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Unit-03/Lecture-01
Description of Design Process
Description of Design Process :
Morris Asimow was along with the first to give a detailed explanation of the complete design
process in what he called the morphology of design. It is defined by the phases and their
constituent steps. Design is succession from the abstract to the concrete. The various activities
that make up the first three phases of design: conceptual design, embodiment design, and
detail design & the remaining four phases belong to production, distribution, consumption &
retirement.

PRIMITIVE NEED

PHASE-1
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

PHASE-2
EMBODIMENT DESIGN

PHASE-3
DETAILED DESIGN

PHASE-4
PLANNING FOR
PRODUCTION

PHASE-5
PLANNING FOR
DISTRIBUTION

PHASE-6
PLANNING FOR
CONSUMPTION

PHASE-7
PLANNING FOR
RETIREMENT

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Phase-1 : Conceptual Design/ Feasibility study

Conceptual design is the process by which the design is initiated, carried to the point of creating
a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down to a single best concept. It is sometimes
called the feasibility study. A design begins with a feasibility study; the purpose is to achieve
useful solutions to the design problem. Sometimes a design group is assigned a project for which
a design concept has been fixed. Conceptual design is the phase that requires the greatest
creativity, involves the most uncertainty, and requires coordination among many functions in the
business organization. The following are the discrete activities that we consider under conceptual
design

Gather Define Concept Evaluation

Information Problem Generation Of concepts

Internet Problem Brainstorming Pugh concept

Patents statement Functional Selection
Trade Benchmarking Decomposition Decision
Literature QFD Morphological Matrices
PDS Chart
Project planning

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

a) Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely understand

the customers’ needs and to communicate them to the design team. Engineers and
business people are seeking answers to such questions as:
Who are my customers?
What does the customer want?
How can the product satisfy
The customer while generating a profit?
Information gathered from customers and research on products from market literature and
experimentation contributes to creating a ranked listing of customer needs and wants. These are
the needs that form the end user’s opinion about the quality of a product. As odd as it may seem,
customers may not express all their requirements of a product when they are interviewed. If a
feature has become standard on a product (e.g., a remote control on a TV) it is still a need but
no longer excites the end users, and they may forget to mention it. To understand how that can
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happen and how the omissions can be mitigated, it is necessary to reflect on how customers
distinguish “needs.”
Physiological needs: such as thirst, hunger, sleep, shelter, and exercise. These constitute the
basic needs of the body, and until they are satisfied, they remain the prime influence on the
individual’s behavior.
Safety and security needs: which include protection against danger, deprivation (lack), and
threat (hazard)? When the bodily needs are satisfied, the safety and security needs become
dominant.
Social needs: for love and esteem (appreciate) by others. These needs include belonging to
groups, group identity, and social acceptance.
b) Problem definition: The goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes.
What has to be accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer? This involves analysis
of competitive products, the establishment of target specifications, and the listing of
constraints and trade-offs. Quality function deployment (QFD) is a valuable tool for
linking customer needs with design requirements. A detailed listing of the product
requirements is called a product design specification (PDS). Problem definition, in its
full scope
c) Gathering information: The need for information can be crucial at many steps in a
design project. We will need to find these bits of information quickly, and validate them
as to their reliability
i) Data, information, knowledge: Data is a set of discrete, objective facts about events. These
data may be experimental observations about the testing of a new product, or data on sales that
are part Of a marketing study.
Information is data that has been treated in some way that it conveys a message. Information is
meant to change the way the receiver of the message perceives something, i.e., to have an impact
on his or her judgment and behavior. The word informs originally meant “to give shape to.”
Data becomes information when its creator adds meaning. This can be done in the following
ways.
Contextualized: we know for what purpose the data was gathered.
Categorized: we know the units of analysis or key components of the data.
Calculated: the data have been analyzed mathematically or statistically.
Corrected: errors have been removed from the data.
Condensed: the data have been summarized in a more concise form.
Knowledge is broader, deeper, and richer than data or information. Because of this it is harder to
define. It is a mix of experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides
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a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. This
transformation occurs through the following processes:
Comparison: how does this situation compare to other situations we have known?
Consequence: what implications does the information have for decisions and
Actions?
Connections: how does this bit of knowledge relate to others?
Conversation: what do other people think about this information?
.
d) Conceptualization: Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts that
potentially satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods, combined with
efficient information gathering, are the key activities.

