
For example:
I. >>> class = 'Python Application Programming' → Keyword cannot be used
File "<stdin>", line 1
class = 'Python Application Programming'
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
II. >>> sum of = 0 → No spaces between two names
File "<stdin>", line 1
sum of = 0
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

>>>
III. >>> shop@ = 'myntra' → No special characters
File "<stdin>", line 1
shop@ = 'myntra'
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
IV. >>> 99Sale = 99 → Cannot start with a number
File "<stdin>", line 1
99Sale = 99
^

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

➢ In Python, variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The declaration
happens automatically when you assign a value to a variable. The equal sign (=) is used to
assign values to variables.
➢ An assignment statement creates new variables and gives them values.
➢ The operand to the left of the ‘=’ operator is the name of the variable and the operand to the
right of the ‘=’ operator is the value stored in the variable.
➢ The below example makes three assignments. The first assigns a string to a new variable called
message, the second assigns integer 10 to n, the third assigns approximate value of pi.
>>> message = 'one has to be odd to be number one'
>>> n = 10
>>> pi = 3.1412
➢ To display the value of a variable, we can use print statement as follows:
>>> print(n)
10
>>> print(pi)
3.1412
>>> print(message)
one has to be odd to be number one
OR
>>> print(n,pi,message)
10 3.1412 one has to be odd to be number one
OR
>>> print(n,'\n',pi,'\n',message)
10
3.1412
one has to be odd to be number one
➢ The type of a variable is the type of the value it refers to.
>>> type(message)
<class 'str'>
>>> type(n)

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

<class 'int'>
>>> type(pi)
<class 'float'>
➢ Python allows us to assign a single value to multiple variables simultaneously.
For example:
>>> a = b = c = 5
>>> print(a)
5
>>> print(b)
5
>>> print(c)
5
OR
>>> a = b = c = 5
>>> print(a, b, c)
555
➢ We can assign multiple values to multiple variables.
For example:
>>> x,y,z = 'Awesome',10,-6.4
>>> print(x,y,z)
Awesome 10 -6.4

STATEMENTS

➢ A statement is a unit of code that the Python interpreter can execute.

➢ When you type a statement in interactive mode, the interpreter executes it and displays the
result.
For example:
>>> x = 10
>>> print(x)
10
>>> y = 5.1
>>> print(y)
5.1
➢ A script usually contains a set/sequence of statements. If there is more than one statement, the
result appear one at a time as the statement execute.
For example, in the script:
print(4)
x = 51 → Assignment statement does not produce any output
print(x)
produces the output
4

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51

EXPRESSIONS

➢ An expression is a combination of values, variables and operators.

For example,
15 → Note: A value by itself is considered as an expression
a
a + 15
➢ If we type an expression in an interactive mode, the interpreter evaluates it and displays the
result.
For example,
>>> 1 + 5
6

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

➢ A Boolean expression is an expression which is either true or false.

➢ The operator == compares two operands and produces True if they are equal and False
otherwise.
For example,
>>> 5 == 5
True
>>> 3 == 1
False
>>> 97 < 64
False
>>> 4 != 4
False
>>> 2 >= 0.97
True
>>> 'Hi' == 'Hi'
True
>>> 'z' == 'q'
False
➢ True and False are special values that belongs to the class bool, they are not strings.
>>> type(True)
<class 'bool'>
>>> type(False)
<class 'bool'>

NOTE: = is assignment operator and == is comparison operator

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ASKING THE USER FOR INPUT

➢ Python provides a built-in function called input that gets input from the keyboard.
➢ When the input function is called, the program stops and waits for the user to give input.
➢ When the user presses enter, the program resumes and input function return what the user
had typed as string.
For example,
I. To take input a string from the user
>>> mess = input()
Hi. Good Morning!!!
>>> print(mess)
Hi. Good Morning!!!
OR
>>> mess = input()
Hi. Good Morning!!!
>>> print("The message entered is", mess)
The message entered is Hi. Good Morning!!!
II. To display/prompt a mess to the user before taking input
>>> name = input("Enter your name?")
Enter your name?akhilaa
>>> print(name)
akhilaa
OR
>>> mess = input("Enter your name?\n")
Enter your name?
akhilaa
>>> print("My name is", mess)
My name is Akhilaa
Note: ‘\n’ is a new line character that causes a line break
III. To take integer as input from the user
>>> age = input("Enter your age?\n")
Enter your age?
28
>>> print(age)
28
>>> type(age) → If we try to check the type of age it shows as ‘str’
<class 'str'> because input function returns string.
To avoid taking input an integer as string we can explicitly typecast it to integer
as below:
>>> age = int(input("Enter your age?\n"))
Enter your age?
28

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>>> print("My age is", age)

My age is 28
>>> type( age)
<class 'int'>
IV. To take floating point number as input from the user
>>> marks = float(input("Enter marks: "))
Enter marks: 46.5
>>> print(marks)
46.5
>>> type(marks)
<class 'float'>

OPERATORS AND OPERANDS

➢ Operators are special symbols that represent computations like mathematical and logical.
➢ The values the operator is applied to are called operands.
➢ The different types of operators are:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational (Comparison) Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Bitwise Operators
6. Membership Operators
7. Identity Operators

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS

➢ Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20:

Operator Description Example

+ >>> a + b
Adds values on either side of the operator.
Addition 30
- >>> a - b
Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand.
Subtraction -10
* >>> a * b
Multiplies values on either side of the operator
Multiplication 200
>>> a / b
0.5
/ >>> b / a
Divides left hand operand by right hand operand
Division 2.0
>>> 9 / 2
4.5

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>>> 9.4 / 3
3.1333333333333333
>>> 3.3 / 3.2
1.0312499999999998
>>> -9.3 / 91
-0.10219780219780221
>>> a % b
10
>>> b % a
0
>>> -2 % 3
1
% Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns >>> 2 % 3
Modulus remainder 2
>>> 5.6 % 5.6
0.0
>>> 3.2 % 2
1.2000000000000002
>>> -5.7 % 2.3
1.1999999999999993
** >>> a ** b
Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators
Exponent 100000000000000000000
>>> 9 // 2
4
>>> 9.4 // 3
3.0
>>> 9 // 2
4
>>> 9.0 // 2.0
Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is
4.0
the quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are
>>> 9.0 // 2
// removed. But if one of the operands is negative, the result is
4.0
floored, i.e., rounded away from zero (towards negative
>>> 11 // 3
infinity)
3
>>> -11 // 3
-4
>>> 11.0 // 3
3.0
>>> -11.0 // 3
-4.0

