At SAACKE we combine series production and customised engineering to design and

manufacture combustion plants to customer specifications for industrial and marine

applications.

SAACKE products satisfy not only the demands of the industry but strict ecological
standards as well. The SAACKE Group encompasses affiliates, production facilities,
after-sales service centres and associated companies worldwide. Day by day, about a
thousand employees devote themselves to making the best possible use of the world’s
energy and protecting our environment in the process.
This SAACKE Pocket Formula Guide is a
collection of essential formulas, calcula-
tion bases and standards from the field
of combustion engineering.

It cannot substitute individual,customer-

specific calculations – but it does offer a
basic tool for making rough calculations
and collecting the key data to start with.
The current issue has been reviewed
thoroughly and new material has been
added. We welcome any suggestions
for improving the quality of our Pocket
Formula Guide. Please feel free to con-
tact us at the address on the back.

Although we have checked the content

carefully at SAACKE, it is impossible for
us to rule out all chance of error. Since it
is possible that we might have over-
looked a printing error or that there are
errors in the content of the formulae we
have provided, SAACKE does not ac-
cept any liability or responsibility for the
validity of the data that appear in this
publication. Nor shall SAACKE be held
liable for any property damage, perso-
nal injuries or pecuniary losses resulting
from the use of these data.

1
 1. General Formulae and Conversions Page
1.1 Decimal Powers 6
1.2 Conversion Formulae 7
1.2.1 Heating Values 7
1.2.2 Temperatures 7
1.3 Conversion Tables 8
1.3.1 Mass 8
1.3.2 Force 8
1.3.3 Pressure 8
1.3.4 Energy, Work 8
1.3.5 Capacity 9
1.3.6 Energy Units 9
1.3.7 Specific Energy Costs 9
1.4 Air Pressure, Density and Temperature 10
1.5 Conversion Table of Anglo-American Units 11
1.6 Electric Power 12
1.6.1 Direct Current and Non-Inductive
Alternating or Three-Phase Current 12
1.6.2 Alternating and Three-Phase Current
with Inductive Load 13
1.6.3 Star Delta Connection for Three-Phase
Alternating Current 14
1.6.4  Star Delta Connection of a
Three-Phase Motor 15

2. Capacities, Efficiency Rates, Steam Table

2.1 Boiler Output 17
2.2 Boiler Output, Burner Output and Fuel Consumption18
2.3 Calculation of the Fuel Consumption 18
2.4 Boiler Efficiency Rate 19
2.5 Determination of the Boiler Efficiency Rate
from the Flue Gas Measurements 19
2.6 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation
Conditions depending on Pressure 20
2.7 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation
Conditions depending on Temperature 21
2.8 Enthalpy of Water and Superheated Steam 22
2.9 Enthalpy of Water Below the Boiling State 23

2
3. Fuels, Combustion Calculation Page
3.1 Density of Selected Fuels 25
3.2 Heating Values of Selected Fuels 25
3.3 Wobbe Index 26
3.4 Stoichiometric Air Demand 26
3.5 Characteristics of Liquid Fuels 27
3.6 Viscosity-Temperature Diagram 28
3.7 Characteristics of Various Utility Gases 29
3.8 Properties of Important Organic Compounds 31
3.9 Excess Air  33
3.10 Flue Gas Recirculation Rate (FGR)  34
3.10.1 Flue Gas Recirculation Rate in
Natural Gas Operation 35
3.10.2 Flue Gas Recirculation Rate in
Oil Operation  36
3.11 Dry / wet O2 content in the Flue Gas  37
3.12 Theoretical Adiabatic Flame Temperature 38

4. Overview of SAACKE Burners40

5. Dimensioning a Plant
5.1 Power Consumption of Fans 42
5.1.1 Shaft Power in kW 42
5.1.2 Influence of the Fan Speed 42
5.1.3 Influence of Air Density and Air Temperature
on the Fan Power  42
5.2 Output Series for Electric Motors 42
5.3 Protection Classes with Enclosures (IP Code) 43
5.4 Power Consumption of Electric Preheaters 44
5.5 Calculation of the Furnace Heat Release Rate 44
5.6 Flue Gas Temperature for Boilers without
Economisers 44
5.7 Conversion of an Air or Gas Flow Rate from
Standard Conditions to Operating Conditions 44
5.8 Pressure Loss of a Liquid or Gas Flow 44
5.9 Fuel Oil Lines Tube Diameters and Pressure Losses 45
5.10 Velocity of Flow in Pipelines 46
5.11 Seamless Steel Tubes to EN 10220, Series 1 47
5.12 Dimensioning Saturated Steam Lines 48
5.13 Guide Values for Economisers 49

3
  Page
6. Emissions, Limits for Flue Gas and Noise
6.1 Emissions Limits for Firing Plants 51
6.2 Continuous Monitoring acc. to German "TA Luft" 52
6.3 Estimation of the Solid Content in the Flue Gas
of Liquid Fuels 52
6.4 Estimation of the SOx Content in the Flue Gas 52
6.5 Conversion of Emissions Values 53
6.5.1 Equation for Correction to the
O2 Reference Value 53
6.5.2 Factors for Conversion from
ppm to mg/m 54
6.5.3 Correction of the Influence of the
Temperature and Humidity of the
Combustion Air on the NOx Emissions 54
6.5.4 Correction of the Influence of the
Nitrogen Content in the Oil on the
NOx Emissions 54
6.6 Acid Dew Points and Minimum
Flue Gas Temperatures 55
6.7 Emissions Conversion 55
6.8 Addition of the Sound Levels of Several
Sound Sources 56

7. Basic Business Formulas

7.1 Pre-Investment Analysis, Static Method 58
7.2 Profitability Diagram for Firing Plants with
Oxygen Control 59
7.3 Calculation of the
Gross and Net Price of Heat 60

8. Overview of Important Standards and Directives

8.1 Overview of Important Standards and Directives 62
8.2 Explosion Protection – Selecting and
Marking Equipment 64
8.2.1 Definition of the Explosion Protection Zones64
8.2.2 Selecting the Equipment Category 64
8.2.3 Equipment Marking 64
8.2.4 Ignition Protection Class 65
8.2.5 Explosion Group Classification 65
8.2.6 Temperature Class 65
8.2.7 Complete Designation (Example) 65

Nomenclature66

4
1
General Formulae
and Conversions
 1.1 Decimal Powers

Prefix Decimal Power Symbol

peta 1015 P
12
tera 10 T
giga 109 G
6
mega 10 M
kilo 103 k
2
hecto 10 h
deca 10 da
deci 10-1 d
centi 10-2 c
-3
milli 10 m
micro 10-6 µ
-9
nano 10 n
pico 10-12 p
-15
femto 10 f
atto 10-18 a

6
1.2 Conversion Formulae
1.2.1 Heating Values

kWh kJ
1 = 3600 .
kg kg

kcal kJ
1 = 4.187 .
kg kg

kcal kWh
1 = 0.001163 .
kg kg

Also applies for heating values given per

normal cubic meter.

1.2.2 Temperatures

Conversion of temperature scales to Celsius (°C)

and Fahrenheit (°F)

5
°C ß . (°F – 32)
9

°F ß 1.8 · °C + 32

0 °C = 32 °F
100 °C = 212 °F

7
 1.3 Conversion Tables
1.3.1 Mass

out
kg mg t lb tn l.
kg 1 1 · 106 1 · 10-3 2.2 9.84 · 10-4
mg 1 · 10-6 1 1 · 10-9 2.2 · 10-6 9.84 · 10-10
in t 1,000 1 · 109 1 2,204.6 0.984
lb 0.454 4.53 · 105 4.53 · 10-4 1 4.46 · 10-4
tn l. 1,016.05 1.016 · 109 1.016 2,240 1

lb = pound t = metric ton

tn l. = long ton

1.3.2 Force
out
N kN daN kp lbf
N 1 1 · 10-3 0.1 0.102 0.225
kN 1,000 1 100 102 225
in daN 10 0.01 1 1.02 2.25
kp 9.81 9.81 · 10-3 0.981 1 2.205
lbf 4.448 4.45 · 10-3 0.445 0.456 1

lbf = pound-force

1.3.3 Pressure
out
Pa bar mbar mm WC psi
Pa 1 1 · 10-5 0.01 0.102 1.45 · 10-4
bar 1 · 105 1 1 · 103 1.02 · 104 14.5
in mbar 100 1 · 10-3 1 10.2 1.45 · 10-2
mm WC 9.81 9.81 · 10-5 9.81 · 10-2 1 1.45 · 10-3
psi 6,894 6.89 · 10-2 68.9 703.5 1

psi = pound-force per square inch

1.3.4 Energy, work

out
kJ kWh kcal PSh BTU
kJ 1 2.778 · 10-4 0.239 3.776 · 10-4 0.948
kWh 3,600 1 860 1.36 3.412 · 103
in kcal 4.184 1.163 · 10-3 1 1.58 · 10-3 3.97
PSh 2.65 · 103 0.74 632 1 2.51 · 103
BTU 1.055 0.293 · 10-3 0.252 0.398 · 10-3 1

BTU = British Thermal Unit 1 PSh = 1 hph (metric) = 0.986 hph (mechanical)

8
 1.3.5 Capacity
out
kW MW kcal/h PS BTU/h
kW 1 1 · 10-3 860 1.36 3.412 · 103
MW 1,000 1 8.6 · 105 1,360 3.412 · 106
in kcal/h 1.16 · 10-3 1.16 · 10-6 1 1.57 · 10-3 3.97
PS 0.736 7.36 · 10-4 632 1 2.51 · 103
BTU/h 0.293 · 10-3 0.293 · 10-6 0.252 0.398 · 10-3 1