One way to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes is to apply methods found to be useful
for others. Following are some positive steps you can take to enhance your creative thinking

i) Develop a creative attitude: To be creative it is essential to develop confidence that you can
provide a creative solution to a problem. Although you may not visualize the complete path
through to the final solution at the time you first tackle a problem, you must have selfconfi
dence; you must believe that a solution will develop before you are finished. Of course, confi
dence comes with success, so start small and build your confidence up with small successes.

ii) Unlock your imagination: You must renew the glowing imagination you had as a child. One
way to do so is to begin to question again. Ask “why” and “what if,” even at the risk of
displaying a bit of inexperience. Scholars of the creative process have developed thought games
that are designed to provide practice in unlocking your imagination and sharpening creative
ability.

iii) Be persistent: We already have dispelled the myth that creativity occurs with a lightning
strike. On the contrary, it often requires hard work. Most problems will not submit to the first
attack. They must be pursued with persistence. After all, Edison tested over 6000 materials
before he discovered the species of bamboo that acted as a successful filament for the
incandescent light bulb. It was also Edison who made the famous comment, “Invention is
95 percent perspiration and 5 percent inspiration.”

iv) Develop an open mind: Having an open mind means being approachable to ideas from any
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and all sources. The solutions to problems are not the property of a particular discipline, nor is
there any rule that solutions can come only from persons with college degrees..

v) Suspend your judgment : We have seen that creative ideas develop slowly, but nothing
Slow up the creative process more than critical judgment of an emerging idea. Engineers, by
nature, tend toward critical attitudes, so special patience is required to avoid judgment at an early
stage of conceptual design.

vi) Set problem boundaries : We place great emphasis on proper problem definition as a step
toward problem solution. Establishing the boundaries of the problem is an essential part of
problem definition. Experience shows that setting problem boundaries appropriately, not too
tight or not too open, is critical to achieving a creative solution.
e) Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving into a
single preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually requires
several iterations. Theory for decision making is rooted in many different academic
disciplines, including pure mathematics, economics (macro and micro), psychology
(cognitive and behavioral), probability, and many others
Behavioral aspects of Decision making:
Behavioral psychology provides an understanding of the influence of risk taking in individuals
and teams. Making a decision is a stressful situation for most people because there is no way to
be certain about the information about the past or the predictions of the future. This
psychological stress arises from at least two sources. First, decision makers are concerned about
the material and social losses that will result from either course of action that is chosen. Second,
they recognize that their reputations and self-esteem as capable decision makers are at stake.
i) Unconflicted adherence: Decide to continue with current action and ignore information
About risk of losses.
ii) Unconflicted change: Uncritically adopt whichever course of action is most
Strongly recommended.
iii) Defensive avoidance: avoid conflict by delay, shifting responsibility to
Someone else, and remaining careless to corrective information.
iv) Hyper vigilance: Search madly for an immediate problem solution.
v) Vigilance: Search carefully for relevant information that is understand in an
Unbiased manner and evaluate carefully before a decision is made.

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f) Refinement of the PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the concept
has been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain critical values of
design parameters, usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ) parameters, and to living
with trade-offs between cost and performance.

g) Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a design
review will be held. The design review will assure that the design is physically realizable
and that it is economically worthwhile. It will also look at a detailed product development
schedule. This is needed to devise a strategy to minimize product cycle time and to
identify the resources in people, equipment, and money needed to complete the project.