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NOTE: There is a change in division operator between Python 2.x and Python 3.x. In Python 3.x
the result of division is a floating point number.
For example,
• The division operator in Python 3.x gives floating point result.
>>> minute = 59
>>> minute/60
0.9833333333333333
• The division operator in Python 2.x would divide two integers and truncate the result to
an integer.
>>> minute = 59
>>> minute/60
0
To obtain the same answer in Python 3.x use floored ( // integer ) division.
>>> minute = 59
>>> minute//60
0
➢ The modulus operator ( % ) works on integers and gives the remainder when the first
operand is divided by the second.
For Example:
I. >>> remainder = 7 % 3
>>> print(remainder)
1
II. >>> remainder = 2 % 5
>>> print(remainder)
2
III. >>> remainder = 3.1 % 2
>>> print(remainder)
1.1
IV. Suppose you want quotient then
>>> quotient = 7 / 3
>>> print(quotient)
2.3333333333333335
>>> quotient = 7 // 3 → Gives you floored integer division
>>> print(quotient)
2
➢ The modulus operator is useful:
• To check if a number is divisible by another number or not.
For example,
If x % y is zero, then x is divisible by y
• To extract the right most digit or digits from a number.
For example,
I. x % 10 gives the right most digit of x (in base 10).
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II. x % 100 gives the last two digits

RELATIONAL (COMPARISION) OPERATORS

➢ These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the relation
among them. They are also called Relational operators.
➢ Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20:

Operator Description Example

>>> a == b
== If the values of two operands are equal, then the condition becomes true.
False
>>> a != b
!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes true.
True
If the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, then >>> a > b
>
condition becomes true. False
If the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, then >>> a < b
<
condition becomes true. True
If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right >>> a >= b
>=
operand, then condition becomes true. False
If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right operand, >>> a <= b
<=
then condition becomes true. True

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS

➢ Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20

Operator Description Example

>>> c = a + b
Assigns values from right side operands to left side
= >>> print(c)
operand
30
>>> a += b
+= It adds right operand to the left operand and assign the
>>> print(a)
Add AND result to left operand
30
>>> a -= b
-= It subtracts right operand from the left operand and
>>> print(a)
Subtract AND assign the result to left operand
-10
>>> a *= b
*= It multiplies right operand with the left operand and
>>> print(a)
Multiply AND assign the result to left operand
200

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>>> a /= b
/= It divides left operand with the right operand and assign
>>> print(a)
Divide AND the result to left operand
0.5
>>> a %= b
%= It takes modulus using two operands and assign the
>>> print(a)
Modulus AND result to left operand
10
>>> a **= b
**= Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators
>>> print(a)
Exponent AND and assign value to the left operand
100000000000000000000
>>> a //= b
//= It performs floor division on operators and assign value
>>> print(a)
Floor Division to the left operand
0

LOGICAL OPERATORS

➢ There are three logical operators: and, or and not.

For example,
I. x > 0 and x < 10
is true only if x is greater than 0 and less than 10.
II. n%2 == 0 or n%3 == 0
is true if either of the conditions is true, that is, if the number is divisible by 2 or
3.
III. not (x > y)
is true if x > y is false; that is, if x is less than or equal to y.
➢ Any non-zero number is treated as “True”.
For example,
>>> 14 and True
True

Operator Description Example

>>> 252.7 and True
True
>>> 5 > 2 and 3 < 46
and Logical AND
True
>>> 5 > 3 and -1 > 3
False
>>> 3 >= 2 or 98 -2
True
or Logical OR
>>> 3 <= 2 or 98 < 9
False

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>>> not(False)
True
>>> not(True)
False
>>> not (5<3)
True
not LOGICAL NOT
>>> not (5>3)
False
>>> not (5>3 and -1<3)
False
>>> not (5<3 or -1>3)
True

BITWISE OPERATORS

➢ Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if a = 60; and b =
13; Now in binary format they will be as follows −
a = 0011 1100
b = 0000 1101
----------------------------------------
a&b = 0000 1100
a|b = 0011 1101
a^b = 0011 0001
~a = 1100 0011

Operator Description Example

& Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in >>> a & b
Bitwise AND both operands 12 → (means 0000 1100)
| >>> a | b
It copies a bit if it exists in either operand.
Bitwise OR 61 → (means 0011 1101)
^ It copies the bit if it is set in one operand but >>> a ^ b
Bitwise XOR not both. 49 → (means 0011 0001)
>>> ~a
~
-61 → (means 1100 0011 in 2's
Bitwise Not It is unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits.
complement form due to a
(Ones Complement)
signed binary number.
<< The left operands value is moved left by the >>> a << 2
Bitwise Left Shift number of bits specified by the right operand. 240 → (means 1111 0000)
>> The left operands value is moved right by the >>> a >> 2
Bitwise Right Shift number of bits specified by the right operand. 15 → (means 0000 1111)

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MEMBERSHIP OPERATORS

➢ Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as strings, lists,
or tuples.

Operator Description
Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the
in
specified sequence and false otherwise.
Evaluates to true if it does not finds a
not in variable in the specified sequence and false
otherwise.

IDENTITY OPERATORS

➢ Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects.

Operator Description
Evaluates to true if the variables on either
is side of the operator point to the same object
and false otherwise.
Evaluates to false if the variables on either
is not side of the operator point to the same object
and true otherwise.

ORDER OF OPERATIONS

➢ When we have more than operator in an expression, the order of evaluation depends on the
rules of precedence.
➢ The acronym PEMDAS is used to remember the rules:
• Parenthesis has the highest precedence. The expression in the parenthesis are
evaluated first. It can also be used to make the expression easy to read.
For example:
I. 2 * ( 3 – 1 ) → Gives result 4
II. ( 1 + 1 ) ** ( 5 – 2 ) → Gives result 8
• Exponentiation has the next highest precedence.
For example:
I. 2 ** 1 + 1 → Gives result 3 and not 4
II. 3 * 1 ** 3 → Gives result 3 and not 27

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• Multiplication and Division have the same precedence, which is higher than Addition and
Subtraction, which also have the same precedence.
For example,
• Operators with the same precedence are evaluated from left to right.
For example,
The expression 5 - 3 - 1 gives the result 1, not 3, because 5 - 3 is evaluated first and
then 1 is subtracted from 2.
NOTE:
✓ Always put parenthesis in your expressions to make sure that the computations are
performed in the order you want.
✓ Python statements always end with a new line, but it also allows multiline statement
using “\” character at the end of the line as shown below:
>>> x = (3+5)\
... * 8
>>> print(x)
64

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY

The operator precedence in Python are listed in the following table. It is in descending
order, upper group has higher precedence than the lower ones.

Operators Meaning
() Parentheses
** Exponent
+x, -x, ~x Positive, Negative, Bitwise NOT
Multiplication, Division, Floor division,
*, /, //, %
Modulus
+, - Addition, Subtraction
<<, >> Bitwise shift operators
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise XOR
| Bitwise OR
==, !=, >, >=, <, <=, is, is Comparison, Identity, Membership
not, in, not in operators
not Logical NOT
and Logical AND
or Logical OR

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Associativity of Python Operators

➢ We can see in the above table that more than one operator exists in the same group. These
operators have the same precedence.
➢ When two operators have the same precedence, associativity helps to determine which the
order of operations.
➢ Associativity is the order in which an expression is evaluated that has multiple operator of
the same precedence. Almost all the operators have left-to-right associativity.
For example, multiplication and floor division have the same precedence. Hence, if both of
them are present in an expression, left one is evaluates first.
➢ Exponent operator ** has right-to-left associativity in Python.
For example:
>>> print(2**3**2)
512
>>> print((2**3)**2)
64
➢ Some operators like assignment operators and comparison operators do not have associativity
in Python.
For example:
x < y < z neither means (x < y) < z nor x < (y < z). x < y < z is equivalent to x < y and y < z,
and is evaluates from left-to-right.