1 PS = 1 hp (metric) = 0.986 hp (mechanical)

1.3.6 Energy Units

out
MWh GJ Gcal tce
MWh 1 3.6 0.8598 0.1228
GJ 0.2778 1 0.2388 0.03411
in
Gcal 1.163 4.187 1 0.1429
tce 8.141 29.31 7 1

tce = tons of coal equivalent

1.3.7 Specific Energy Costs

out
€ ct/kWh € /MWh € /GJ € /Gcal € /tce
€ ct/kWh 1 10 2.778 11.63 81.41
€ /MWh 0.1 1 0.2778 1.163 8.141
in € /GJ 0.36 3.6 1 4.187 29.31
€ /Gcal 0.08598 0.8598 0.2388 1 7
€ / tce 0.01228 0.1228 0.03411 0.1429 1

9
 1.4 A
 ir Pressure, Density and Temperature (Standard Atmos-
phere) Based on the International Altitude Formula

Values of the Standard Atmosphere

Altitude Pressure Density Temperature
m amsl mbar kg/m3 °C
0 1,013 1.226 15.0
250 983 1.196 13.4
500 955 1.168 11.8
1,000 899 1.112 8.5
1,500 846 1.058 5.3

Values at Definite Temperatures

Altitude Pressure Density
at 10 °C at 25 °C at 40 °C
m amsl mbar kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
0 1,013 1.25 1.18 1.13
250 983 1.21 1.15 1.09
500 955 1.17 1.11 1.06
1,000 899 1.1 1.05 1
1,500 846 1.03 0.98 0.93

Standard density of air / non-standard calculation basis

ρstd = 1.293 kg/m3 is the standard density at 0 °C

and 1013 mbar abs.
ρ = 1.15 kg/m3 is the air density that SAACKE uses for
selection charts and capacity data for industrial plants.
It is based on 250 m amsl at 25 °C.
ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 is the air density fan manufacturers
usually base their ratings on.
It is based on 0 m amsl at 20 °C.

10
1.5 Conversion Table of Anglo-American Units

Length 1 inch, in = 25.4 mm 1 mm = 0.03937 in

1 foot, ft = 12 in = 0.3048 m 1m = 3.281 ft
1 yard (yd) = 3 ft = 0.9144 m 1m = 1.094 yd
Area 1 square inch (sq.in, in²)
= 6.452 cm² 1 cm² = 0.155 in²
1 square foot (sq.ft, ft²)
= 144 in² = 0.0929 m² 1 m² = 10.764 ft²
1 square yard (sq.yd, yd²) = 9 ft²
= 0.8361 m² 1 m² = 1.196 yd²
1 square mile (sq.mile, mile²)
= 640 acres = 2.59 km² 1 km² = 0.386 mile²
Volume 1 ft3/s = 102 m3/h 1 m³ /h= 0.00981 ft3/s
flow rate
1 ft3/min. = 1.699 m3/h 1 m³ /h= 0.5886 ft3/min
United Kingdom
1 lmp.gal/min (lmp.gpm)
= 0.0758 l/s = 0.273 m3/h 1 m³ /h= 3.66 lmp.gal/min
U.S.
1 U.S.gal/min (U.S.gpm)
= 0.063 l/s = 0.227 m3/h 1 m³ /h= 4.40 U.S.gal/min
Mass flow 1 lb/s = 0.4536 kg/s = 1.633 t/h 1 t/h = 0.6124 lb/s
rate
1 kg/s = 2.2046 lb/s
1 short ton/h (tn.sh./h) = 907.2 kg/h 1 kg/h = 1.102 · 10-3 tn.sh./h
1 long ton/h (tn.l./h) = 1,016 kg/h 1 kg/h = 0.984 · 10-3 tn.l./h
Force 1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.4482 N 1N = 0.2248 lbf
1 ton-force (long) = 2,240 lbf = 9.964 kN 1 kN = 224.8 lbf
1 MN = 100.4 ton-force
(long)
Pressure 1 lbf/in² (psi) = 6,895 Pa = 0.06895 bar 1 bar = 14.5 lbf/in²
1 lbf/ft² (psf) = 47.88 Pa = 0.04788 kPa 1 kPa = 20.89 lbf/ft²

1 inch of mercury (in. Hg) = 3,386 Pa 1 kPa = 0.2953 in. Hg

1 inch of water (in. H2O) = 249.1 Pa 1 kPa = 4.015 in. H2O

11
 1.6 Electric Power
1.6.1 D
 irect Current and Non-Inductive Alternating or
Three-Phase Current

Direct or alternating current Power with direct or

alternating current
I
P=U·I

P = I2 · R
U P= U2
R R

Three-phase current Power with three-phase

L1 L2 L3 current
R1
U R2 P = √3 · U · I
I
R3

P = power
U = voltage (line-to-line voltage)
I = amperage
R = resistance

1. Example:
light bulb, U = 6 V; I = 5 A; P = ?; R = ?
P = U · I = 6 V · 5 A = 30 W
R = U = 6 V = 1.2 Ω
I 5A

2. Example:
annealing Furnace, three-phase current, U = 400 V; P = 12 kW; I = ?
I = P = 12,000 W = 17.3 A
√ 3 · U √ 3 · 400 V

Calculation of the star delta connection on page 14

12
 1.6.2 Alternating and Three-Phase Current with
Inductive Load
Alternating current Active power with
L1 N alternating current
I
U P = U · I · cosϕ

Three-phase current Active power with

L1 L2 L3 three-phase current
P = √ 3 · U · I · cosϕ
U
I

P = active power
U = voltage (line-to-line voltage)
I = amperage
cosϕ = power factor
η = motor efficiency
Psh = mechanical power of the motor (shaft power)

Example:
three-phase motor, U = 400 V; I = 21.5 A; cosϕ = 0.85; P = ?
P = √ 3 · U · I · cosϕ = 1.732 · 400 V · 21.5 A · 0.85
= 12,660 W ≈ 12.7 kW

The mechanical power delivered by the motor (shaft power) is

less than the active power.
Example:
Psh = P · η

η = 87 %; P = 12.7 kW
Psh = 12.7 kW · 0.87 = 11.0 kW

Calculation of the star delta connection on page 14

13
 1.6.3 Star Delta Connection for Three-Phase Alternating
Current

Star connection Star connection

Uph = 230 V Line-to-line current
L1 I
I = Iph
Uph Rph Iph
U Line-to-line voltage
L2 U = √ 3 · Uph
L3
Delta connection Delta connection
Uph = 400 V Line-to-line current
L1 I
I = √ 3 · Iph
Rph Iph
U Uph
L2 Line-to-line voltage
L3 U = Uph

Star or delta connection Power

Phase current P = √3 · U · I
U
Iph = Rph P = √ 3 · U · I · cosϕ
ph

I = line-to-line current √ 3 = interlinking factor

U = line-to-line voltage P = active power
Iph = phase current cosϕ = power factor with an
Uph = phase voltage inductive load
Rph = phase resistance

Example:
annealing furnace, Rph = 22 Ω; U = 400 V; P = ? with delta connection
U
Iph = ph = 400 V = 18.2 A
Rph 22 Ω
I = √ 3 · Iph = √ 3 · 18.2 A = 31.5 A
P = √ 3 · U · I = √ 3 · 400 V · 31.5 A = 21,824 W = 21.8 kW
14
 1.6.4 Star Delta Connection of a Three-Phase Motor

Star delta connection with contactors

L1 L1
L2
F1 L3
PE T
F2
S1A

S2
K1 K2
K2 K3 K1 V1
U1 W1
M
3~
S3 K3 W2 V2
U2 K3
K3 K1 K2
N
Control part Power part

K1 network contactor S2 star connection button

K2 delta contactor S3 delta connection button
K3 star contactor F1 control part fuse
S1A OFF button F2 power part fuse

Motor connection with permanent wiring

Star connection Delta connection

L1 L2 L3 PE L1 L2 L3 PE
U1 V1 W1 U1 V1 W1

W2 U2 V2 W2 U2 V2

15
2
Capacities,
Efficiency Rates,
Steam Table
2
2.1 Boiler Output - Steam Production

1 t/h saturated steam ∧

≈ 0.65 MW boiler output*

*at 12 bar and 102 °C feedwater

1 kg oil produces approx. 16 kg steam.

1 kg oil or 1 m3 gas produces the following
amount of saturated steam in kg:
heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m3 · efficiency rate in %
234,000

The following amount of oil or gas in kg or m3 is

needed to produce 1t saturated steam:
2.34 · 108
heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m3 · efficiency rate in %

17
 2.2 Boiler Output, Burner Output and Fuel Consumption
Dependent on the Boiler Efficiency Rate

Boiler output, amount of Boiler Burner HFO EL fuel oil

saturated steam produ- effi­ciency rate output flow rate flow rate
ced

t/h MW % MW kg/h kg/h

1 0.65 85 0.77 67.5 64.5

1 0.65 88 0.74 65.5 62.5

1 0.65 90 0.72 64.0 61.0

1 0.65 92 0.71 62.5 59.5

2.3 Exact Calculation of the Fuel Consumption Given the

Steam Output and the State of the Steam

.
. . ms · (h – hfw) · 100%
mF or VF =
LHV · ηb

. .
mF or VF = fuel consumption in kg/h or m³ /h
.
ms = steam output in kg/h
h = enthalpy of the steam in kJ/kg
hfw = enthalpy of the feedwater in kJ/kg
LHV = lower heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m³
ηb = boiler efficiency rate in %

.
If the steam output ms cannot be determined,
it can be calculated from:
. . .
ms = mfw - mbd

.
mfw = feedwater flow rate in kg/h
.
mbd = blow-down rate in kg/h

18
2.4 Boiler Efficiency Rate
. .
(mfw - mbd) · (h – hfw)
ηb = . · 100 in %
mF· LHV

2.5 Determination of the Boiler Efficiency Rate

from the Flue Gas Measurements*

ηb = 100% – Xf% – 2%(max) in %

Xf =
( A
21 - O2,dry )( )
+ B · ϑf – ϑa in %

Xf = flue gas loss

ϑf = flue gas temperature in °C
ϑa = combustion air temperature in °C
O2,dry = O2 value measured in the dry flue gas in vol. %