Unit-03/Lecture-02
EMBODIMENT DESIGN/ preliminary design:
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The next phase of the design process is often called embodiment design. It is the phase where the
design concept is invested with physical form, where we “put meat on the bones.” Structured
development of the design concept occurs in this engineering design phase. An embodiment of
all the main functions that must be performed by the product must be undertaken. It is in this
design phase that decisions are made on strength, material selection, size, shape, and spatial
compatibility. Beyond this design phase, major changes become very expensive. This design
phase is sometimes called preliminary design.
Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks—product architecture,
configuration design, and parametric design.

Product Configuration Parametric

Architecture Design Design
Preliminary Robust design
Arrangement Selection of Set tolerances
of Materials and DFM, DFA, DFE
Physical Manufacturing Tolerances
elements Processes

EMBODIMENT DESIGN

a) Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall Design
system into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide how the physical components of the
design are to be arranged and combined to carry out the functional duties of the design.
The product architecture begins to appear in the conceptual design
phase from such things as diagrams of functions, rough sketches of concepts, and perhaps a
proof-of-concept model. However, it is in the embodiment design phase that the layout and
architecture of the product must be established by defining the basic building blocks of the
product and their interfaces. a product’s architecture is related to its function structure, but it
does not have to match it. The physical building blocks that the product is organized into are
usually called modules. Other terms are subsystem, subassembly, cluster, or chunk. Each
module is made up of a collection of components that carry out functions. The architecture of the
product is given by the relationships among the components in the product and the functions the
product performs. There are two entirely opposite styles of product architecture, modular and
integral.
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1) Modular architecture: each module implements only one or a few functions, and the
interactions between modules are well defined. An EXAMPLE would be an
oscilloscope, where different measurement functions are obtained by plugging in
different modules,
2) In an integral architecture: In integral product architectures, components perform
multiple functions. This reduces the number of components, generally decreasing cost
unless the integral architecture is obtained at the expense of extreme part complexity.
Integral product architecture is often adopted when constraints of weight, space, or cost
make
It difficult to achieve required performance. Propose a four-step process for establishing the
product Architecture.
 Create a schematic diagram of the product.
 Cluster the elements of the schematic.
 Create a rough geometric layout.
 Identify the interactions between modules.

b) Configuration design of parts and components: In configuration design we establish the

shape and general dimensions of components. The term component is used in the generic sense
to include special-purpose parts, standard parts, and standard assemblies. Configuring a part
means to determine what features will be present and how those features are to be arranged in
space relative to each other. While modeling and simulation may be performed in this stage to
check out function and spatial constraints, only approximate sizes are determined to assure that
the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specificity about materials and manufacturing is given
here. The generation of a physical model of the part with rapid prototyping processes may be
appropriate.
In starting configuration design we should follow these steps:
 Review the product design specification and any specifications developed for the
particular subassembly to which the component belongs.
 Establish the spatial constraints that relate to the product or the subassembly being
Designed.
 Most of these will have been set by the product architecture .In addition to physical
spatial constraints, consider the constraints of a human working with the product and
constraints that relate to the product’s life cycle, such as the need to provide access for
maintenance or repair or to dismantle it for recycling.

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 Create and refine the interfaces or connections between components.

 Again, the product architecture should give much guidance in this respect. Much design
effort occurs at the connections between components, because this is the location where
failure often occurs. Identify and give special attention to the interfaces that transfer the
most critical functions.
 Before spending much time on the design, answer the following questions: Can the part
be eliminated or combined with another part? Studies of design for manufacture (DFM)
show that it is almost always less costly to make and assemble fewer, more complex parts
than it is to design with a higher part count.
 Can a standard part or subassembly be used? While a standard part is generally less
costly than a special-purpose part, two standard parts may not be less costly than one
special-purpose part that replaces them.
Identify the likely ways the part might fail in service.
● Excessive plastic deformation. Size the part so that stresses are below the yield strength.
● Fatigue failure. If there are cyclic loads, size the part so that stresses are below the fatigue
limit or fatigue strength for the expected number of cycles in service.
● Stress concentrations. Use generous fillets and radii so that stress raisers are kept low. This is
especially important where service conditions are at risk to fatigue or brittle failure.
● Buckling. If buckling is possible, configure the part geometry to prevent buckling.
● Shock or impact loads. Be alert to this possibility, and configure the part geometry and select
the material to minimize shock loading.
Identify likely ways that part functionality might be compromised.
● Tolerances: Are too many tight tolerances required to make the part work well? Have you
checked for tolerance stack-up in assemblies?
● Creep: Creep is change of dimensions over time at elevated temperature. Many polymers
exhibit creep above 100°C. Is creep a possibility with this part, and if so, has it been considered
in the design?
● Thermal deformation. Check to determine whether thermal expansion or contraction could
interfere with the functioning of a part or assembly.