NOTE: From Python documentation on operator precedence

Operator Description
() Parentheses (grouping)
f(args...) Function call
x[index:index] Slicing
x[index] Subscription
x.attribute Attribute reference
** Exponentiation
~x Bitwise not
+x, -x Positive, negative
*, /, % Multiplication, division, remainder
+, - Addition, subtraction
<<, >> Bitwise shifts
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise XOR
| Bitwise OR

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

in, not in Membership

is, is not Comparisons
<, <=, >, >=, !=, == Identity
not x Boolean NOT
and Boolean AND
or Boolean OR
lambda Lambda expression

STRING OPERATIONS

➢ The + operator is also used with string.

➢ It performs concatenation, meaning joining two strings.
For example,
I. >>> first = 10
>>> second = 20
>>> print(first+second) → Performs addition
30
II. >>> first = '10'
>>> second = '20'
>>> print(first+second) → Performs concatenation
1020

COMMENTS

➢ As the programs become bigger and more complicated, they become very difficult to read.
➢ It is a good practice to add notes to the program that briefly tells what the program is does.
These are called comments and in Python they start with # symbol.
For example,
#compute the percentage of the hour that has elapsed
percentage = (minute * 100) / 60
OR
percentage = (minute * 100) / 60 # percentage of an hour

➢ In python, multi-line comments can be written using “””.

"""
To display hello world on the screen
Author: Akhilaa
"""
print('hello world')
➢ In python, multi-line comments can be written using ‘’’.
'''

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

To display hello world on the screen

Author: Akhilaa
'''
print('hello world')

EXERCISES

1. width = 17
height = 12.0
For each of the following expressions, write the value of the expression and the
type (of the value of the expression).
1. width//2
2. width/2.0
3. height/3
4. 1 + 2 \* 5
Use the Python interpreter to check your answers.
2. Write a python program which prompts the user for a Celsius temperature, convert the
temperature to Fahrenheit, and print out the converted temperature.
F = ((9/5)*c) + 32 or F = 1.8 C +32
C = (5/9)*(F-32)
3. Write a python program to compute simple interest.
4. Write a python program to compute the area and circumference of a circle.
A = 𝜋r2 C = 𝜋r
5. Write a python program to swap two numbers.
6. Write a python program to compute sum and average of 5 numbers.
7. Write a python program to demonstrate arithmetic operators(calculator program).
8. Write a python program to compute area and perimeter of a rectangle.
A=l*b P = 2 (l+b)

GLOSSARY

assignment A statement that assigns a value to a variable.

concatenate To join two operands end to end.
comment Information in a program that is meant for other programmers (or anyone
reading the source code) and has no effect on the execution of the program.
evaluate To simplify an expression by performing the operations in order to yield a single
value.
expression A combination of variables, operators, and values that represents a single result
value.
floating point A type that represents numbers with fractional parts.
integer A type that represents whole numbers.
keyword A reserved word that is used by the compiler to parse a program; you cannot use
keywords like if, def, and while as variable names.
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

mnemonic A memory aid. We often give variables mnemonic names to help us remember
what is stored in the variable.
modulus operator An operator, denoted with a percent sign (%), that works on integers and yields
the remainder when one number is divided by another.
operand One of the values on which an operator operates.
operator A special symbol that represents a simple computation like addition,
multiplication, or string concatenation.
rules of precedence The set of rules governing the order in which expressions involving multiple
operators and operands are evaluated.
statement A section of code that represents a command or action. So far, the statements
we have seen are assignments and print expression statement.
string A type that represents sequences of characters.
type A category of values. The types we have seen so far are integers (type int),
floating-point numbers (type float), and strings (type str).
value One of the basic units of data, like a number or string, which a program
manipulates.
variable A name that refers to a value.

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3 CONDITIONAL EXECUTION

IF STATEMENT (CONDITIONAL EXECUTION)

➢ Conditional statements gives the ability to check conditions change the behaviour of the
program accordingly.
➢ Decision making is required when we want to execute a code only if a certain condition is
satisfied.
➢ The syntax of if-statement is:
if expression :
statement-block-1
statement-block-2
The boolean expression after the if statement is called the condition. We end the if statement
with a colon character (:) and the line(s) after the if statement are indented.
➢ The expression is evaluated to either True or False.
• If True then the intended statements (statement-block-1) get executed and the control
comes outside the if statement and the execution of further statements (statement-
block-2) continues if any.
• If the expression is evaluated to be false, then intended block (statement-block-1) is
skipped.
➢ There is no limit on the number of statements that can appear in the body, but there must be
at least one.
➢ Note: Parenthesis can be used for the expression in the if statement but it is optional.
➢ The flowchart is shown below:

True
expression statement-block-1

False

statement-block-2

➢ Python interprets non-zero values as True. None and 0 are interpreted as False.
➢ # Python program to check if a given number is positive.

n = int(input('Enter a number: '))

if n > 0 :
print('Positive')

print('Bye')
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

Output:
I. Enter a number: 10
Positive
Bye
II. Enter a number: -74
Bye
III. Enter a number: 0
Bye
➢ Sometimes, it is useful to have a body with no statements (usually as a place holder for code
you haven’t written yet). In that case, you can use the pass statement, which does nothing.
For example:
if n < 0 :
pass # need to handle negative values
➢ If you enter an if statement in the Python interpreter, the prompt will change from three
chevrons to three dots to indicate you are in the middle of a block of statements, as shown
below:
>> x = 3
>>> if x < 10 :
... print('Small')
...
Small

IF-ELSE STATEMENT (ALTERNATIVE EXECUTION)

➢ It is two-way selection statement. It is used when we have to choose between two

alternatives.
➢ The syntax of if-else statement is:
if expression :
statement-block-1
else :
statement-block-2
statement-block-3
➢ The expression is evaluated to true or false.
• If the expression is evaluated to true, then statement-block-1 is executed and the
control comes outside the if-else and statement-block-3 is executed.
• If the expression is evaluated to false, then statement-block-2 is executed and the
control comes outside the if-else and statement-block-3 is executed.
➢ Since the condition must either be true or false, exactly one of the alternatives will be
executed. The alternatives are called branches.
➢ The flowchart is shown below:

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

False True
statement-block-2 expression statement-block-1

statement-block-3

➢ # Python program to check if a number is positive or negative.

n = float(input('Enter a number: '))

if n > 0 :
print('Positive')
else :
print('Negative')

print('Bye')

Output:
I. Enter a number: -972
Negative
Bye
II. Enter a number: 0
Negative
Bye
III. Enter a number: 76.359
Positive
Bye
IV. Enter a number: 0.036
Positive
Bye

ElSE-IF LADDER STATEMENT (CHAINED CONDITIONALS)

➢ It is multi-way selection statement. It is used when we have to make a choice among many
alternatives. One way to express a computation like that is a chained conditional.
➢ The syntax of else-if statement is:
if expression-1 :