A and B: constants

EL fuel oil HFO Nat. gas Liquid gas Town gas

A 0.68 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.63
B 0.007 0.007 0.009 0.008 0.011
* Calculation basis: 1st German Immission Control Act (1. BImSchV)

19
 2.6 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation
Conditions depending on Pressure

Abs. Temper­ Spec. volume Density Spec. enthalpy Heat of

pressure ature water steam steam water steam vaporisation
p ϑsat v’ v’’ ρ’’ h’ h’’ r
bar °C 3
m /t m3/kg kg/m3 kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
0.2 60.07 1.0172 7.650 0.1307 251.45 2,609.9 2,373.2
0.5 81.35 1.0301 3.240 0.3086 340.56 2,646.0 2,305.4
1.0 99.63 1.0434 1.694 0.5904 417.51 2,675.4 2,257.9
1.5 111.37 1.0530 1.159 0.8628 467.13 2,693.4 2,226.2
2 120.23 1.0608 0.8854 1.129 504.70 2,706.3 2,201.6
3 133.54 1.0712 0.6056 1.651 561.43 2,724.7 2,163.2
4 143.62 1.0839 0.4622 2.163 604.67 2,737.6 2,133.0
5 151.84 1.0928 0.3747 2.669 640.12 2,747.5 2,107.4
6 158.84 1.1001 0.3155 3.170 670.42 2,755.5 2,085.0
7 164.94 1.1082 0.2727 3.667 697.06 2,762.0 2,064.9
8 170.41 1.1150 0.2403 4.162 720.94 2,767,.5 2,046.5
9 175.36 1.1213 0.2148 4.655 742.64 2,772.1 2,029.5
10 179.88 1.1274 0.1943 5.147 762.61 2,776.2 2,013.6
12 187.96 1.1386 0.1632 6.127 798.43 2,782.7 1,984.3
14 195.04 1.1489 0.1407 7.106 830.08 2,787.8 1,957.7
16 201.37 1.1586 0.1237 8.085 858.56 2,791.7 1,933.2
18 207.11 1.1678 0.1103 9.065 884.58 2,794.8 1,910.3
20 212.37 1.1766 0.0995 10.05 908.59 2,797.1 1,888.6
22 217.24 1.1850 0.0907 11.03 930.95 2,799.1 1,868.1
24 221.78 1.1932 0.0832 12.02 951.93 2,800.4 1,848.5
26 226.04 1.2011 0.0769 13.01 971.72 2,801.4 1,829.6
28 230.05 1.2088 0.0714 14.01 990.48 2,802.0 1,811.5
30 233.84 1.2136 0.0666 15.03 1,108.4 2,802.2 1,793.9
32 237.45 1.2237 0.0624 16.02 1,025.4 2,802.3 1,776.9
35 242.52 1.2346 0.0571 17.54 1,049.7 2,801.9 1,752.5
40 250.33 1.2521 0.0498 20.10 1,087.4 2,800.3 1,712.9
50 263.91 1.2858 0.0394 25.36 1,154.5 2,794.2 1,639.7
60 275.55 1.3187 0.0324 30.83 1,213.7 2,785.0 1,571.3
80 294.97 1.3842 0.0235 42.51 1,317.1 2,759.9 1,442.8
100 310.96 1.4526 0.0180 55.43 1,408.0 2,727.7 1,319.7

20
2.7 Parameters of Water and Steam at Saturation
Conditions depending on Temperature

Temper­ Abs. Spec. volume Density Spec. enthalpy Heat of

ature pressure water steam steam water steam vaporisation
ϑ p v’ v’’ ρ’’ h’ h’’ r
°C bar 3
m /t m3/kg kg/m3 kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
60 0.1992 1.0171 7.679 0.1302 251.09 2,609.7 2,358.6
65 0.2501 1.0199 6.202 0.1612 272.02 2,618.4 2,346.3
70 0.3116 1.0228 5.046 0.1982 292.97 2,626.9 2,334.0
75 0.3855 1.0259 4,.134 0.2419 313.94 2,635.4 2,321.5
80 0.4736 1.0292 3.409 0.2933 334.92 2,643.8 2,308.8
85 0.5780 1.0326 2.829 0.3535 355.92 2,652.0 2,296.5
90 0.7011 1.0361 2.361 0.4235 376.94 2,660.1 2,283.2
95 0.8453 1.0399 1.982 0.5045 397.99 2,668.1 2,270.2
100 1.0133 1.0437 1.673 0.5977 419.06 2,676.0 2,256.9
110 1.4327 1.0519 1.210 0.8265 461.32 2,691.3 2,230.0
120 1.9854 1.0606 0.8915 1.122 503.72 2,706.0 2,202.2
130 2.7013 1.0700 0.6681 1.497 546.31 2,719.9 2,173.6
140 3.614 1.0801 0.5085 1.967 589.10 2,733.1 2,144.0
150 4.760 1.0908 0.3924 2.548 632.15 2,745.4 2,113.2
160 6.181 1.1022 0.3068 3.260 675.47 2,756.7 2,081.3
170 7.920 1.1145 0.2426 4.123 719.12 2,767.1 2,047.9
180 10.027 1.1275 0.1938 5.160 763.12 2,776.3 2,013.1
190 12.551 1.1415 0.1563 6.397 807.52 2,784.3 1,976.7
200 15.549 1.1565 0.1272 7.864 852.37 2,790.9 1,938.6
210 19.077 1.1726 0.1042 9.593 897.74 2,796.2 1,898.5
220 23.198 1.1900 0.0860 11.62 943.67 2,799.9 1,856.2
230 27.976 1.2087 0.0715 14.00 990.26 2,802.0 1,811.7
240 33.478 1.2291 0.0597 16.76 1,037.2 2,802.2 1,764.6
250 39.776 1.2513 0.0500 19.99 1,085.8 2,800.4 1,714.6
260 46.943 1.2756 0.0421 23.73 1,134.9 2,796.4 1,661.5
270 55.058 1.3025 0.0356 28.10 1,185.2 2,789.9 1,604.6
280 64.202 1.3324 0.0301 33.19 1,236.8 2,780.4 1,543.6
290 74.461 1.3659 0.0255 39.16 1,290.0 2,767.6 1,477.6
300 85.927 1.4041 0.02165 46.19 1,345.0 2,751.0 1,406.0
310 98.700 1.4480 0.0183 54.54 1,402.4 2,730.0 1,327.6

21
 2.8 Enthalpy of Water and Superheated Steam in kJ/kg

Abs. Temperature °C
pressure
bar 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1 2,875.4 2,974.5 3,074.5 3,175.6 3,278.2 3,382.4 3,488.1
5 2,855.1 2,961.1 3,064.8 3,168.1 3,272.1 3,377.2 3,483.8
10 2,826.8 2,943.0 3,052.1 3,158.5 3,264.4 3,370.8 3,478.3
15 2,791.3 2,921.5 3,037.6 3,147.7 3,255.8 3,363.7 3,472.2
20 852.6 2,902.4 3,025.0 3,138.6 3,248.7 3,357.8 3,467.3
25 852.8 2,879.5 3,010.4 3,128.2 3,240.7 3,351.3 3,461.7
30 853.0 2,854.8 2,995.1 3,117.5 3,232.5 3,344.6 3,456.2
35 853.2 2,828.1 2,979.0 3,106.5 3,224.2 3,338.0 3,450.6
40 853.4 1,085.8 2,962.0 3,095.1 3,215.7 3,331.2 3,445.0
45 853.6 1,085.8 2,944.2 3,083.3 3,207.1 3,324.4 3,439.3
50 853.8 1,085.8 2,925.5 3,071.2 3,198.3 3,317.5 3,433.7
60 854.2 1,085.8 2,885.0 3,045.8 3,180.1 3,303.5 3,422.2
70 854.6 1,085.8 2,839.4 3,018.7 3,161.2 3,289.1 3,410.6
80 855.1 1,085.8 2,786.8 2,989.9 3,141.6 3,274.3 3,398.8
90 855.5 1,085.8 1,344.5 2,959.0 3,121.2 3,259.2 3,386.8
100 855.9 1,085.8 1,343.4 2,925.8 3,099.9 3,243.6 3,374.6
120 856.8 1,085.9 1,341.2 2,849.7 3,054.8 3,211.4 3,349.6
140 857.7 1,086.1 1,339.2 2,754.2 3,005.6 3,177.4 3,323.8
160 858.6 1,086.3 1,337.4 2,620.8 2,951.3 3,141.6 3,297.1
180 859.5 1,086.5 1,335.7 1,659.8 2,890.3 3,104.0 3,269.6
200 860.4 1,086.7 1,334.3 1,647.2 2,820.5 3,064.3 3,241.1
250 862.8 1,087.5 1331,1 1625,1 2,582.0 2,954.3 3,165.9
300 865.2 1,088.4 1328,7 1610,0 2,161.8 2,825.6 3,085.0
350 867.7 1,089.5 1326,8 1598,7 1,993.1 2,676.4 2,998.3
400 870.2 1,090.8 1325,4 1589,7 1,934.1 2,515.6 2,906.8
500 875.4 1,093.6 1323,7 1576,4 1,877.7 2,293.2 2,723.0
600 880.8 1,096.9 1323,2 1567,1 1,847.3 2,187.1 2,570.6
800 891.9 1,104.4 1324,7 1555,9 1,814.2 2,094.1 2,397.4

22
2.9 Enthalpy of Water Below the Boiling State in kJ/kg

Abs. Temperature °C
press.
bar 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
2 419.1 503.7

