UCCM1333 INTRODUCTORY DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Chapter 2 Logic of Quantified Statements

Predicate
Definition 2.1
A sentence is a predicate (or propositional function) if
(1) it contains a finite number of predicate variables (eg: x1, x2, …,
xn), and
(2) it is not a statement, but it becomes a statement when particular
values are substituted for the variables.
The universe of discourse or domain D of a predicate variable is the set
of all values that may be substituted in place of the variable.

Example 2.1
(a) P(x): x is an animal.
Domain: {apple, cat, computer, elephant, horse}
P(cat), P(elephant) and P(horse) are true statements.
P(apple) and P(computer) are false statements.

(b) Q(x): x is a positive integer. Domain: ℝ

Q(2), Q(100) and Q(10,000) are true statements.
Q(−10), Q(0), Q(¼) and Q(1.15) are false statements.

(c) R(x, y): x ≥ y.

The domain of R(x, y) consists of pairs x and y where x = 1, 2, or 3
and y = 3, 4.
R(3, 3) is a true statement.
R(1, 3), R(1, 4), R(2, 3), R(2, 4), R(3, 4) are false statements.

Example 2.2
(a) Let P(x): x is prime ⇒ x is odd. Indicate which of these statements
are true and which are false.
(i) P(13) T (ii) P(2) F
(iii) P(5) T (iv) P(0) T

(b) Let P(x, y): x2 – y2 = 0 ⇔ x = y. What is the truth value of each of

the following statements?
(i) P(1, 1) T (ii) P(−1, 1) F
(iii) P(1, 0) T

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Note
Symbol Set
ℝ Set of all real numbers
ℤ Set of all integers
ℚ Set of all rational numbers, or quotients of integers.

Definition 2.2
If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of P(x) is the set
of all elements of D that make P(x) true when they are substituted for x.
The truth set of P(x) is denoted
{x ∈ D | P(x)}

The set of all such that

which is read “the set of all x in D such that P(x)”.

Example 2.3
Let Q(n) be the predicate “n is a factor of 8.” Find the truth set of Q(n) if
(a) the domain of n is the set ℤ+ of all positive integers.
The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8} because these are exactly the positive
integers that divide 8 evenly.

(b) the domain of n is the set ℤ of all integers.

The truth set is {1, 2, 4, 8, −1, −2, −4, −8} because the negative
integers −1, −2, −4, −8 also divide into 8without leaving a
remainder.

The Universal Quantifier: ∀

Definition 2.3
(1) Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. A universal
statement is a statement of the form
“∀x ∈ D, P(x)”
means “P(x) is true for all values of x in D”.

(2) It is defined to be true if, and only if, P(x) is true for every x in D.
It is defined to be false if, and only if, P(x) is false for at least one
x in D.

(3) A value for x for which P(x) is false is called a counterexample to

the universal statement.
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Note
∀ denotes “for all” and is called the universal quantifier.

Example 2.4
Determine the truth value of the following universal statements. If the
universal statement is false, suggest a counterexample to the universal
statement.
(1) ∀x ∈ {−1, 0, 3, 4, 5}, 2x is an even integer.
Check that “2x is an even integer” is true for each individual x in D,
hence True

(2) ∀x ∈ ℤ, x + 1 < 4.
Counterexample: x = 5, 5 + 1 = 6 > 4. F

(3) ∀x ∈ {x| 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}, x < 5x

Counterexample: x = 0. F

(4) ∀x ∈ ℤ+, (x – 1) is nonnegative.

T

(5) ∀x ∈ ℤ, (x + 1) is nonnegative.
Counterexample: x = −2. F

(6) ∀x ∈ ℝ, x2 + 1 = 0
Counterexample, x = 0. F

(7) ∀x ∈ ℝ, x3 = x2 – 2
F, x = 0

The Existential Quantifier: ∃

Definition 2.4
(1) Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. An existential
statement is a statement of the form
“∃x ∈ D such that P(x)”
means “there exists an element x in D such that P(x) is true.”.

(2) It is defined to be true if, and only if, P(x) is true for at least one
x in D.
It is false if, and only if, P(x) is false for all x in D.
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Note
(1) ∃ is called existential quantifier.
(2) ∃ means for some, there exists, for at least one, there is a, there is
at least one.

Example 2.5
Determine the truth value of each of the following existential statement.
(1) ∃x ∈ ℤ such that a prime number x is an even number.
T, x = 2

(2) ∃x ∈ ℝnonneg such that x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.