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

statement-block-1
elif expression-2 :
statement-block-2
elif expression-3 :
statement-block-3
elif expression-4 :
statement-block-4
elif expression-5 :
statement-block-5
statement-block-6

Note: elif is an abbreviation of “else if”

➢ The expression is evaluated in top to bottom order. If an expression is evaluated to true, then
the statement-block associated with that expression is executed and the control comes out of
the entire else if ladder and continues execution from statement-block-6 if any.
➢ There is no limit on the number of elif statements. If there is an else clause, it has to be at the
end, but there doesn’t have to be one.
➢ For example:
• If expression-1 is evaluated to true, then statement-block-1 is executed and the control
comes out of the entire else if ladder and continues execution from statement-block-6
if any.
• If expression-1 is evaluated to false, then expression-2 is evaluated. If expression-2 is
evaluated to true then statement-block-2 is executed and the control comes out of the
entire else if ladder and continues execution from statement-block-6 if any.
• If all the expressions are evaluated to false, then the last statement-block-5 (default) is
executed and the control comes out of the entire else if ladder and continues execution
from statement-block-6 if any.
➢ The flowchart is shown below:

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expression-1
True False

expression-2
statement-block-1 False
True
expression-3
statement-block-2 False
True
expression-4
statement-block-3
True False

statement-block-4 statement-block-5
(default statement-block)

statement-block-6

➢ # Python program to check if a number is positive, negative or zero.

n = int(input('Enter the number: '))

if n > 0 :
print('The number',n,'is Positive')
elif n < 0 :
print('The number',n,'is Negative')
else :
print('The number',n,'is Zero')

print('Good Bye')

Output:
I. Enter the number: 0
The number 0 is Zero
Good Bye
II. Enter the number: 73
The number 73 is Positive
Good Bye
III. Enter the number: 0
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

The number 0 is Zero

Good Bye

NESTED IF-ELSE STATEMENT (NESTED CONDITIONALS)

➢ It is used when an action has to be performed based on many decisions.

➢ An if-else statement within another if-else statement is called nested if-else statement.
➢ The syntax of nested if-else statement is:
if expression-1 :
if expression-2 :
statement-block-1
else :
statement-block-2
else
if expression-3 :
statement-block-3
else :
statement-block-4
statement-block-5

➢ The expression-1 is evaluated to true or false.

• If expression-1 is evaluated to true, then expression-2 is evaluated to true or false. If
expression-2 is evaluated to true, then statement-block-1 is executed. If expression-2 is
evaluated to false, then statement-block-2 is executed.
• If expression-1 is evaluated to false, then expression-3 is evaluated to true or false. If
expression-3 is evaluated to true, then statement-block-3 is executed. If expression-3 is
evaluated to false, then statement-block-4 is executed.
In either of the cases, after execution of a particular statement-block the control comes
outside the nested if-else statement and continues execution from statement-block-5.
➢ Although the indentation of the statements makes the structure apparent, nested conditionals
become difficult to read very quickly. In general, it is a good idea to avoid them when you can.
➢ The flowchart is shown below:

True False
expression-1

True False True False

expression-2 expression-3

statement-block-1 statement-block-2 statement-block-3 statement-block-4

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➢ # Python program to check if a number is lesser, greater or equal to another number.

x = int(input('Enter X: '))
y = int(input('Enter Y: '))

if x == y :
print('X and Y are Equal')
else :
if x < y :
print('X is lesser than Y')
else :
print('X is greater than Y')

Output:
I. Enter X: 6
Enter Y: 9
X is lesser than Y
II. Enter X: 84
Enter Y: 62
X is greater than Y
III. Enter X: 5
Enter Y: 5
X and Y are Equal

CATCHING EXCEPTIONS USING TRY AND EXCEPT

➢ An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program that disrupts the
normal flow of the program.
➢ In general, when a Python script encounters a situation that it cannot cope with, it raises an
exception. When a Python script raises an exception, it must either handle the exception
immediately otherwise it terminates and quits.
➢ For example:
# Python program to demonstrate an exception.

a = int(input('Enter a: '))
b = int(input('Enter b: '))

res = a/b

print(res)

Output:
I. Enter a: 10

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Enter b: 5
2.0
II. Enter a: 4
Enter b: 0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File"C:/Users/akhil/AppData/Local/Programs/Python/Python36
32/tryexcept.py", line 6, in <module>
res = a/b
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero → This is an exception
➢ The idea of try and except is that you know that some sequence of instruction(s) may have a
problem and you want to add some statements to be executed if an error occurs. These
extra statements (the except block) are ignored if there is no error.
➢ You can think of the try and except feature in Python as an “insurance policy” on a sequence of
statements.
➢ Python starts by executing the sequence of statements in the try block. If all goes well, it skips
the except block and proceeds. If an exception occurs in the try block, Python jumps out of the
try block and executes the sequence of statements in the except block.
➢ We can rewrite the above program to handle exceptions as follows:
# Python program to demonstrate catching an exception using try and catch.

a = int(input('Enter a: '))
b = int(input('Enter b: '))

try:
res = a/b
print(res)
except:
print('Divide by Zero Exception!!!')

Output:
I.
Enter a: 8
Enter b: 0
Divide by Zero Exception!!!
II. Enter a: 53
Enter b: 35
1.5142857142857142
➢ Handling an exception with a try statement is called catching an exception.

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SHORT-CIRCUIT EVALUATION OF LOGICAL EXPRESSIONS

➢ When Python is processing a logical expression such as x >= 2 and (x/y) > 2, it evaluates the
expression from left to right. Because of the definition of and, if x is less than 2, the expression x
>= 2 is False and so the whole expression is False regardless of whether (x/y) > 2 evaluates to
True or False.
➢ When Python detects that there is nothing to be gained by evaluating the rest of a logical
expression, it stops its evaluation and does not do the computations in the rest of the logical
expression. When the evaluation of a logical expression stops because the overall value is
already known, it is called short-circuiting the evaluation.
➢ While this may seem like a fine point, the short-circuit behaviour leads to a clever technique
called the guardian pattern.
➢ Consider the following code sequence in the Python interpreter:

>>> x = 6
>>> y = 2
>>> x >= 2 and (x/y)>2
True
>>> x = 1
>>> y = 0
>>> x >= 2 and (x/y) > 2
False
>>> x = 6
>>> y = 0
>>> x >= 2 and (x/y) > 2
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
• The third calculation failed because Python was evaluating (x/y) and y was zero, which causes
a runtime error.
• But the second example did not fail because the first part of the expression x >= 2 evaluated
to False so the (x/y) was not ever executed due to the short-circuit rule and there was no
error.
➢ We can construct the logical expression to strategically place a guard evaluation just before
the evaluation that might cause an error as follows:

>>> x = 1
>>> y = 0
>>> x >= 2 and y != 0 and (x/y) > 2
False
>>> x = 6
>>> y = 0

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>>> x >= 2 and y != 0 and (x/y) > 2

False
>>> x >= 2 and (x/y) > 2 and y != 0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
• In the first logical expression, x >= 2 is False so the evaluation stops at the and.
• In the second logical expression, x >= 2 is True but y != 0 is False so we never reach (x/y).
• In the third logical expression, the y != 0 is after the (x/y) calculation so the expression fails
with an error.
• In the second expression, we say that y != 0 acts as a guard to insure that we only execute
(x/y) if y is non-zero.