Materials and manufacturing issues

● Is the material selected for the part the best one to prevent the likely failure modes in service?
● Is there a history of use for the material in this or similar applications?
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● Can the form and features of the part be readily made on available production machines?
● Will material made to standard quality specifications be adequate for this part?
● Will the chosen material and manufacturing process meet the cost target for the part?

c) Parametric design of parts: Parametric design starts with information on the configuration of
the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions on the material
and manufacturing processes are also established if this has not been done previously. An
important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design
robustness. Robustness refers to how consistently a component performs under variable
conditions in its service environment. Robustness means achieving excellent performance under
the wide range of conditions that will be found in service. All products function reasonably well
under ideal (laboratory) conditions, but robust designs continue to function well when the
conditions to which they are exposed are far from ideal Dimensions and tolerances were set
tentatively, and while analysis was used to “size the parts” it generally was not highly detailed or
sophisticated. Now the design moves into parametric design, the latter part of embodiment
design.

A systematic parametric design takes place in five steps

Step 1. Formulate the parametric design problem:

The designer should have a clear understanding of the function or functions that the component
to be designed must deliver. This information should be traceable back to the PDS and the
product architecture, but the product design specification (PDS) should be the guiding document.
From this information we select the engineering characteristics that measure the predicted
performance of the function. These solution evaluation parameters (SEPs) are often metrics like
Cost, weight, efficiency, safety, and reliability. Next we identify the design variables. The
design variables (DVs) are the parameters under the control of the designer that determine the
performance of the component. Design variables most influence the dimensions, tolerances, or
choice of materials for the component. The design variables should be identified with variable
name, symbol, units, and upper and lower limits for the variable. Also, we make sure we
understand and record the problem definition parameters (PDPs). These are the operational or
environmental conditions under which the component or system must operate. Examples are
loads, flow rate, and temperature increase. Finally, we develop a Plan for Solving the Problem.
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This will involve some kind of analysis for stresses, or vibration, or heat transfer. In conceptual
design you used elementary physics and chemistry, and a “gut feel” for whether the concept
would work. In configuration design you used simple models from engineering science courses,
but in parametric design you will most likely use more detailed models, including finite-element
analysis on critical components. The deciding factors for the level of detail in analysis will be the
time, money, and available analysis tools, and whether, given these constraints, the expected
results are likely to have sufficient credibility and usefulness.
Step 2. Generate alternative designs:
Different values for the design variables are chosen to produce different candidate designs.
Remember, the alternative configurations were narrowed down to a single selection in confi
guration design. Now, we are determining the best dimensions or tolerances for the critical-to
quality aspects of that configuration. The values of the DVs come from your or the company’s
experience, or from industry standards or practice.
Step 3. Analyze the alternative designs:
Now we predict the performance of each of the alternative designs using either analytical or
experimental methods. Each of the designs is checked to see that it satisfies every performance
constraint and expectation. These designs are identified as feasible designs.
Step 4. Evaluate the results of the analyses.
All the feasible designs are evaluated to determine which one is best using the solution
evaluation parameters. Often, a key performance characteristic is chosen as an objective function,
and optimization methods are used to either maximize or minimize this value. Alternatively,
design variables are combined in some reasonable way to give a figure of merit, and this value is
used for deciding on the best design
Step 5. Refine/Optimize.
If none of the candidate designs are feasible designs, then it is necessary to determine a new set
of designs. If feasible designs exist, it may be possible to improve their rating by changing the
values of the design variables in an organized way so as to maximize or minimize the objective
function.