F

(3) ∃x ∈ ℝ such that x = x + 1

F

(4) ∃x ∈ ℝ, x2 + 1 = 0
F

(5) ∃x ∈ ℝ, x3 = x2 – 2
T, x = −1

Formal Versus Informal Language

Translating from Formal to Informal Language

Example 2.6
Rewrite the following formal statements in a variety of equivalent but
more informal ways. Do not use the symbol ∀ or ∃.
(a) ∀x ∈ ℝ, x2 ≥ 0.
All real numbers have nonnegative squares.
Every real number has a nonnegative square.
Any real number has a nonnegative square.
x has a nonnegative square, for each real number x.
The square of any real number is nonnegative.

(b) ∀x ∈ ℝ, x2 ≠ −1.
All real numbers have square not equal to −1.
No real numbers have square equal to −1.

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(c) ∃m ∈ ℤ such that m2 = m.
There is an integer whose square is equal to itself.
We can find at least one integer equal to its own square.
m2 = m, for some integer m.
Some integer equals its own square.
Some integers equal their own squares.
(in mathematics, we understand the last two statements to mean the
same thing, even not in English)

Translating from Informal to Formal Language

Example 2.7
Rewrite each of the following statements formally. Use quantifiers and
variables.
(a) All triangles have three sides.
∀ triangles t, t has three sides
∀t ∈ T, t has three sides where T is the set of all triangles.

(b) No dogs have wings.

∀ dogs d, d does not have wings
∀d ∈ D, d does not have wings where D is the set of all dogs.

(c) Some programs are structured.

∃ a program p such that p is structured
∃p ∈ P such that p is structured where P is the set of all program.

Universal Conditional Statements

∀x, if P(x) then Q(x)

Example 2.8
Rewrite the following formal statement in a variety of informal ways. Do
not use quantifiers or variables.
∀x ∈ ℝ, if x > 2 then x2 > 4.

If a real number is greater than 2 then its square is greater than 4.

Whenever a real number is greater than 2, its square is greater than 4.
The square of any real number that is greater than 2 is greater than 4.
The squares of all real numbers greater than 2 are greater than 4.

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Example 2.9
Rewrite each of the following statements in the form
∀ ______, if _______ then _______.

(a) If a real number is an integer, then it is a rational number.

∀x ∈ ℝ, if x ∈ ℤ then x ∈ ℚ.

(b) All bytes have eight bits.

∀x, if x is a byte, then x has eight bits.

(c) No fire trucks are green.

∀x, if x is a fire trucks, then x is not green.

Negations of Quantified Statements

Theorem 2.1 Negation of a Universal Statement
The negation of a statement of the form
∀x ∈ D, P(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the form
∃x ∈ D such that ∼P(x).
Symbolically,
∼(∀x ∈ D, P(x)) ≡ ∃x ∈ D such that ∼P(x)

Theorem 2.2 Negation of a Existential Statement

The negation of a statement of the form
∃x ∈ D such that P(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the form
∀x ∈ D, ∼P(x)
Symbolically,
∼(∃x ∈ D such that P(x)) ≡ ∀x ∈ D, ∼P(x).

Example 2.10
Write formal negations for the following statements:
(a) ∀ primes p, p is odd.
∃ a prime p such that p is not odd.

(b) ∃ a triangle T such that the sum of the angles of T equals 200°.
∀ triangles T, the sum of the angles of T does not equal 200°.

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Note
You need to exercise special care to avoid mistakes when writing
negations of statements that are given informally. One way to avoid error
is to rewrite the statement formally and take the negation using the
formal rule.

Example 2.11
Rewrite the following statement formally. Then write formal and
informal negations.
(a) No politicians are honest.

Formal version: ∀ politicians x, x is not honest.

Formal negation: ∃ a politician x such that x is honest.
Informal negation: Some politicians are honest.

(b) Some computer hackers are over 40.

Formal version: ∃ a computer hacker x such that x is over 40.

Formal negation: ∀ computer hackers x, x is not over 40.
Informal negation: All computer hackers are 40 or under.

Negations of Universal Conditional Statements

∼(∀x, P(x) ⇒ Q(x)) ≡ ∃x such that P(x) and ∼Q(x)
∼(∀x, P(x) ⇒ Q(x)) ≡ ∃x such that ∼(P(x) ⇒ Q(x))

Example 2.12
Write a formal negation for statement (a) and informal negation for
statement (b).
(a) ∀ people, if p is blond then p has blue eyes.
∃ a person p such that p is blond and p does not have blue eyes.