EXERCISES

1. Rewrite your pay computation to give the employee 1.5 times the hourly rate for hours worked
above 40 hours.
Enter Hours: 45
Enter Rate: 10
Pay: 475.0
Program:

hours = float(input('Enter the number of hours: '))

rate = float(input('Enter the rate: '))

if hours<=40 :
pay = rate * hours
print('The total pay is', pay)
else :
rem = hours-40
pay = 400 + (rem*rate*1.5)
print('The total pay is', pay)

Output:
I. Enter the number of hours: 40
Enter the rate: 10
The total pay is 400.0
II. Enter the number of hours: 45
Enter the rate: 10
The total pay is 475.0
III. Enter the number of hours: 50.2

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

Enter the rate: 10

The total pay is 553.0
2. Rewrite your pay program using try and except so that your program handles non-numeric input
gracefully by printing a message and exiting the program. The following shows two executions of the
program:
Enter Hours: 20
Enter Rate: nine
Error, please enter numeric input

Enter Hours: forty

Error, please enter numeric input
Program:

try :
hours = float(input('Enter the number of hours: '))

rate = float(input('Enter the rate: '))

if hours<=40 :
pay = rate * hours
print('The total pay is', pay)
else :
rem = hours-40
pay = 400 + (rem*rate*1.5)
print('The total pay is', pay)
except :
print('Error! Please enter numeric input')

OR
try :
hours = float(input('Enter the number of hours: '))

rate = float(input('Enter the rate: '))

except :
print('Error! Please enter numeric input')

else :
if hours<=40 :
pay = rate * hours
print('The total pay is', pay)
else :
rem = hours-40
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

pay = 400 + (rem*rate*1.5)

print('The total pay is', pay)

Output:
I.
Enter the number of hours: nine
Error! Please enter numeric input
II. Enter the number of hours: 23
Enter the rate: ten
Error! Please enter numeric input
III. Enter the number of hours: 51
Enter the rate: 13
The total pay is 614.5
3. Write a program to prompt for a score between 0.0 and 1.0. If the score is out of range, print an
error message. If the score is between 0.0 and 1.0, print a grade using the following table:
Score Grade
>= 0.9 A
>= 0.8 B
>= 0.7 C
>= 0.6 D
< 0.6 F
---
Enter score: 0.95 A-

Enter score: perfect

Bad score

Enter score: 10.0

Bad score
Enter score: 0.75
C

Enter score: 0.5

F

Run the program repeatedly as shown above to test the various different values for
input.
Program:

try :
score = float(input('Enter the score: '))
except :
print('Error, Score out of range.')
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

else :
if score < 0 or score > 1.0 :
print('Error, Score out of range')
elif score >= 0.9 and score <= 1.0 :
print('Grade A')
elif score >= 0.8 and score < 0.9 :
print('Grade B')
elif score >= 0.7 and score < 0.8 :
print('Grade C')
elif score >= 0.6 and score < 0.7 :
print('Grade D')
elif score >= 0 and score <0.6 :
print('Fail')

Output:
I.
Enter the score: 10
Error, Score out of range
II. Enter the score: 0
Fail
III. Enter the score: 0.62
Grade D
IV. Enter the score: 0.99
Grade A
V. Enter the score: 0.75
Grade C
4. Write a python program to check if a number is even or odd.
5. Write a python program to check if a number is prime or not.
6. Write a python program to find maximum two numbers.
7. Write a python program to find maximum of three numbers.
8. Write a python program to check whether the entered character is a vowel or consonant.
9. Write a python program to check whether the entered character is ‘F’ (Female) or ‘M’ (Male).
10. Write a python program to check if a year is leap year, century leap year or not a leap year.
11. Write a python program to input week number and print week day.
12. Write a python program to input month number and print the number of days in that month.
13. Write a python program to check whether the triangle, isosceles or scalene triangle.
14. Write a python program to compute roots of a quadratic equation.
15. Write a python program to calculate profit or loss.
16. Write a python program to input the basic salary of an employee and calculate its gross salary
according to the following:
Basic Salary <= 10000 : HRA = 20%, DA = 80%
Basic Salary <= 20000 : HRA = 25%, DA = 90%
Basic Salary > 20000 : HRA = 30%, DA = 95%
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

17. Write a python program to input electricity unit charges and calculate total electricity bill according
to the given condition:
For first 50 units Rs. 0.50/unit
For next 100 units Rs. 0.75/unit
For next 100 units Rs. 1.20/unit
For unit above 250 Rs. 1.50/unit
An additional surcharge of 20% is added to the bill
18. Write a python program to input marks of five subjects Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics
and Computer. Calculate percentage and grade according to the following:
Percentage >= 90% : Grade A
Percentage >= 80% : Grade B
Percentage >= 70% : Grade C
Percentage >= 60% : Grade D
Percentage >= 40% : Grade E
Percentage < 40% : Grade F

GLOSSARY

body The sequence of statements within a compound statement.

boolean expression An expression whose value is either True or False.
branch One of the alternative sequences of statements in a conditional statement.
chained conditional A conditional statement with a series of alternative branches.
comparison operator One of the operators that compares its operands: ==, !=, >, <, >=, and <=.
conditional statement A statement that controls the flow of execution depending on some condition.
condition The boolean expression in a conditional statement that determines which
branch is executed.
compound statement A statement that consists of a header and a body. The header ends with a
colon (:). The body is indented relative to the header.
guardian pattern Where we construct a logical expression with additional comparisons to take
advantage of the short-circuit behaviour.
logical operator One of the operators that combines boolean expressions: and, or, and not.
nested conditional A conditional statement that appears in one of the branches of another
conditional statement.
traceback A list of the functions that are executing, printed when an exception occurs.
short circuit When Python is part-way through evaluating a logical expression and stops
the evaluation because Python knows the final value for the expression
without needing to evaluate the rest of the expression.

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4 FUNCTIONS
➢ A function is a named sequence of statements that performs a computation.
OR
A function is a set of statements that does some particular task.
➢ There are two types of functions:
i. Built-in-functions: Functions that are predefined.
ii. User-defined functions: Functions that are created by the users according to the
requirement.

DEFINING A FUNCTION

➢ A function definition specifies the name of a new function and the sequence of statements
that execute when the function is called.
➢ def keyword is used to define the function ( marks the start of function header).
➢ A function name to uniquely identify it. Function naming follows the same rules of writing
variable names (identifiers) in Python.
• Letters, numbers and some punctuation marks are legal, but the first character can’t be a
number.
• You can’t use a keyword as the name of a function.
• Avoid having a variable and a function with the same name.
➢ Parameters (arguments) through which we pass values to a function. They are optional. The
empty parentheses after the name indicate that this function doesn’t take any arguments.
➢ A colon (:) to mark the end of function header.
➢ The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the documentation string
(docstring) to describe what the function does.
➢ One or more valid python statements that make up the function body. The body can contain
any number of statements.
➢ Statements must have same indentation level (usually 4 spaces).
➢ An optional return statement to return a value from the function.
➢ The general syntax of defining a function is:
def function_name (parameters/arguments):
“””docstring””” → Optional
Statement 1
Statement 2 Body of the function
…
Statement n
For Example:

def print_lyrics():
print(‘Haan hum badalne lage, Girne sambhalne lage’)
print(‘Jab se hai jaana tumhein, Teri ore chalne lage’)

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

➢ If you type a function definition in interactive mode, the interpreter prints ellipses (. . . ) to let
you know that the definition isn’t complete. To end the function, you have to enter an empty
line (this is not necessary in a script).
>>> def print_lyrics():
... print('Haan hum badalne lage, Girne sambhalne lage')
... print('Jab se hain jaana tumhein, Teri ore chalne lage')
...