5 419.4 503.9 589.2

10 419.7 504.3 589.5 675.7

20 420.5 505.0 590.2 676.3 763.6 852.6

40 422.0 506.4 591.5 677.5 764.6 853.4 944.1 1,037.7

60 423.5 507.8 592.8 678.6 765.7 854.2 944.7 1,037.9 1,134.7

80 425.0 509.2 594.1 679.8 766.7 855.1 945.3 1,038.1 1,134.5 1,236.0

100 426.5 510.6 595.4 681.0 767.8 855.9 945.9 1,038.4 1,134.2 1,235.0 1,343.4

120 428.0 512.1 596.7 682.2 768.8 856.8 946.6 1,038.7 1,134.1 1,234.1 1,341.2 1,460.8

140 429.5 513.5 598.0 683.4 769.9 857.7 947.2 1,039.1 1,134.0 1,233.3 1,339.2 1,456.3

160 431.0 514.9 599.4 684.6 771.0 858.6 947.9 1,039.4 1,133.9 1,232.6 1,337.4 1,452.4 1,588.3

180 432.5 516.3 600.7 685.9 772.0 859.5 948.6 1,039.8 1,133.9 1,232.0 1,335.7 1,448.8 1,579.7

200 434.0 517.7 602.0 687.1 773.1 860.4 949.3 1,040.3 1,134.0 1,231.4 1,334.3 1,445.6 1,572.5 1,742.9

220 435.6 519.2 603.4 688.2 774.2 861.4 950.0 1,040.7 1,134.0 1,230.9 1,332.9 1,442.7 1,566.2 1,722.0

240 437.1 520.6 604.7 689.5 775.3 862.3 950.8 1,041.2 1,134.1 1,230.5 1,331.7 1,440.1 1,560.8 1,707.2

260 438.6 522.0 606.0 690.8 776.4 863.3 951.5 1,041.7 1,134.3 1,230.2 1,330.6 1,437.8 1555.9 1,695.6

280 440.1 523.5 607.4 692.0 777.6 864.2 952.3 1,042.2 1,134.5 1,229.9 1,329.6 1,435.6 1,551.6 1,686.1

300 441.6 524.9 608.7 693.3 778.7 865.2 953.1 1,042.8 1,134.7 1,229.7 1,328.7 1,433.6 1,547.7 1,678.0

400 449.2 532.1 615.5 699.6 784.4 870.2 957.2 1,045.8 1,136.3 1,229.2 1,325.4 1,425.9 1,532.9 1,650.5

23
3
Fuels, Combustion-
Calculation
3
3.1 Density of Selected Fuels

1 litre EL fuel oil ∧

≈ 0.84 kg at 15 °C
1 litre HFO ∧
≈ 0.94 kg at 90 °C
1 m³ type L nat. gas = 0.83 kg
1 m³ type H nat. gas = 0.78 kg
1 m³ pulverised lignite = 560 kg*
1 m³ pulverised bituminous coal = 600-650 kg*
1 m³ pulverised wood = 270-300 kg*
1 m³ propane (at STP) = 2.01 kg
1 m³ butane (at STP) = 2.71 kg
1 liter animal fat = 0.91 kg at 15 °C
1 m³ blast-furnace gas = 1.36 kg
* bulk density

3.2 Heating Values of Selected Fuels

Fuel Lower heating value (LHV)

kJ/kg kJ/m3 kcal/kg kcal/m3 kWh/kg kWh/m3

EL fuel oil 42,700 – 10,200 – 11.9 –

HFO 40,700 – 9,700 – 11.3 –

Type L natural gas – 31,800 – 7,600 – 8.83

Type H natural gas – 36,000 – 8,600 – 10

Pulverised lignite 21,200 – 5,050 – 5.9 –

Pulverised 30,000 – 7,150 – 8.3 –

bituminous coal

Pulverised wood 17,500 – 4,180 – 4.8 –

Propane 46,350 93,200 – 22,250 12.9 25.9

Butane 45,700 123,800 – 29,560 12.7 34.4

Animal fat (example) 36,000 – 8,600 – 10.0 –

Blast-furnace gas – 3,000 – 720 – 0.83

25
 3.3 Wobbe Index
At a constant gas pressure, the Wobbe index is proportional to
the amount of heat released at the burner orifice. At the same
pressure at the burner, gases with different compositions and
the same Wobbe index produce almost the same heat release
rate.

Upper / Lower Wobbe Index

HHV LHV
Ws = Wi =
√d √d

d = relative density
ρG = density of the gas at standard temperature and pressure
ρL = density of the air at standard
temperature and pressure (1.293 kg/m³)

ρG
d=
ρL

3.4 Stoichiometric Air Demand

in m3/kg or m3/m3 (rough calculation)

2.6 · LHV* in m3 air / kg or

va,st ≈
10,000 m3 fuel

* in kJ/kg or kJ/m3

m3/h m3/s
va,st ≈ 942 or 0.262
MW MW

26
3.5 Characteristics of Liquid Fuels
(All values given for the standard physical state)

Characteristic Symbol Unit EL fuel HFO Methanol Ethanol Animal fat

oil (example)

Lower heating LHV MJ/kg

42.7 40.7 19.4 26.5 36.0
value

Higher heating HHV MJ/kg

45.4 42.5 22.7 29.7 38.6
value

Density at 15 °C* ρ15 kg/l 0.84 0.96 0.791 0.789 0.91

Flash point ϑfl °C 70 120 – 11 200

Viscosity

at 20 °C ν mm²/s max. 6 – – – 90
at 50 °C ν mm²/s 2 max. 50 – – max. 40
at 100 °C ν mm²/s – 30 – – 8
Combustion values at λ =1

Air demand va m3/kg 11.0 10.7 4.93 6.85 9.56

Flue gas volume

10.3 10.0 4.59 6.37 8.97
(dry) vf,dry m3/kg

Flue gas volume

11.8 11.4 5.96 7.80 10.32
(wet) vf,wet m3/kg

Water content in
1.5 1.4 1.37 1.43 1.35
the flue gas vH2O m3/kg

Max. carbon dioxide CO2,max vol. % 15.5 15.9 15.2 15.1 15.8

Composition:
Carbon C wt. % 86 84 37.5 52 76
Hydrogen H wt. % 13 12 12.5 13 12
Sulphur S wt. % ≤ 0.2 ≤ 2.8 – – 0.02
Oxygen O wt. % 0.4 0.5 50 35 11
Nitrogen N wt. % 0.02 0.3 – – 0.05
Water H2O wt. % 0.4 0.4 – – 0.93

Total Σ wt. % 100 100 100 100 100

*Densities measured at different temperatures must be converted to 15 °C. The cubic expansion coefficient
"a" amounts to 0.00068 for light oil (EL) and to 0.00062 for heavy oil. To convert the densities, you can use
the following formula, which is sufficiently accurate:
≈
ρt ρ15 - a·(t-15) [g/ml]

27
 1500
Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity (ν) 1 HEL Light Oils
to Dynamic Viscosity (η)
Kinematic Viscosity (v) in cSt (mm²/s)

2 DMX
η = ν·ρ 3 DMC Medium Oils
1000
900 4 RMB 30
800
700
5 RMD 80
600 6 IFO 180 Heavy Oils
500 7 IFO 380
8 RMK 700
400
300
200
Maximum Viscosity for...
Steam pressure atomizer
3.6 Viscosity-Temperature Diagram

Rotary cup burners burners

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
20
10
5
1
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Temperature in °C

28
3.7 Characteristics of Various Gases
(All values given for the standard physical state)

Characteristic Symbol Unit Type L Type H Town gas

nat. gas nat. gas

Lower heating value LHV MJ/m3 31.8 36.0 17.59

Higher heating value HHV MJ/m3 35.2 40.0 19.82
Explosion limits
(vol. % gas in air, at 20 °C)
Lower flammability limit LFL vol. % 5 4 5
Upper flammability limit UFL vol. % 15 16 30

Density ρ kg/m3 0.829 0.784 0.513

Relative density d – 0.641 0.606 0.397

Combustion values at λ =1

Air demand va m3/m3 8.36 9.47 4.33

Flue gas volume (dry) vf,dry m3/m3 7.64 8.53 3.91

Flue gas volume (wet) vf,wet m3/m3 9.36 10.47 4.98

Maximum CO2 concentration c CO2, max vol. % 11.80 12.00 10.03

Specific CO2 emissions g / kWh 202 203 159

Water content in the flue gas

(in rel. to the fuel gas volume) H2Of m3/m3 1.72 1.94 0.92

Dew point
(dry combustion air) ϑd °C 58 58 62

Composition:
Nitrogen N2 vol. % 14.0 3.1 9.6
Oxygen O2 vol. % – – –
Carbon dioxide CO2 vol. % 0.8 1.0 2.3
Hydrogen H2 vol. % – – 54.5
Carbon monoxide CO vol. % – – 5.5
Methane CH4 vol. % 81.8 92.3 24.9
Ethane C2H6 vol. % 2.8 2.0 2.5
Propane C3H8 vol. % 0.4 1.0 0.7
Butane C4H10 vol. % 0.2 0.6 –

Total Σ vol. % 100 100 100

29
 Characteristics of Various Gases
(All values given for the standard physical state)

Characteristic Symbol Unit Sewage Hydro- Methane Propane Butane Blast-furn- Carbon
gas gen ace gas monoxide
H2 CH4 C3H8 C4H10 (example) CO
Lower heating
23.0 10.76 35.9 93.2 123.8 2.5 - 3.3 12.64
value LHV MJ/m³
Higher heating
25.5 12.74 39.8 101.2 134.0 2.5 - 3.4 12.64
value HHV MJ/m³

Density ρ kg/m³ 1.158 0.090 0.718 2.011 2.708 1.36 1.25

Relative density d – 0.896 0.069 0.555 1.555 2.094 1.05 –

Combustion values at λ =1

Air demand va m³/m³ 6.12 2.38 9.56 24.37 32.37 0.57 2.39

Flue gas volume

5.84 1.88 8.55 22.81 29.74 1.43 2.88
(dry) vf,dry m³/m³

Flue gas volume

7.05 2.83 10.44 26.16 34.66 1.45 –
(wet) vf,wet m³/m³

Maximum CO2
16.85 – 11.65 13.7 14.0 28 34.7
concentration c CO2, max vol. %

Specific CO2 emis-

305 0 198 239 239 951 564
sions g/kWh

Water content in the

flue gas (in rel. to the 1.21 0.95 1.89 3.35 4.92 0.02 –
fuel gas volume) H2Of m³/m³