(b) If a computer program has more than 100,000 lines, then it

contains a bug.
∀ computer programs x, x has more than 100,000 lines ⇒ x
contains a bug.
∃ a computer program x such that x has more than 100,000 lines
and x does not contain a bug.

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There is at least one computer program that has more than 100,000
lines and does not contain a bug.

Statements containing multiple quantifiers

A multiply-quantified statement is a statement that contains more than
one quantifiers.

Note
It is important to note that the order of the quantifiers is important, unless
all the quantifiers are universal quantifiers or all are existential
quantifiers.

Quantifiers of two variables

Statements When True? When False?
∀x∀yP(x, y) P(x, y) is true for every There is a pair x, y for
∀y∀xP(x, y) pair x, y. which P(x, y) is false.
∀x∃yP(x, y) For every x, there is a y for There is an x such that P(x,
which P(x, y) is true y) is false for every y.
∃x∀yP(x, y) There is an x for which For every x there is a y for
P(x, y) is true for every y. which P(x, y) is false.
∃x∃yP(x, y) There is a pair x, y for P(x, y) is false for every
∃y∃xP(x, y) which P(x, y) is true. pair x, y.

Example 2.13
Let P(x, y) be the statement “x + y = y + x.” What is the truth value of the
quantification ∀x∀yP(x, y).

The quantification ∀x∀yP(x, y) denotes the statement

“For all real numbers x and for all real numbers y, x + y = y + x”.
Since P(x, y) is true for all real numbers x and y, the statement ∀x∀yP(x,
y) is true.

Example 2.14
Let Q(x, y) denote “x + y = 0”. What are the truth values of the
quantifications ∃y∀xQ(x, y) and ∀x∃yQ(x, y)?

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∃y∀xQ(x, y): there is a real number y such that for every real
number x, Q(x, y).
No matter what the value of y is chosen, there is only one value of x for
which x + y = 0. Since there is no real number y such that x + y = 0 for all
real numbers x, the statement is false.

∀x∃yQ(x, y): for every real number x there is a real number y such
that Q(x, y).
Given a real number x, there is a real number y such that x + y = 0;
namely, y = −x. Hence the statement is true.

Example 2.15
Rewrite the following statements formally using quantifiers and variables.
(1) Given any positive number, there is another positive number that is
smaller than the given number.
∀x ∈ ℝ+, ∃y ∈ ℝ+ such that y < x.

(2) Any even integer equal twice some other integer.

∀ even integer x, ∃ an integer y such that x = 2y.

(3) Somebody trusts everybody.

∃ people x such that x trusts y, ∀ people y.

(4) For every real number x and every real number y, if x is positive
and y is negative, then the product of x and y is negative.
∀x, y ∈ ℝ, x > 0 and y < 0 ⇒ xy < 0.

Example 2.16
Translate each of the following statements into English:
(1) ∀x ∈ D, (C(x) ∨ ∃y ∈ D such that (C(y) ∧ F(x, y)))
where C(x): x has a computer, F(x, y): x and y are friends, and
D: all students in UTAR.
English version: For every student x in UTAR, x has a computer
or there is a student y in UTAR such that y has
a computer and x and y are friends.
OR Every student in UTAR has a computer or has a
friend who has a computer.

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(2) ∀x ∈ D, ∃y ∈ D such that ((F(x) ∧ P(x) ⇒ M(x, y))
where F(x): x is a female, P(x): x is a parent, M(x, y): x is the
mother of y and D: all human beings.
***
English version: For every person x, if x is female and x is a
parent, then there is a person y such that person
x is the mother or person y.
OR If a person is female and is a parent, then this
person is someone’s mother.

Example 2.17
Let Q(x, y) be the statement “x + y = x – y”. if the universe of discourse
for both variables consists of all integers, what are the truth values?
(a) ∀yQ(1, y)
This is false since there are many values of y for which 1 + y ≠ 1 –
y.

(b) ∃x∃yQ(x, y)
This is true since we can take x = y = 0.

(c) ∀x∃yQ(x, y)
This is true since we can take y = 0 and for each x.

(d) ∃y∀xQ(x, y)
This is true since we can take y = 0.

(e) ∀y∃xQ(x, y)
This is false since x + 2 = x – 2 has no solution.

Negations of Multiply-Quantified Statements

∼(∀x∃y such that P(x, y)) ≡ ∃x such that ∀y ∼P(x, y).
∼(∃x such that ∀y P(x, y)) ≡ ∀x∃y such that ∼P(x, y).

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