Note: The below is an example that shows an error if you are not indenting the statements after the
Function.
header
>>> def print_lyrics():
... print(‘Jab se hai jaana tumhein, Teri ore chalne lage’)
File "<stdin>", line 2
print(‘Jab se hai jaana tumhein, Teri ore chalne lage’)
^
IndentationError: expected an indented block
➢ Defining a function creates a variable with the same name.
>>> print(print_lyrics)
<function print_lyrics at 0x05916228>
➢ The value of print_lyrics is a function object, which has type “function”.
>>> print(type(print_lyrics))
<class 'function'>

FUNCTION CALL

➢ A function call is a statement that executes a function. It consists of the function name
followed by an argument list.
➢ The general syntax of calling a function is:
function_name(parameters/arguments)
➢ For Example:
>>> print_lyrics() → Function call
Haan hum badalne lage, Girne sambhalne lage
Jab se hain jaana tumhein, Teri ore chalne lage
➢ Once you have defined a function, you can use it inside another function.
>>> def repeat_lyrics():
... print_lyrics() → Function call
... print_lyrics() → Function call
...
>>> repeat_lyrics() → Function call
Haan hum badalne lage, Girne sambhalne lage
Jab se hain jaana tumhein, Teri ore chalne lage
Haan hum badalne lage, Girne sambhalne lage
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Jab se hain jaana tumhein, Teri ore chalne lage

ADVANTAGES OF FUNCTIONS

➢ Creating a new function gives you an opportunity to name a group of statements, which makes
your program easier to read, understand, and debug.
➢ Functions can make a program smaller by eliminating repetitive code. Later, if you make a
change, you only have to make it in one place.
➢ Dividing a long program into functions allows you to debug the parts one at a time and then
assemble them into a working whole.
➢ Well-designed functions are often useful for many programs. Once you write and debug one,
you can reuse it.

FRUITFUL FUNCTIONS AND VOID FUNCTIONS

➢ A function that yields a result or returns a value is called is fruitful function.

➢ When you call a fruitful function, you always want to do something with the result; for example,
you might assign it to a variable or use it as part of an expression.
➢ To return a result from a function, we use the return statement.
➢ When you call a function in interactive mode, Python displays the result. But in a script, if you
call a fruitful function and do not store the result of the function in a variable, the return value
vanishes.
For example:
# A function that adds two numbers and returns a value.

def add_twonos(a,b):
"""Function to compute sum of two numbers."""
sum = a + b
return sum

v1 = int(input('Enter the first value: '))

v2 = int(input('Enter the second value: '))

res = add_twonos(v1,v2)

print('The sum of two numbers is: ', res)

Output:
I. Enter the first value: 5
Enter the second value: 10
The sum of two numbers is: 15
II. Enter the first value: 347
Enter the second value: 213
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The sum of two numbers is: 560

➢ A function that performs an action but doesn’t return a value is called void function.
For example:
# A function to compute average of two numbers.

def avg_twonos(a,b):
"""Function to compute average of two numbers."""
sum = a + b
avg = sum / 2
print('The average of two numbers is: ', avg)

v1 = float(input('Enter the first value: '))

v2 = float(input('Enter the second value: '))

avg_twonos(v1,v2)

Output:
I. Enter the first value: 45
Enter the second value: 234
The average of two numbers is: 139.5
II. Enter the first value: 654
Enter the second value: 56
The average of two numbers is: 355.0

BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS

➢ Python provides a number of important built-in functions that we can use without needing to
provide the function definition.
➢ The max and min gives the largest and smallest element in the list respectively.
For Example:
>>> max('Hello World')
'r'
>>> min('Hello World')
''
>>> max(10,45,67,6,-6,348.6,58)
348.6
>>> min(10,45,67,6,-6,348.6,58)
-6
The max function tells us the “largest character” in the string (which turns out to be the
letter “r”) and the min function shows us the smallest character (which turns out to be a space).
➢ len function which tells us how many items are in its argument.
For Example:

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If the argument to len is a string, it returns the number of characters in the string.
>>> len('Hello World')
11
>>> list = [10, 325, 52, 25, 55.2, 436]
>>> print(len(list))
6
>>> len(10,45,67,6,-6,348.6,58)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: len() takes exactly one argument (7 given)

Note: These functions are not limited to strings. They can operate on any set of values.

TYPE CONVERSION FUNCTIONS

➢ Python also provides built-in functions that convert values from one type to another.
➢ The int function takes any value and converts it to an integer, if it can, or complains otherwise:
For Example:
• >>> int('32') → When 32 is passed as string it converts it into integer.
32
• >>> int('hello') → Gives an error.
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'hello'
➢ int can convert floating-point values to integers, but it doesn’t round off; it chops off the
fraction part.
For Example:
• >>> int(4.1926345)
4
• >>> int(-2.6035)
-2
• >>> int('25')
25
• >>> int('6.62536') → When 6.62536 (floating-point) is passed as string it
Traceback (most recent call last): gives an error.
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: '6.62536'
➢ float converts integers and strings to floating-point numbers.
For Example:
• >>> float(32)
32.0
• >>> float('3.1412')

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3.1412
• float('hello')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'hello'
➢ str converts its argument to a string.
For Example:
• >>> str(32)
'32'
• >>> str('3.1412')
'3.1412'

MATH FUNCTIONS

➢ Python has a math module that provides most of the mathematical functions.
➢ Before we can use the module, we have to import it:
>>> import math → This statement creates a module object named math
➢ If you print the module object, we get some information about it:
>>> print(math)
<module 'math' (built-in)>
➢ The module object contains the functions and variables defined in the module. To access one
of the functions, you have to specify the name of the module and the name of the function,
separated by a dot (also known as a period). This format is called dot notation.

SOME OF THE FUNCTIONS IN MATH MODULE

Number-theoretic and representation functions

math.ceil(x) Return the ceiling of x, the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
math.fabs(x) Return the absolute value of x.
math.factorial(x) Return x factorial. Raises ValueError if x is not integral or is negative. (Note:
ValueError is an exception raised when a built-in operation or function
receives an argument that has the right type but an inappropriate value)
math.floor(x) Return the floor of x, the largest integer less than or equal to x.
math.fsum(iterable) Return an accurate floating point sum of values in the iterable.
math.gcd(a, b) Return the greatest common divisor of the integers a and b. If either a or b is
nonzero, then the value of gcd(a, b) is the largest positive integer that
divides both a and b. gcd(0, 0) returns 0.
math.isfinite(x) Return True if x is neither an infinity nor a NaN, and False otherwise. (Note
that 0.0 is considered finite.)
math.isinf(x) Return True if x is a positive or negative infinity, and False otherwise.
math.isnan(x) Return True if x is a NaN (not a number), and False otherwise
math.modf(x) Return the fractional and integer parts of x. Both results carry the sign of x
and are floats.
math.trunc(x) Return the Real value x truncated to an Integral (usually an integer).