Dew point
57 71 58 54 53 – –
(combustion air dry) ϑd °C

Composition:
Nitrogen N2 vol. % 1.2 – – – – 58 –
Oxygen O2 vol. % – – – – – – –
Carbon dioxide CO2 vol. % 34.6 – – – – 18 –
Hydrogen H2 vol. % 0.2 100 – – – 2 –
Carbon monoxide CO vol. % – – – – – 22 100
Methane CH4 vol. % 64.0 – 100 – – – –
Ethane C2H6 vol. % – – – – – – –
Propane C3H8 vol. % – – – 100 – – –
Butane C4H10 vol. % – – – – 100 – –

Total Σ vol. % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

30
3.8 Properties of Important Organic Compounds

Molar Flash Ign. HHV LHV

mass Lower flamm. limit Upper flamm. limit point temp.
LFL UFL ϑfl ϑign
# Name Formula g/mol g/m3 (at STP) Vol.- % g/m3 (at STP) Vol.- % °C °C MJ/kg MJ/kg
1 Methane CH4 16.04 29 4.4 113 17 – 595 55.54 49.85
2 Ethane C2H6 30.07 31 2.4 182 14.3 – 515 51.91 47.48
3 Propane C3H8 44.1 31 1.7 202 10.8 -104 470 50.38 46.34
4 Hexane C6H14 86.18 35 1 319 8.9 -20 230 48.2 44.99
5 Dodecane C12H26 170.34 40 0.6 – – 74 200 47.55 44.49
6 Cyclohexane C6H12 84.16 35 1 326 9.3 -18 260 46.58 43.83
7 Decahydronaphtalene C10H18 138.25 50 0.7 280 4.9 54 240 45.48 42.92
8 Ethylene C2H4 28.05 29 2.4 388 32.6 – 440 55.71 52.54
9 Acetylene C2H2 26.04 24 2.3 – 100 – 305 50.23 48.56
10 1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.09 31 1.4 365 16.3 -85 415 47.87 45.44
11 1-Pentene C5H10 70.13 40 1.4 255 8.7 -51 280 48.02 45.19
12 Benzene C6H6 78.11 39 1.2 280 8.6 -11 555 41.93 40.68
13 Naphtalene C10H8 128.17 48 0.9 315 5.9 80 540 40.24 39.46
14 Toluene C7H8 92.14 42 1.1 300 7.8 6 535 42.5 41.04
15 Xylene C8H12 106.17 43 0.97 335 7.6 30 465 43.13 41.45
16 Styrene C8H8 104.1 42 1 334 7.7 32 490 42.07 40.77
17 Methanol CH3OH 32.04 80 6 665 50 9 440 22.69 21.17
18 Ethanol C2H6O 46.07 – 3.1 – 19 12 400 29.67 27.72
19 1-Propanol C3H7OH 60.1 52 2.1 480 19.2 15 385 33.37 31.14
20 1-Butanol C4H10O 74.12 52 1.7 350 11.3 35 325 36.05 33.72
21 1-Pentanol C5H12O 88.15 47 1.3 385 10.5 43 320 48.88 45.77
22 Cyclohexanol C6H12O 100.16 62 1.5 460 11.1 61 300 37.22 35.03
23 Phenol C6H6O 94.11 50 1.3 370 9.5 82 595 32.59 31.9
24 o-Cresol C7H8O 108.14 58 1.3 – – 81 555 34.21 33.14
1-Naphthol
25 C10H8O 144.17 – – – – 125 510 34.44 33.75
(α-naphthol)
Methanal
26 CH2O 30.03 87 7 910 73 32 - 61 424 18.7 17.29
(formaldehyde)
27 Acetaldehyde C2H4O 44.1 73 4 1040 57 < -20 155 26.5 25.09
2-Propenal
28 C3H4O 56.06 65 2.8 730 31 -29 215 29.37 28.31
(acrolein)
29 Acetone C3H6O 58.08 60 2.5 345 14.3 < -20 535 31.06 29.34
2-Butanone
30 C4H8O 72.11 45 1.5 378 12.6 -10 475 33.82 31.94
(ethylmethylketone)
31 Cyclohexanone C6H10O 98.15 53 1.3 380 9.4 43 430 - -

31
 3.8 Properties of Important Organic Compounds
Molar Flash Ign.­ HHV LHV
mass Lower flamm. limit Upper flamm. limit point temp.
LFL UFL ϑfl ϑign
# Name Formula g/mol g/m3 (at STP) Vol.- % g/m3 (at STP) Vol.- % °C °C MJ/kg MJ/kg
32 Diethyl ether C4H10O 74.12 50 1.7 1,100 36 -20 175 36.85 34.23
33 Ethylene oxide C2H4O 44.05 47 2.6 1,820 100 -57 435 28.71 27.47
34 Tetrahydrofuran C4H8O 72.11 46 1.5 370 12.4 -20 230 – –
35 1,4-Dioxane C4H8O2 88.11 70 1.9 820 22.5 11 375 26.68 25.04
Ethyl methanoate
36 C3H6O2 74.08 80 2.7 500 16.5 -20 455 22.16 20.85
(ethyl formate)
Methyl acetate
37 C3H6O2 74.08 95 3.1 495 16 -13 505 21.54 20.23
(methyl ethanoate)
Ethyl acetate
38 C4H8O2 88.11 73 2 470 12.8 -4 470 25.61 24
(ethyl ester)
Butyl acetate
39 C6H12O2 116.16 58 1,2 360 7,5 27 390 – –
(n-butyl ester)
Vinyl acetate
40 C4H6O2 86.09 93 2,6 480 13.4 -8 385 – –
(ethenyl acetate)
41 Formic acid CH2O2 46.03 190 10 865 45.5 45 520 5.72 5.4
42 Acetic acid C2H4O2 60.05 100 4 430 17 40 485 14.4 13.53
43 Acetic anhydride C4H6O3 102.09 85 2 430 10.2 49 330 17.68 16.9
44 Phthalic acid C8H6O4 166.13 – – – – 168 – 18.41 18.93
45 Methylamine CH5N 31.06 60 4,9 270 20.7 -58 430 34.48 31.81
46 Diethylamine C5H11N 73.14 50 1,7 305 10.1 -23 310 41.32 38.47
47 Aniline C6H7N 93.13 48 1.2 425 11 76 630 36.5 35.38
48 Acrylonitrile C3H3N 53.06 61 2.8 620 28 -5 480 – –
49 Pyridine C5H5N 79.1 56 1.7 350 10.6 17 550 34.94 34.08
50 Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 123.11 90 1.8 2,048 40 88 480 25.14 24.72
51 m-Dinitrobenzene C6H4N2O4 168.11 – – – – 150 490 – –
52 Nitroglycerin C3H5O9N3 227.09 – – – – – 270 6.77 6.55
53 Hydrogen H2 2.02 3.3 4 65 77 – 560 141.87 120.04
54 Carbon monoxide CO 28.01 131 11.3 901 76 -191 605 10.1 10.1
55 Ammonia NH3 17.03 108 15.4 240 33.6 – 630 22.5 18.56
56 Gasoline (mixture) – 32 0.8 310 8.1 -40 320 47 43.56
57 EL Oil (mixture) – – 0.6 – 6,5 >55 220 45.4 42.6
58 Turpentine Oil (mixture) – 45 0.7 – 6 35 22 – –
(C16 and C16-C18
59 Biodiesel – – – – – 186 183 40 37.1
unsaturated)

60 Rapeseed Oil – – – – – 317 410 39.6 36.9

61 Palm Oil – – – – – 220 >250 39.6 36.9
62 Tallow (mixture) – – – – – 267 – 38.6 36

32
3.9 Excess Air

va CO2,f,max 21 %
λ= ≈ ≈
va,st CO2,f,meas 21 %-O2,f,meas

λ = 1 +
( CO2,f,max
CO2,f,meas
 – 1 ·
) vf,dry,st
va,st

λ = 1 +
( O2,f
21 – O2,f ) ·
vf,dry,st
va,st

Approximate values for vf,dry,st / va,st

Hydro- Nat. gas Propane EL fuel HFO Coke

gen oil
vf,dry,st
0.79 0.91 0.93 0.93 0.94 1.0
va,st

Actual volume of dry flue gas

vf,dry = vf,dry,st + (λ - 1) · va,st

Actual volume of wet flue gas

vf,wet = vf,wet,st + (λ - 1) · va,st

λ = excess air ratio

va = actual volume of air in m3 (at STP)/kg
va,st = stoichiometric volume of air in m3 (at STP)/kg or
m3 (at STP)/m3 (at STP)
vf,wet = actual volume of wet flue gas in m3 (at STP)/kg
CO2,f,max = max. CO2 content during
stoichiometric combustion in vol. %
CO2,f,meas = CO2 content in vol. %
vf,dry,st = volume of dry flue gas during stoichiometric
combustion in m3 (at STP)/kg
O2 = O2 content in vol. %

33
 3.10 Flue Gas Recirculation Rate (FGR)

With SAACKE, the recirculation rate refers to the dry, stoichi-

ometric flue gas volume:

vf,dry = Dry flue gas volume (stoichiometric)

vf,wet = Wet flue gas volume (stoichiometric)
va = Air demand of fuel (stoichiometric)
vR,dry = Dry flue gas volume of recirculation
O2,f,dry = O2 concentration in flue gas [A]
O2,a+R,dry = O2 concentration in windbox [B]

‫ݒ‬ோ,௪௘௧ ‫ݒ‬௙,ௗ௥௬ ܱଶ,௙,ௗ௥௬ 21% 21% െ ܱଶ,௔ାோ,ௗ௥௬ ‫ݒ‬௔

‫= ܀܀‬ = ቆ1 + ή ቇή ήቆ ቇή
‫ݒ‬௙,௪௘௧ ‫ݒ‬௔ 21% െ ܱଶ,௙,ௗ௥௬ ܱଶ,௔ାோ,ௗ௥௬ 21% െ ܱଶ,௙,ௗ௥௬ ‫ݒ‬௙,௪௘௧

10,3 4,1% 21% 21% െ 19,8% 11,0

‫ = ܀܀‬൬1 + ή ൰ή ή൬ ൰ή ൎ ૡ, ૞ %
11,0 21% െ 4,1% 19,8% 21% െ 4,1% 11,8
Example
In EL Fuel Oil operation the O2 concentration in the flue gas is
4,1 %. The O2 concentration in the windbox is 19.8 %.