Unit-03/Lecture-03

DETAIL DESIGN:
Detailed design is such a fundamental necessity to manufacturers that it exists at the intersection
of many product development processes. And given this broad influence, as well as the impact of
prevailing industry dynamics such as distributed product development, shortening product
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development lifecycles and increased product complexity, companies are feeling immense
pressure to improve their detailed design process. Missing information is added on the
arrangement, form, dimensions, and tolerances, surface properties, materials, and manufacturing
processes of each part. This results in a specification for each special-purpose part and for each
standard part to be purchased from suppliers. In the detail design phase the following activities
are completed and documents are prepared:

Detail design
Engineering
Drawings
Finalize PDS

● Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are computer-
generated drawings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD models.
● Verification testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted.
All critical-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under control. Usually the building and
testing of several preproduction versions of the product will be accomplished.
● Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed. The bill of materials for
all assemblies will be completed.
● A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the conceptual
Design phase will be prepared.
● Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy from an external supplier will be
made.
● With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the product will be carried out.
● Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made to pass the
design information on to manufacturing.

In many engineering organizations it is no longer correct to say that detail design is the phase of
design where all of the dimensions, tolerances, and details are finalized. However, detail design,
as the name implies, is the phase where all of the details are brought together, all decisions are
Finalized, and a decision is made by management to release the design for production. Poor
detail design can ruin a brilliant design concept and lead to manufacturing defects, high costs,
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and poor reliability in service.

ACTIVITIES AND DECISIONS IN DETAIL DESIGN:

1) Make/buy decision: Even before the design of all components is completed and the drawings
finalized, meetings are held on deciding whether to make a component in-house or to buy it from
an external supplier. This decision will be made chiefly on the basis of cost and manufacturing
capacity, with due consideration given to issues of quality and reliability of delivery of
components An important reason for making this decision early is so you can bring the supplier
into the design effort as an extended team member.
2) Complete the selection and sizing of components
While most of the selection and sizing of components occurs in embodiment design, especially
for those components with parameters deemed to be critical-to-quality, some components may
not yet have been selected or designed. These may be standard components that will be
purchased from external suppliers or routine standard parts like fasteners. Or, there may be a
critical component for which you have been waiting for test data or FEA analysis results.
Regardless of the reason, it is necessary to complete these activities before the design can be
complete.
3) Complete engineering drawings: A major task in the detail design phase is to complete the
engineering drawings. As each component, subassembly, and assembly is designed, it is
documented completely with drawings. Drawings of individual parts are usually called detail
Drawings .These shows the geometric features, dimensions, and tolerances of the parts.
4) Revise the product design specification: We need to distinguish between the part
specification and the product design specification. For individual parts the drawing and the
specification are often the same document. The specification contains information on the
technical performance of the part, its dimensions, test requirements, materials requirements,
reliability requirement, design life, packaging requirement, and marking for shipment. The part
Specification should be sufficiently detailed to avoid confusion as to what is expected from the
supplier.
5) Complete verification prototype testing: Once the design is finalized, a beta-prototype is
built and verification tested to ensure that the design meets the PDS and that it is safe and
reliable. that beta-prototypes are made with the same materials and manufacturing processes
as the product but not necessarily from the actual production line. Later, before product launch,
actual products from the production line will be tested. Depending on the complexity of the
product, the verification testing may simply be to run the product during an expected duty cycle
and under overload conditions, or it may be a series of statistically planned tests.
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6) Final cost estimate: The detail drawings allow the determination of final cost estimates, since
knowledge of the material, the dimensions, tolerances, and finish of each part are needed to
determine manufacturing cost.
7) Prepare design project report: A design project report usually is written at the conclusion of
a project to describe the tasks undertaken and to discuss the design in detail. Also, a design
project report may be an important document if the product becomes involved in either product
liability or patent litigation.
8) Final design review: Many formal meetings or reviews will have preceded the fi nal design
review. These include an initial product concept meeting to begin the establishment of the PDS
The latter may take the form of detailed partial reviews (meetings) to decide important issues
like design for manufacturing, quality issues, reliability, safety, or preliminary cost estimates
9) Release design to manufacturing: The release of the product design to manufacturing ends
the main activity of the design personnel on that product. The increasing use of the concurrent
engineering approach to minimize the product development time blurs the boundary between
detail design and manufacturing. It is common to release the design to manufacturing in two
Or three “waves,” with those designs that have the longest lead time for designing and making
tooling being released first.