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Power and logarithmic functions

math.exp(x) Return e**x.
math.log(x[, base]) With one argument, return the natural logarithm of x (to base e).
With two arguments, return the logarithm of x to the given base, calculated
as log(x)/log(base).
math.log1p(x) Return the natural logarithm of 1+x (base e). The result is calculated in a way
which is accurate for x near zero.
math.log2(x) Return the base-2 logarithm of x. This is usually more accurate than log(x, 2).
math.log10(x) Return the base-10 logarithm of x. This is usually more accurate than log(x,
10).
math.pow(x, y) Return x raised to the power y. Exceptional cases follow Annex ‘F’ of the C99
standard as far as possible. In particular, pow(1.0, x) and pow(x, 0.0) always
return 1.0, even when x is a zero or a NaN. If both x and y are finite, x is
negative, and y is not an integer then pow(x, y) is undefined, and raises
ValueError.
Unlike the built-in ** operator, math.pow() converts both its arguments to
type float. Use ** or the built-in pow() function for computing exact integer
powers.
math.sqrt(x) Return the square root of x.

Trigonometric functions
math.sin(x) Return the sine of x radians.
math.cos(x) Return the cosine of x radians.
math.tan(x) Return the tangent of x radians.
math.hypot(x, y) Return the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y). This is the length of the vector
from the origin to point (x, y).
math.acos(x) Return the arc cosine of x, in radians.
math.asin(x) Return the arc sine of x, in radians.
math.atan(x) Return the arc tangent of x, in radians.
math.atan2(y, x) Return atan(y / x), in radians.

Angular conversion
math.degrees(x) Convert angle x from radians to degrees.
math.radians(x) Convert angle x from degrees to radians.

Hyperbolic functions
math.acosh(x) Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of x.
math.asinh(x) Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of x.
math.atanh(x) Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of x.
math.cosh(x) Return the hyperbolic cosine of x.
math.sinh(x) Return the hyperbolic sine of x.
math.tanh(x) Return the hyperbolic tangent of x.

Special functions
math.gamma(x) Return the Gamma function at x.
math.lgamma(x) Return the natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma function at
x.
math.erf(x) Return the error function at x.

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The erf() function can be used to compute traditional statistical functions

such as the cumulative standard normal distribution.
math.erfc(x) Return the complementary error function at x.

Constants
math.pi The mathematical constant π = 3.141592…, to available precision.
math.e The mathematical constant e = 2.718281…, to available precision.
math.tau The mathematical constant τ = 6.283185…, to available precision. Tau is a
circle constant equal to 2π, the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its radius.
math.inf A floating-point positive infinity. (For negative infinity, use -math.inf.)
Equivalent to the output of float('inf').
math.nan A floating-point “not a number” (NaN) value. Equivalent to the output of
float('nan').

Note: Python floats typically carry no more than 53 bits of precision.

Program:

#Program to demonstrate built-in math function.

import math

#math.ceil(x) function.
print('Ceiling function:', math.ceil(23.56))
print('Ceiling function:', math.ceil(-23.56))
print('Ceiling function:', math.ceil(12.32))
print('Ceiling function:', math.ceil(-12.32))

print('\n')

#math.floor(x) function.
print('Floor function:', math.floor(23.56))
print('Floor function:', math.floor(-23.56))
print('Floor function:', math.floor(12.32))
print('Floor function:', math.floor(-12.32))

print('\n')

#math.factorial(x) function.
print('Factorial Function:', math.factorial(15))
#print('Factorial Function:', math.factorial(5.2)) --> Gives a valueError exception
#print('Factorial Function:', math.factorial(-75.34)) --> Gives a valueError exception

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print('\n')

#math.fabs(x) function.
print('Fabs Function:', math.fabs(-876.54))
print('Fabs Function:', math.fabs(-7235))

print('\n')

#math.gcd(x,y) function.
print('Greatest Common Divisor:', math.gcd(10,24))
#print('Greatest Common Divisor:', math.gcd(12.30,24)) --> Gives an error
print('Greatest Common Divisor:', math.gcd(-10,24))

print('\n')

#math.exp(x) function i.e., e**x.

print('Exponent function:', math.exp(34))
print('Exponent function:', math.exp(-67.45))

print('\n')

#math.pow(x,y) function i.e., x**y.

print('Power function:', math.pow(2,31))
print('Power function:', math.pow(2,-8))
print('Power function:', math.pow(12.5,53.5))

print('\n')

#math.sqrt(x) fubction.
print('Square root function:', math.sqrt(625))
#print('Square root function:', math.sqrt(-3984)) --> Gives ValueError exception
print('Square root function:', math.sqrt(2467.38))

print('\n')

print('Sin function:', math.sin(64.47))

print('Cos function:', math.cos(64.47))
print('Tan function:', math.tan(64.47))

print('\n')

#math.log2(x) function.
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print('Log2 function:', math.log2(25))

#print('Log2 function:', math.log2(-25.8)) --> Gives ValueError exception
print('Log2 function:', math.log2(43.769))

print('\n')

#math.log10(x) function.
print('Log10 function:', math.log10(25))
#print('Log10 function:', math.log10(-25.8)) --> Gives ValueError exception
print('Log10 function:', math.log10(43.769))

print('\n')

print('Degrees to radians:', math.radians(90))

print('Radians to degrees:', math.degrees(1.5707))

print('\n')

#Constants
print('The value of pi:', math.pi)
print('The value of e:', math.e)
print('The value of tau:', math.tau)

Output:

Ceiling function: 24
Ceiling function: -23
Ceiling function: 13
Ceiling function: -12

Floor function: 23
Floor function: -24
Floor function: 12
Floor function: -13

Factorial Function: 1307674368000

Fabs Function: 876.54

Fabs Function: 7235.0

Greatest Common Divisor: 2

Greatest Common Divisor: 2
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Exponent function: 583461742527454.9

Exponent function: 5.0913997350542235e-30

Power function: 2147483648.0

Power function: 0.00390625
Power function: 4.8382209306170583e+58

Square root function: 25.0

Square root function: 49.67272893651002

Sin function: 0.9977328054584116

Cos function: -0.06729969473992774
Tan function: -14.825220371563946

Log2 function: 4.643856189774724

Log2 function: 5.451837517668948

Log10 function: 1.3979400086720377

Log10 function: 1.6411666243046132

Degrees to radians: 1.5707963267948966

Radians to degrees: 89.9944808811984

The value of pi: 3.141592653589793

The value of e: 2.718281828459045
The value of tau: 6.283185307179586

RANDOM NUMBERS

➢ Python offers random module that can generate random numbers.