O2,f,dry = 4,1 %; O2,a+R,dry = 19,8 %; vf,dry = 10,3 m³/kg;

vf,wet =‫ ݒ‬11,8 m³/kg;
‫ݒ‬
va = 11,0
ܱ
m³/kg 21% 21% െ ܱ ‫ݒ‬௅
ோ,௙ ஺,௧௥ ଶ,஺,௧௥ ଶ,௅ାோ,௧௥
‫= ܀܀‬ = ቆ1 + ή ቇή ήቆ ቇή
‫ݒ‬஺,௙ ‫ݒ‬௅ 21% െ ܱଶ,஺,௧௥ ܱଶ,௅ାோ,௧௥ 21% െ ܱଶ,஺,௧௥ ‫ݒ‬஺,௙

10,3 4,1% 21% 21% െ 19,8% 11,0

‫ = ܀܀‬൬1 + ή ൰ή ή൬ ൰ή ൎ ૡ, ૞ %
11,0 21% െ 4,1% 19,8% 21% െ 4,1% 11,8

34
 21.0%
1%

2%
20.5%
3%

4%

20.0% 5%

6%

7%
19.5%
8%

O2 content in the windbox, dry

9%

10 %
19.0%
11 %

12 %

13 %
18.5%
14 %
15 %
16 %
18.0%
17 %
18 %
19 %
17.5% Natural Gas H
20 % - Values for Natural Gas L are almost identical -
3.10.1 Flue Gas Recirculation Rate in Natural Gas Operation

17.0%
0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0%
O2 content in the flue gas, dry

35
 21.0%
O2 content in the windbox, dry

1%
2%
20.5%
3%
4%
3.10.2 Flue Gas Recirculation Rate in Oil Operation

5%
20.0%
6%
7%
19.5% 8%
9%
10 %
19.0% 11 %
12 %
13 %
18.5% 14 %
15 %
16 %
18.0% 17 %
18 %
19 %
17.5% 20 %
EL Fuel Oil
- Values for Heavy Fuel Oil are almost identical -
17.0%
0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0%
O2 content in the flue gas, dry

36
 3.11

8.0%

7.0%

6.0%

O2 content, wet
5.0%
ܱଶ,௪௘௧ = ܱଶ,ௗ௥௬ ή ቆ1 െ

4.0%

3.0%
Dry / Wet O2 Content in the Flue Gas

2.0%
‫ݒ‬ுଶை

EL Fuel Oil /
Heavy Fuel Oil
1.0%
Natural Gas H / L
‫ݒ‬௙,௪௘௧ + (ߣ െ 1) ή ‫ݒ‬௔

0
ቇ

0 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0%

O2 content, dry

37
 3.12 Theoretical Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Temperature °C

2000
without dissociation  
with dissociation } fuel oil combustion

with dissociation natural gas combustion

1500

1000

500
%
1.2 1.6 2.0 3.0
Excess air factor na* 4.0

%
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 O2 content* 16 %

% CO2 content
15 13 11 9 ≈5 fuel oil* ≈4

% CO2 content
12 10 8 7 6 4 nat. gas*
* related to dry flue gas

38
4
Overview of
SAACKE Burners
 Fuels Capacity range of single burners (approx. values)
saacke.com/products

Special gaseous fuel,

Special gaseous fuel,

high calorific value

high calorific value

Special liquid fuel,

Special liquid fuel,

low calorific value

low calorific value

Heavy fuel oil

Pulverized fuel
Propane gas
Natural gas

< 2.5 MW

< 3.5 MW

< 14 MW

< 20 MW

< 28 MW

< 40 MW

< 56 MW

< 80 MW

> 80 MW
<10 MW
< 5 MW

< 7 MW
Light oil

Biogas

Burner Series
Tx • • • •
SAACKE EUROTHERM • • • • •
TEMINOX GLS • • • • • • • • • • • •
SKVJG • • • • • • • • • • •
SKVG • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
SKVG-A • • • • • • • • • • •
DDZG • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
DDZG-GTA (KWK) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
DDZG-GTM (KWK) • • • • • • • • • • • •
4 SAACKE Burners

GDG • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
SSB • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
SSB-D • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
SSB-LCG • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
SSB-LCL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

40
5
Dimensioning a Plant
 5.1 Power Consumption of Fans
5.1.1 Shaft Power in kW*
.
Vstd · (psta + 3) · 4
Psh ≈ in kW
105

*Valid for approx. 20° C air temperature and 75% fan efficiency rate

Psh = shaft power in kW

psta = static pressure increase in mbar
.
Vstd = volume flow rate in m3(STP)/h
Note: The drive motor should be dimensioned with an
adequate power margin.

5.1.2 Influence of the Fan Speed

.

( ) ( )
2 3
V2 n2 ∆p2 n2 Pw2 n2
. = = =
V1 n1 ∆p1 n1 Pw1 n1

5.1.3 Influence of Air Density and Air Temperature on

the Fan Power

T1 ρ2 ∆p2 P 2
= = = w
T2 ρ1 ∆p1 Pw1

5.2 Output Series for Electric Motors

Output series for electric motors (standard motor) to EN 50347
0.18 kW 4.0 kW 45 kW
0.25 kW 5.5 kW 55 kW
0.37 kW 7.5 kW 75 kW
0.55 kW 11.0 kW 90 kW
0.75 kW 15.0 kW 110 kW
1.1 kW 18.5 kW 132 kW
1.5 kW 22.0 kW 160 kW
2.2 kW 30.0 kW 200 kW
3.0 kW 37.0 kW
42
5.3 International Protection Classes according to EN 60529
(IEC 529 / VDE 047 T1)

IP x y

x Protected against... y Protected against...

0 No protection 0 No protection
Protected against solid objects over
Protected against vertically falling
1 50mm e.g. accidental touch by 1
drops of water
hands
Protected against solid objects over Protected against direct sprays of
2 2
12mm e.g. fingers water up to 15º from the vertical
Protected against solid objects over Protected against sprays up to 60º
3 3
2.5mm (tools and wires) from the vertical
Protected against water sprayed
Protected against solid objects over
4 4 from all directions – limited ingress
1mm (tools, wires and small wires)
permitted
Protected against low pressure jets
Protected against dust – limited
5 5 of water from all directions –
ingress (no harmful deposit)
limited ingress permitted
Protected against strong jets of
6 Totally protected against dust 6 water e.g. for use on ship decks –
limited ingress protected
Protected against the effects of
temporary immersion between
7
15cm and 1m. Duration of test 30
minutes
Protected against long periods of
8
immersion under pressure

43
 5.4 Power Consumption of Electric Preheaters

.
mF · (ϑ2 – ϑ1)
P≈ in kW
1,585

P = power consumption in kW ϑ2 = outlet temperature in °C

.
ϑ1 = inlet temperature in °C mF = oil flow rate in kg/h

5.5 Calculation of the Furnace Heat Release Rate

. .
. mF (or VF) · LHV · 3.53
qft ≈ in MW/m3
Dft · Lft · 107
2

.
mF or VF = fuel consumption in kg/h or m3/h
LHV = heating value in kJ/kg or kJ/m3
Dft = inner flame tube diameter in m
Lft = flame tube length without reversal chamber in m

5.6 Flue Gas Temperature for Boilers without Economisers

ϑf ≈ saturated steam or hot water temperature + 40 °C

5.7 Conversion of an Air or Gas Flow Rate from

Standard Conditions to Operating Conditions
.
. . 1,013 273 + ϑ V in m3/h
V(at OTP) = V(at STP) · · p in mbar
1,013 + p 273 ϑ in °C

5.8 Pressure Loss of a Liquid or Gas Flow

ρ 1
∆p = ζ · · w2 · in mbar
2 100

∆p = pressure loss
ζ = resistance coefficient (if unknown: use 1)
ρ = density
w = flow rate
44
5.9 Fuel Oil Lines
Tube Diameters and Pressure Losses

.
Di = √ 0,354 wV
in
. mm
V in l/h
w in m/s

11.5

38
75

170

340
780

Example:
delivery rate: 1,000 l/h
tube: DN 40
liquid velocity: 0.2 m/s
viscosity: 38 cSt
pressure loss: 0.3 bar per 100 m straight line

45
 5.10 Velocity of Flow in Pipelines

Fluid (medium) Type of pipeline m/s

Potable and non-potable water - main lines 1–2
” ” – long distance lines up to 3
” ” – local lines 0.6 – 0.7
” ” – house lines 2
Water
Pressure water lines (depending on the length) 15 – 30
Feedwater – suction lines 0.5 – 1
” ” – pressure lines 1.5 – 2.5
Condensate lines upstream of the steam trap 1–2

Steam lines < 10 bar 15 – 20

” 10 – 40 bar 20 – 40
Steam
” 40 – 125 bar 30 – 60
Exhaust steam lines 15 – 25

Air Pressure lines 15 – 25

Long-distance gas lines up to 2 bar 4 – 20

Gas ” up to 5 bar 11 – 35
” above 5 bar 15 – 40
Suction lines 1
EL fuel oil
Pressure lines 1.5 – 2