Unit-03/Lecture-04
Planning for Production/ Manufacturing

A Manufacturing Planning and Control system is a methodology designed to manage efficiently

the flow of material, the utilization of people and equipment, and to respond to customer
requirements by utilizing the capacity of our suppliers, that of our internal facilities, and in some
cases that of our customers to meet customer demand. A new battery of skills, those of tool
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design and production engineering, come into play.

Producing the design is a critical link in the chain of
events that starts with a creative idea and ends with a successful product in the marketplace. The
term materials processing to refer to the conversion of semi finished products focus on
improving the link between manufacturing and design has increased emphasis on codifying a set
of practices that designers should follow to make their designs easier to manufacture, design for
manufacture (DFM), the level of confidence in the success of product must be very high to
support a positive decision. The decision must be made at the top level of management. Different
types of production methods, such as single item manufacturing, batch production, mass
production, continuous production etc. have their own type of production planning.

Plan the
Mfg Planning use of
And People
Control System Efficient use
Of our capacity
And that of our
Suppliers.
Possibly even
Our customers
Manage
the
Efficient
flow of
Materials

Driven by customer
Demand and other
Customer requirements

The process must be selected in such a way that the produced product will be acceptable
to the consumer functionally, economically and appearance-wise.
A great deal of detailed planning must be done to provide for
the production of the design. A method of manufacture must be established for each component
in the system. As a usual first step, a process sheet is created; it contains a sequential list of all
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manufacturing operations that must be performed on the component. Also, it specifies the form
and condition of the material and the tooling and production machines that will be used. The
information on the process sheet makes possible the estimation of the production cost of the
component. High costs may indicate the need for a change in material or a basic change in the
design. Close interaction with manufacturing, industrial, materials, and mechanical engineers is
important at this step.
The other important tasks performed in phase IV are the following:
i) Detail process planning: is requiring for every part, subassembly, and final assembly. The
information is usually displayed on process sheets, one for each part of subassembly. The
process sheet contains a sequential list of operations which must be performed to produce a part
.it specifies raw material, clarify special instructions and indicates machines and tools required
.such difficulty can be minimized earlier by timely consultations between product designers and
tool designers.
ii) Designing specialized tools and fixtures(fittings)
iii) Specifying the production plant that will be used (or designing a new plant) and
laying out the production lines
iv)Planning for production control: Planning the work schedules and inventory controls
(production control)
v) Planning the quality assurance system
vi) Planning for production personnel: Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each
operation
vii) Planning for information flow system: Establishing the system of information flow
necessary to control the manufacturing Operation. Flow patterns and routines are established

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Unit-03/Lecture-05

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PLANNING FOR DISTRIBUTION:

Effective planning of transportation and distribution networks has become more complex. This is
driven by increasing customer requirements, expansion of global sourcing, security and
regulatory requirements, volatile fuel costs, etc. Important technical and business decisions must
be made to provide for the effective distribution to the consumer of the products that have been
produced. A system of warehouses for distributing the product may have to be designed if none
exists. The economic success of the design often depends on the skill exercised in marketing the
product. If it is a consumer product, the sales effort is concentrated on advertising in print and
video media, but highly technical products may require that the marketing step be a technical
activity supported by specialized sales brochures, performance test data, and technically trained
sales engineers. Over the last few years, the demand placed on the distribution and logistics
departments of manufacturing and marketing organizations has been continuously intensifying
due to pressures from increased competition, introduction of new manufacturing methods, and
increased expectations from partners and consumers in terms of low price and high service
levels. Corporations are looking to increase their customer service levels, while reducing
inventory, working capital requirements and distribution costs.