1. For Integers:

Syntax :
random.randrange (start(opt), stop, step(opt))
Parameters :
start(opt) : Number consideration for generation starts from this, default
value is 0. This parameter is optional.
stop : Numbers less than this are generated. This parameter is mandatory.
step(opt) : Step point of range, this won't be included. This is optional.
Default value is 1.
Return Value :

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This function generated the numbers in the sequence start-stop skipping

step.
Exceptions :
Raises ValueError if stop <= start and number is non- integral.
✓ random.randrange(stop)

import random

print(random.randrange(30))

Output:
I. 5
II. 2
III. 21
IV. 27

✓ random.randrange(start, stop[, step])

Return a randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step).

Note: [] means optional.

Program

import random

# Using randrange() to generate numbers from 50-100

print ("\nRandom number from 50-100 is : ")
print (random.randrange(50,100))

# Using randrange() to generate numbers from 50-100 skipping 5

print ("\nRandom number from 50-100 skip 5 is : ")
print (random.randrange(50,100,5))

#Throws exception
#print (random.randrange(50,10))
#print (random.randrange(50.3,100))

Output:
I. Random number from 50-100 is :
95

Random number from 50-100 skip 5 is :

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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

75
II. Random number from 50-100 is :
60

Random number from 50-100 skip 5 is :

55

✓ random.randint(a,b)
Return a random integer N such that a <= N <= b

import random

print(random.randint(1,100)) → Inclusive of 1 and 100.

Output:
I. 96
II. 76
III. 15

2. For Real/Floating:

✓ random.random()
Return the next random floating point number in the range (0.0, 1.0) i.e.,
excluding 1.0.

import random

print(random.random())

Output:
I. 0.48644020748452865
II. 0.9207854756869541
III. 0.8515254897126728

✓ random.uniform(a,b)
Return a random floating point number N such that a <= N <= b for a <= b and b <=
N <= a for b < a.
The end-point value b may or may not be included in the range depending on
floating-point rounding in the equation a + (b-a) * random().

import random

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print(random.uniform(1,100))

Output:
I. 51.433547569607704
II. 90.0503177294139
III. 14.294244323244204

✓ random.triangular(low, high, mode)

Return a random floating point number N such that low <= N <= high and with the
specified mode between those bounds. The low and high bounds default to zero (0.0)
and one (1.0). The mode argument defaults to the midpoint between the bounds,
giving a symmetric distribution.

import random

print(random.triangular(12.43, 78.87))
print(random.triangular())
print(random.triangular(-12.43, -78.87, 2.4))

Output:
I. 28.26005842476202
0.7088800121986798
-57.94680323674265
II. 33.60197377415188
0.5080741473203966
-7.139455370648093
III. 36.7400365668324
0.6532371234185053
-34.338098776806014
3. For Sequences

✓ random.choice(seq)
Return a random element from the non-empty sequence seq (list, tuple or string).
If seq is empty, raises Index Error.

Program:

import random

color_list = ['Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'White', 'Black']

print(random.choice(color_list))
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 Python Application Programming (15CS664)

print(random.choice([1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6]))

print(random.choice('Python Application Programming'))

my_list = [2, 109, False, 10, "Lorem", 482, "Ipsum"]

print(random.choice(my_list))

Output:
I. Black
1
y
Lorem
II. Green
5
m
10
III. White
1
y
482
✓ random.shuffle(x[, random])
Shuffle the sequence x in place. The optional argument random is a 0-argument
function returning a random float in [0.0, 1.0); by default, this is the function
random().

Program:

import random

color_list = ['Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'White', 'Black']

random.shuffle(color_list)
print(color_list)

list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6]

random.shuffle(list)
print(list)

my_list = [2, 109, False, 10, "Lorem", 482, "Ipsum"]

random.shuffle(my_list)
print(my_list)

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Output:
I. ['Red', 'White', 'Black', 'Blue', 'Green']
[4, 6, 1, 5, 3, 2]
[2, 'Ipsum', 482, 'Lorem', False, 109, 10]
II. ['Red', 'White', 'Blue', 'Black', 'Green']
[3, 6, 5, 2, 1, 4]
[109, 482, 'Lorem', 2, 'Ipsum', False, 10]
III. ['Red', 'Black', 'Blue', 'Green', 'White']
[3, 2, 6, 5, 4, 1]
['Ipsum', 109, False, 'Lorem', 2, 10, 482]

EXERCISES

Rewrite all the programs mentioned in Module 1 Exercise 3.7 and Module 2 Exercise 1.7 using
functions.

GLOSSARY

algorithm A general process for solving a category of problems.

argument A value provided to a function when the function is called. This value is assigned to
the corresponding parameter in the function.
body The sequence of statements inside a function definition.
composition Using an expression as part of a larger expression, or a statement as part of a
larger statement.
deterministic Pertaining to a program that does the same thing each time it runs, given the same
inputs.
dot notation The syntax for calling a function in another module by specifying the module name
followed by a dot (period) and the function name.
flow of execution The order in which statements are executed during a program run.
fruitful function A function that returns a value.
function A named sequence of statements that performs some useful operation. Functions
may or may not take arguments and may or may not produce a result.
function call A statement that executes a function. It consists of the function name followed by
an argument list.
function definition A statement that creates a new function, specifying its name, parameters, and the
statements it executes.
function object A value created by a function definition. The name of the function is a variable that
refers to a function object.
header The first line of a function definition.
import statement A statement that reads a module file and creates a module object.
module object A value created by an import statement that provides access to the data and code
defined in a module.

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parameter A name used inside a function to refer to the value passed as an argument.
pseudorandom Pertaining to a sequence of numbers that appear to be random, but are generated
by a deterministic program.
return value The result of a function. If a function call is used as an expression, the return value
is the value of the expression.
void function A function that does not return a value.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain computer hardware architecture with a neat diagram.
2. Difference between compiler and interpreter.
3. What is a program? Explain the building blocks of a program.
4. Explain different types of errors.
5. What is Python? List the features and applications of Python.
6. What are values? Explain the different types of values with example.
7. What is a variable? Explain the different rules in naming a variable. Also give examples of valid
and invalid variable names.
8. What is a keyword? List the keywords in Python.
9. Define
a. Statement
b. Expression
c. Boolean Expression
10. What are operators and operands? Explain with an example.
11. Explain different types of operators with an example for each.
12. Explain rules of precedence (Order of operations) in Python.
13. What is modulus operator used for?
14. Explain with an example how ‘+’ operator works on strings.
15. Explain the print() and input() function in Python with different examples ( one example for each
type )
16. Explain
a. Conditional execution (if statement)
b. Alternate execution (if-else statement)
c. Chained conditionals (else-if ladder/cascaded if-else statement)
d. Nested conditionals (nested if-else statements)
17. Explain with an example how exception are handled using try and except.
18. Explain short-circuit evaluation of logical expression with an example.
19. What is a function? What are the different types of functions? What are the advantages of using
functions?
20. Explain how to define and call a user-defined function with example.
21. Explain fruitful and void functions with an example.
22. Explain any 10 function present in math module with an example.
23. Explain type conversion functions with examples.

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24. Explain how random numbers can be generated for integers, floating(real) and sequences with
examples.

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