Suction lines 0.1 – 0.5

HFO
Pressure lines 0.5 – 1

46
5.11 Seamless Steel Tubes to EN 10220, Series 1

Nominal Suitable for Outer Wall Inner Inner Tube weight Volume flow
bore BSPT pipe diameter thickness diameter cross-section rate
thread at 1 m/s
.
DN in mm R in inches Do in mm d in mm Di in mm A in cm² G1 in kg/m V in m3/h
10 3/8 17.2 1.8 13.6 1.45 0.684 0.52
15 1/2 21.3 2.0 17.3 2.35 0.952 0.85
20 3/4 26.9 2.3 22.3 3.90 1.40 1.40
25 1 33.7 2.6 28.5 6.37 1.99 2.30
32 1 1/4 42.4 2.6 37.2 10.9 2.55 3.92
40 1 1/2 48.3 2.6 43.1 14.6 2.93 5.25
50 2 60.3 2.9 54.5 23.3 4.11 8.40
65 2 1/2 76.1 2.9 70.3 38.8 5.24 14.0
80 3 88.9 3.2 82.5 53.5 6.76 19.3
100 4 114.3 3.6 107.1 90.0 9.83 32.4
125 5 139.7 4.0 131.7 136.0 13.4 49.0
150 – 168.3 4.5 159.3 199.0 18.2 71.8
200 – 219.1 6.3 206.5 334.0 33.1 122.0
250 – 273.0 6.3 260.4 532.0 41.4 192.0
300 – 323.9 7.1 309.7 753.0 55.5 270.0
350 – 355.6 8.0 339.6 906.0 68.6 327.0
400 – 406.4 8.8 388.8 1,180.0 86.3 426.0

.
V = volume flow rate in l/h
w = velocity in m/s

Example:
.
V = 5.25 m3/h = 5,250 l/h
w = 1 m/s
.
D = √ 0.354 V = 43.1 mm ∧
i w = DN 40

47
 5.12 Dimensioning Saturated Steam Lines

48
5.13 Guide Values for Economisers

A = return flow / feedwater

B = flue gas

Guide value
Lowering the flue gas temperature by 30 K improves the
efficiency rate by approx. 1%. Using an economiser increases
the boiler efficiency rate by approx. 4 - 5%.

Flue gas temperature limits

Hot water boilers:

minimum return flow temperature operating on gas > 60 °C
minimum return flow temperature operating on oil > 65 °C

With steam boilers the flue gas temperature must be

approx. 60 - 80 K higher than the steam temperature.

49
6
Emissions,
Limits for Flue Gas
and Noise
6
6.1 Emissions Limits for Firing Plants*
* The following tables provide an overview of the emission values of standard fuels. Please note the seperate SAACKE publications
on this issue and the recent versions of the BImSchV. (The German Federal Immission Control Acts („BImSchV“) are among the
worlds strictest. The limits given in this table are valid in Germany at the time of printing. They are subject to ongoing revision. )

EL fuel oil / liquid standard fuels

NOx CO SO2 Dust Soot no. Remarks
mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3
1st BlmSchV ≤ 120 kW 110 1) – – – 1
2010-03-22 < 400 kW 120 1) – – – 1
< 10 MW 185 1) – – – 1
180 1 )6) 80 – – 1 operating temp. < 110 °C
< 20 MW 200 1) 6) 80 – – 1 operating temp. ≤ 210 °C
250 1) 6) 80 – – 1 operating temp. > 210 °C
4th BlmSchV 180 1) 80 – – 1 operating temp. < 110 °C
2013-05-02 < 50 MW 200 1) 80 – – 1 operating temp. ≤ 210 °C
("TA Luft") 250 1) 80 – – 1 operating temp. > 210 °C
≥ 1 (5) – < 50 MW 350 1) 80 850 2) – 1 fuel oils except EL fuel oil
13th BlmSchV 180 1) 80 350 10 <1 operating temp. < 110 °C
2013-05-025) < 100 MW 200 1) 80 350 10 <1 operating temp. ≤ 210 °C
250 1) 80 350 10 <1 operating temp. > 210 °C
< 300 MW 150 3) 80 200 10 <1
< 100 MW 300 4) 80 350 10 –
fuel oils except EL fuel oil
< 300 MW 150 3) 80 200 10 –
> 300 MW 100 3) 80 150 10 <1 all fuel oils

Natural gas / other gaseous fuels

NOx CO SO2 Dust
mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3 Remarks
1st BlmSchV ≤ 120 kW 60 – – –
2010-03-22 < 400 kW 80 – – –
< 10 MW 120 – – –
100 80 – – operating temp. < 110 °C
< 20 MW 110 80 – – operating temp. 110 – 210 °C
150 80 – – operating temp. > 210 °C
< 20 MW 200 80 – – other standard fuels
4th BlmSchV 100 50 10 5 operating temp. < 110 °C
2013-05-02 < 50 MW 110 50 10 5 operating temp. 110 – 210 °C
("TA Luft") 150 50 10 5 operating temp. > 210 °C
< 50 MW 200 80 various 5 - 10 other standard fuels
13th BlmSchV > 50 MW 100 50 35 5
2013-05-025) < 300 MW 200 80 - 100 various 5 - 10 other standard fuels
> 300 MW 100 80 - 100 various 5 - 10 other standard fuels
The emissions limits given are based on a residual oxygen content in the flue gas of 3% O2,dry

1) The NOx emissions for EL fuel oil are based on a fuel nitrogen content acc. to EN 267. They may be corrected according to Annex A.
2) The SO2 emissions for a burner output of up to 5 MW must not be any higher than those from EL fuel oil.
3) Annual average must not exceed 100 mg/m3.
4) Annual average must not exceed 250 mg/m3.
5) Daily average. Half-hour averages must not exceed twice this value.
6) Dual-fuel burners that are operated with liquid fuels for less than 300 h/a: 250 mg/m3.

Solid or liquid waste

NOx NOx CO SO2 Dust
mg/m3 mg/kWh mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3 CxHy Remarks
17th BlmSchV 200 – 50 50 10 10 daily average
2003-08-14
400 – 100 200 30 20 half-hour average

The emissions limits given are based on a residual oxygen content in the flue gas of 11% O2,dry

51
 6.2 Continuous Monitoring acc. to "TA Luft"*
Liquid fuels 1) Gaseous fuels 1)
Flue-gas opacity 5 up to 25 MW
≥ 5 MW EL fuel oil
Dust > 25 MW
except for EL fuel oil
CO > 25 MW > 50 MW
SO2 2)

NOx
1) Performance data: burner output of the individual firing plants
2) W
 hen fuels other than EL fuel oil are fired, a record must be kept of the
sulphur content.

* The German Clean Air Act goes beyond EU requirements and is among the
strictest in the world.

6.3 Estimation of the Solid Content in the Flue Gas of Liquid

Fuels

solid content = ash content· 830 + X in mg/m3

solid content in mg/m3 dry flue gas

ash content in %
X = depending on the plant : from 10 to 40

6.4 Estimation of the SOx Content in the Flue Gas

SOx  content in mg/m3 =

fuel sulphur content in wt. % · 1700

fuel sulphur content:

HFO approx. 1.0 wt. % ∧
= 10000 mg/kg
EL fuel oil approx. 0.015 wt. % ∧= 150 mg/kg

52
6.5 Conversion of Emissions Values

Depending on the fuel and the type of firing plant, the

emissions values are based on a defined oxygen concentration
in the dry flue gas (O2, dry in vol. %).

The conversion of ppm to mg/m3, based on the

prescribed O2 value, is done in two steps:

6.5.1 Equation for Correction to the O2 Reference Value

21 – X
E= · Emeas
21 – O2, meas

E ∧
= emission, based on X% O2 e.g. NO, SO2, CO
X = O2 reference value in volume percent

6.5.2 Factors for Conversion from ppm to mg/m3

1 ppm CO = 1.25 mg CO/m3

1 ppm NO ð 2.05 mg NO2/m3*
1 ppm NO = 1.34 mg NO/m3
1 ppm SO2 = 2.93 mg SO2/m3

*Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are understood as the mixture of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The NOx concentration is calculated in mg NO2/m3

53
 6.5.3 C
 orrection of the Influence of the Temperature and Hu-
midity of the Combustion Air on the NOx Emissions*

NOx,ref = NOx,meas +
[ 0.02 · NOx,meas - 0.34

1 - 0.02 · (hmeas - 10) ] (hmeas - 10) + [0.85 · (20 - ϑmeas)]

NOx,meas = NOx value in mg/kWh, measured at hmeas and ϑmeas

in the 50 mg/kWh to 300 mg/kWh range
hmeas = humidity during measurement of NOx,meas in g/kg in
the 5 g/kg to15 g/kg range
ϑmeas = temperature in °C during measurement of NOx,meas
NOx,ref = corrected NOx value in mg/kWh at a humidity of
10 g/kg and a temperature of 20 °C
(reference conditions).

For this calculation the temperature ϑmeas must be within

a tight range:
- for EL fuel oil between 15 and 30 °C
- for gases between 15 and 25 °C

6.5.4. Correction of the Influence of the

Nitrogen Content in the Oil on the NOx Emissions*
To correct the NOx value, the actual nitrogen content Nmeas of
the oil must be known (e.g. from an analysis).