Distribution involves a number of activities centred on a physical flow of goods and

information. At one time the term distribution applied only to the outbound side of supply chain
management, but it now includes both inbound and outbound.

Management of the inbound flow involves these elements:

 Material planning and control

 Purchasing
 Receiving
 Physical management of materials via warehousing and storage
 Materials handling

Management of the outbound flow involves these elements:

 Order processing
 Warehousing and storage
 Finished goods management
 Material handling and packaging
 Shipping
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 Transportation

Distribution channels are formed to solve three critical distribution problems: functional
performance, reduced complexity, and specialization. The central focus of distribution is to
increase the efficiency of time, place, and delivery utility.

ROLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

There are a number of critical functions performed by the channel distributor.

1. Product acquisition (purchasing). This means acquiring products in a finished or semi-

finished state from either a manufacturer or through another distributor that is higher up
in the supply channel. These functions can be performed by independent channel
intermediaries or by the distribution facilities of manufacturing companies.
2. Product movement: This implies significant effort spent on product movement up or
down the supply channel.
3. Product transaction: Distributors can be characterized as selling products in bulk
quantities solely for the purpose of resale or business use. Downstream businesses will
then sell these products to other distributors or retailers who will sell them directly to the
end customer, or to manufacturers who will consume the material/components in their
own production processes.

Following are the separate elements contained within the three critical functions of
distribution:

 Selling and promoting. This function is very important to manufacturers. One strategy
involves the use of distribution channels to carry out the responsibilities of product
deployment. In addition to being marketing experts in their industry, distribution firms
usually have direct-selling organizations and a detailed knowledge of their customers and
their expectations. The manufacturer utilizing this distributor can then tap into these
resources. Also, because of the scale of the distributing firm's operations and its
specialized skill in channel management, it can significantly improve the time, place, and
possession utilities by housing inventory closer to the market. These advantages mean
that the manufacturer can reach many small, distant customers at a relatively low cost,
thus allowing the manufacturer to focus its expenditures on product development and its
core production processes.

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 Buying and building product assortment (range). This is an extremely important

function for retailers. Most retailers prefer to deal with few suppliers providing a wide
assortment of products that fit their merchandizing strategy rather than many with limited
product lines. This, of course, saves on purchasing, transportation, and merchandizing
costs. Distribution firms have the ability to bring together related products from multiple
manufacturers and assemble the right combination of these products in quantities that
meet the retailer's requirements in a cost-efficient manner.
 Bulk breaking. This is one of the fundamental functions of distribution. Manufacturers
normally produce large quantities of a limited number of products. However, retailers
normally require smaller quantities of multiple products. When the distribution function
handles this requirement it keeps the manufacturer from having to break bulk and
repackage its product to fit individual requirements. Lean manufacturing and JIT
techniques are continuously seeking ways to reduce lot sizes, so this function enhances
that goal.
 Value-added processing. Postponement specifies that products should be kept at the
highest possible level in the pipeline in large, generic quantities that can be customized
into their final form as close as possible to the actual final sale. The distributor can
facilitate this process by performing sorting, labelling, blending, kitting, packaging, and
light final assembly at one or more points within the supply channel. This significantly
reduces end-product obsolescence and minimizes the risk inherent with carrying finished
goods inventory.
 Transportation. The movement of goods from the manufacturer to the retailer is a
critical function of distribution. Delivery encompasses those activities that are necessary
to ensure that the right product is available to the customer at the right time and right
place. This frequently means that a structure of central, branch, and field warehouses,
geographically situated in the appropriate locations, are needed to achieve optimum
customer service. Transportation's goal is to ensure that goods are positioned properly in
the channel in a quick, cost-effective, and consistent manner.
 Warehousing. Warehousing exists to provide access to sufficient stock in order to satisfy
anticipated customer requirements, and to act as a buffer against supply and demand
uncertainties. Since demand is often located far from the source (manufacturer),
warehousing can provide a wide range of marketplaces that manufacturers, functioning
independently, could not penetrate.
 Marketing information. The distribution channel also can provide information

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regarding product, marketplace issues, and competitors' activities in a relatively short

time.