NOx(EN267) = NOx,ref - (Nmeas - Nref) · 0.2

NOx(EN267)= NOx value in mg/kWh corrected to the reference

value for nitrogen in the oil
NOx,ref = NOx value calculated according to [6.5.3]
Nmeas = measured nitrogen content of the oil in mg/kg**
Nref = reference value for the nitrogen content

Use Nref = 140 mg/kg for burner capacities ≥ 10MW

Use Nref = 0 mg/kg for burner capacities < 10 MW

* According to EN267; symbols harmonised

** Should not exceed 200 mg/kg

54
6.6 Acid Dew Points and Minimum Flue Gas Temperatures

Acid dew point Min. flue gas temperature

Natural gas approx. 55 °C > 100 °C
EL fuel oil approx. 120 °C > 150 °C
HFO* approx. 155 °C > 180 °C
*1% sulphur content

6.7 Emissions Conversion

ppmv 0% O2, ppmv 3% O2, mg NOx/kg mg NOx/m³ mg NOx/m³ mg NOx/MJ mg NOx/kWh
dry dry fuel (at STP) (at STP) (LHV) or
fuel dry flue gas , g NOx/MWh
3% O2

ppmv 0% O2,
1 0.87 23.39 19.84 1.78 0.49 1.76
dry
ppmv 3% O2,
1.15 1 27.29 23.15 2.05 0.57 2.05
dry
mg NOx/kg fu-
0.043 0.037 1 0.85 13.29 0.021 0.075
el
mg NOx/m³
(at STP) 0.050 0.043 1.18 1 0.089 0.025 0.089
fuel
mg NOx/m³
(at STP)
0.562 0.488 0.075 11.24 1 0.28 1.0
dry flue gas
3% O2
mg NOx/MJ
2.045 1.754 47.62 40.00 3.6 1 3.6
(LHV)
mg NOx/kWh
or 0.568 0.487 13.30 11.20 1 0.28 1
g NOx/MWh

55
 6.8 Addition of the Sound Levels of Several Sound Sources

Example: difference in level : 3 dB

2 sound sources with 80 dB each total level : 83 dB

Example: difference in level : 5 dB

sound source 1: 80 dB increase in the level : 1.2 dB
sound source 2: 75 dB total level : 81.2 dB
56
7
Basic Business
Formulae
 7.1 Pre-Investment Analysis, Static Method
There are a number of key figures you can calculate in order
to estimate the costs of an investment (e.g. a plant moderni-
sation). The following calculation is simplified but it is close
enough for a rough estimate. Proceed step by step:

1. Collect the basic data.

1a. Determine the fuel costs per year up to now.
1b. Determine the expected fuel costs per year.
1c. Calculate the fuel savings [F] per year.
1d. Estimate roughly the plant investments [C].

2. Calculation of the debt service [CD] of the investment

[C]* - (assumed interest rate: 10%)
*simplified calculation of the average capital expenditure

CD = C . 10%
2 100%
3. Calculation of the write-off for depreciation [W] of the
investment [C] for the service life (example: 10 years)
W= C
10
4. Calculation of the annual cost savings [S]
S = F + CD + W
5. Calculation of the annual cash return [CR]
CR = S + W
6. Calculation of the amortisation / pay-off period /
pay-back period [PB]
PB = C
CR
7. Calculation of the return on investment [ROI] / yield*
*You can also use 2C instead of C.

ROI = S
C

58
7.2 Profitability Diagram for Firing Plants with
Oxygen Control

Example:
original efficiency rate 88 %
efficiency rate improvement from O2 control 1%
average boiler output 6 MW
operating hours per year 5,000

Savings of 32.5 metric tons of EL fuel oil per year.

59
 7.3 Calculation of the Gross and Net Price of heat

price of the mass (volume) unit of fuel

[€ /100 l] or [€ /m³]
gross heat price [€ /GJ] =
lower heating value of the mass (volume) unit of fuel (LHV)
[kJ/kg] or [kJ/m³]

gross heat price [€ /GJ] · 100%

net heat price[€ /GJ] =
annual operating efficiency rate %

Average annual operating efficiency rates*

with EL fuel oil 82%
with HFO 81%
with natural gas and liquid gas 83%
*assuming an optimum combustion efficiency rate

Example calculation:

fuel: EL fuel oil, LHV = 42,700 kJ/kg

price: 85 € /100 l
density: 0.83 kg/l

85 € /100 l · 106 kJ/GJ

gross heat price = = 23.98 € /GJ
42,700 kJ/kg · 83 kg/100 l

23.98 € /GJ
net heat price = = 23.98 € /GJ
0.82

60
8
Overview of
Important Standards
and Directives
 8.1 Overview of Important Standards and Directives*

EN 267 Automatic forced draught burners for

liquid fuels
EN 676 Automatic forced draught burners for
gaseous fuels
EN 230 Automatic burner control systems for
oil burners
EN 298 Automatic gas burner control systems for
gas burners and gas burning appliances with
or without fans
EN 50156 E lectrical equipment for furnaces and ancillary
equipment. Requirements for application,
design and installation
EN 12952 Water-tube boilers and auxiliary installations
EN 12953 Shell boilers
EN 746-2 Industrial thermoprocessing equipment.
Safety requirements for combustion and
fuel handling systems
EN 60529 (IEC 529 / VDE 047 T1) Specifications for de-
grees of protection provided by enclosures
(IP Code)

62
Directive
94/9/EC of the European Parliament concerning
equipment and protective systems intended
for use in potentially explosive atmospheres
Directive
1999/92 EC of the European Parliament on minimum
requirements for improving the safety and
health protection of workers potentially at
risk from explosive atmospheres
Directive
2006/42/EG of the European Parliament on Machinery
("Machinery Directive")
Directive
97/23/EG of the European Parliament on the
approximation of the laws of the Member
States concerning pressure equipment
("Pressure Equipment Directive")
Directive
90/396/EWG of the Council on the approximation of the
laws of the Member States relating to appli-
cances burning gaseous fuels
("Gas Appliance Directive")
Directive
2006/95/EG of the European Parliament on the
harmonisation of the laws of the Member
States relating to electrical equipment
designed for use within certain voltage limits
("Low Voltage Directive")

*The Technical Rules for Steam Boilers (TRD) rulebook is obsolete and is no longer
listed here.

63
 8.2 Explosion Protection – Selecting and Marking
Equipment *
*Based on ATEX Directive 94/9/EC for the EU. Although international harmonisati-
on is in progress (IEC), certain country-specific standards apply elsewhere.

8.2.1 Definition of the Explosion Protection Zones

Zone for
Explosive mixture present Zone for gases
dusts

continuously, for long periods or frequently zone 0 zone 20

in normal operation occasionally zone 1 zone 21

in normal operation unlikely or only briefly zone 2 zone 22

8.2.2 Selecting the Equipment Category

Explosion protection for gases Explosion protection for dusts

Zone Category Zone Category

0 1G 20 1D

1 1G or 2G 21 1D or 2D

2 1G, 2G or 3G 22 1D, 2D or 3D

8.2.3 Equipment Marking

(minimum requirements acc. to 94/9/EC)

General information Name, address of the manufacturer, series,

on the manufacturer model, serial number, year of manufacture

CE mark CE with the number of the notified body

EX mark

Equipment group I mines (methane, dusts)

II all other potentially explosive areas

Category 1G, 2G, 3G or 1D, 2D, 3D for zones 0, 1, 2 respec-

tively or for zones 20, 21, 22

64
8.2.4 Ignition Protection Class

Identifier* Ignition protection class Example application

Ex p pressurized enclosure ventilated control cabinet

new, for non-electrical
Ex c constructional safety
components
Ex d pressure-tight enclosure in particular for motors
pressure-tight enclosure with
Ex de local control boxes
increased connection safety
Ex ia intrinsically safe for zone 0 instrumentation

Ex ib intrinsically safe for zones 1 and 2 instrumentation

Ex em increased safety / encapsulation pilot valves

protection by control of ignition new, for non-electric
Ex b
sources components
Ex k liquid immersion transformers

Ex nA non-sparking electric motors

* As of 2008-10-01; 'EEx' on equipment marked according to the previous standard

8.2.5 Explosion Group Classification

Explosion Group Example material Maximum experimental safe gap
I methane > 1,1 mm
IIA propane > 0,9 mm
IIB ethylene > 0,5 mm
IIC hydrogen < 0,5 mm

8.2.6 Temperature Class

T1 surface temperature < 450°C CH4, H2, C3H8
T2 surface temperature < 300°C Cyclohexanone
T3 surface temperature < 200°C HxSy
T4 surface temperature < 135°C Acetaldehyd
T5 surface temperature < 100°C -
T6 surface temperature < 85°C CxSy

8.2.7 Complete Designation (Example)

II 2G EEx d IIC T4
65
 Nomenclature
Conventions Greek Letters
EL fuel oil light fuel oil to DIN 51603-1 η dynamic viscosity
HFO heavy fuel oil to DIN 51603-3 η efficiency rate
Δ difference
Abbreviations and Symbols λ excess air factor
A area ν kinematic viscosity
c concentration ρ density
cos ϕ electric power factor ϑ temperature in °C
d relative density ζ resistance coefficient
d wall thickness
D diameter Subscripts
DN nominal diameter a air
E emission abs absolute
G weight b boiler
h enthalpy bd blow-down
h humidity d dew point
HHV higher heating value dry dry
I electric amperage dyn dynamic
L length eff effective
LFL lower flammability limit f flue gas
LHV lower heating value F fuel
.
m mass flow rate, consumption fl flash
MSL mean sea level ft flame tube
n number, quantity fw feedwater
n rate of revolution g gas
OTP operating temperature and pressure i inner
p pressure ign ignition
P power / wattage L sound level (volume)
.
q heat release rate max maximum value
.
Q burner output meas measured
r latent heat of vaporisation min minimum value
R pipe thread o outer
R electric resistance ph phase
RR Flue Gas Recirculation rate ref reference
STP standard temperature and pressure s steam
U voltage sat saturation
UFL upper flammability limit sh shaft
V volume st stoichiometric
v. specific volume sta static
V volume flow rate, consumption std standard
w speed, flow rate wet wet
X an arbitrary value, result of a
calculation

66
Notes
Notes
SAACKE Singapore
 SAACKE GmbH
Suedweststraße 13
28237 Bremen, Germany
Tel +49 421 6495-0
Fax +49 421 6495-5224
[email protected]
www.saacke.com
© SAACKE 2016 0-0750-0082-02

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