Distribution Planning systems can address the following operational issues faced by a
supply chain manager

 Product dispatching: When and where should a product be dispatched?

 Product placement: Which product should be held at each location and in what
quantity?
 Transportation loading: What products should be loaded on to a vehicle?
 Transportation choice: Which mode of transportation should be used?
 Transportation planning: How many vehicles of each type would be required on what
days in the next one month?

Requirements of a good distribution planning system

1. Minimize total cost of distribution

2. Increase manager productivity through automated, high-speed planning
3. Formalize informed decision-making and reduce variability in the Distribution
planning process
4. Improve information visibility and coordination between Marketing, Distribution and
Production.
5. Improve responsiveness by

a) Allowing planners to quickly adjust production and distribution plans to

demand/supply variability (for example, changes in demand forecasts, supply
delays, etc.)

b) Generating production and distribution requirements for different demand and

supply scenarios, allowing for contingency planning

Unit-03/Lecture-06

PLANNING FOR CONSUMPTION:

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Consumption is the sixth phase of morphological design, as a process it occurs naturally after
distribution. Its influence on design is thoughtful because it pass through all phases.therfore it is
for the most important diffused phase concerned with consumer needs and utility,and mingled
and attached to the earlier phases The use of the product by the consumer is all-important, and
considerations of how the consumer will react to the product pervade all steps of the design
process. The following specific topics can be identified as being important user-oriented
concerns in the design process: ease of maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety, and
convenience in use (human factors engineering), aesthetic appeal, and economy of operation.
Obviously, these consumer-oriented issues must be considered in the design process at its very
beginning. They are not issues to be treated as afterthoughts. Phase VI of design is less well
defined than the others, but it is becoming increasingly important with the growing concerns for
consumer protection and product Safety. More strict interpretation of product liability laws is
having a major impact on design. An important phase VI activity is the acquisition of reliable
data on failures, service lives, and consumer complaints and attitudes to provide a basis for
product improvement in the next design cycle. The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the
design ,adequate service features and to provide a rational basis for product improvement and
redesign
Design for consumption must consider the following factors:

i) Design for maintenance

ii) Design for reliability
iii)Design for safety
iv)Design for convenience in use
v)Design for aesthetic features
vi)Design for operational economy
vii) Design for adequate duration of services

Unit-03/Lecture-07

Planning for Retirement:

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The final step in the design process is the disposal of the retired product when it has reached the
end of its useful life. Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and wear to the point
at which the design can no longer function, or it may be determined by technological
obsolescence, in which a competing design performs the product’s functions either better or
cheaper. In consumer products, it may come about through changes in fashion or taste. In the
past, little attention has been given in the design process to product retirement. This is rapidly
changing, as people the world over are becoming concerned about environmental issues. There is
concern with depletion of mineral and energy resources, and with pollution of the air, water, and
land as a result of manufacturing and technology advancement. This has led to a formal area of
study called industrial ecology. Design for the environment, also called green design, has
become an important consideration in design. As a result, the design of a product should include
a plan for either its disposal in an environmentally safe way or, better, the recycling of its
materials or the remanufacture or reuse of its components.
When determine as to when an economic commodity in use has
reached an age at which it should be retired, the point at which it can no longer render adequate
service, then the need for replacement is clear because of either technical obsolescence or
physical deterioration

Designing for retirement of product must consider the following aspects:

1)designing to reduce the rate of obsolescence

2)design for physical life
3)design for reusable materials and long lived component can be recovered
4)examine the service terminated products in laboratory to obtain useful design
information
Example: the destruction of a tall building closely surrounded by buildings on either side.
Sometimes the impact on the new design is more immediate as when an old structure or system
must be replaced by new one with minimum disruption of normal operations

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