u n 11-1 The Fourtayer Diode 1-2 3 114 1-5 The |-6 The Unijunction Transistor (UD) ‘The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) SCR Applications The Diac and Triac m-Controlled Switch (SCS) -7_ The Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT) Application Activity Describe the basic structure and operation of a 4-layer diode Describe the basic structure and operation of an SCR Discuss several SCR applications Describe the basic structure and operation of the diac and triac Describe a silicon-controlled switch (SC) Describe the basic structure and operation of the unijunc: tion transistor Describe the basic structure and operation of the pro- grammable UT ‘layer diode © Diac Thyristor ¢ Trac Forwart-breakover © scs voltage Vana) eur Holding current (1) © Standoff ratio * SCR ° Pur LASCR. ‘The Application Activity in this chapter is a motor speed- control system for a production line conveyor. The system senses the number of parts passing a point in a specified period of time and adjusts the rate of movement of the ‘conveyor belt to achieve a desired rate of flow of the parts. ‘The focus is on the conveyor motor speed-control circuit. Study aids and Multisim files for this chapter are available at http:/www,pearsonhighered.comielectronics In this chapter, several types of semiconductor devices are introduced. A family of devices known as thyristors are con- structed of four semiconductor layers (pnpn). Thyrstors in- dude the +-layer diode, the slicon-controled rectifier (SCR), the diac, the triac, and the slicon-controlled switch (SCS). These types of thyristors share certain common characteric tics in addition to thei fourlayer construction. They act as open circuits capable of withstanding a certain rated voltage nti they ae trigered. When triggered, they tum on and become low-resistance current paths and remain so, even after the trigger is removed, untl the current i reduced to a certain level or until they ae triggered off, depending on the type of device. Thytistors can be used to control the amount of ac power toa load and are used in lamp dimmers, motor speed controls, ignition systems, and charging circuits, to name a few. ‘Other devices described in this chapter include the uni junction transistor (UJT) and the programmable unjunction transistor (PUD). UfTs and PUTS are used as trigger devices for thyristors and also in oscillators and timing circus Md WW),‘The Four-Laver Dove © 565 11-1 Tue Four-Layer DiobE ‘The basic thyristor isa 4-layer device with two terminals, the anode and the «cathode. It is constructed of four semiconductor layers that form a pnpn structure, ‘The device acts as.a switch and remains off until the forward voltage reaches a ‘certain value; then it turns on and conducts. Conduction continues until the ‘current is reduced below a specified value. Although the 4-layer diode is seldom ‘used in new designs, the principles form the basis of other thyristors that you will study. Shockley Diode ‘The 4-layer diode (also known as Shockley diode and SUS) is a type of thyristor, which is a class of devices constructed of four semiconductor layers. The basic construction of a “4-layer diode and its schematic symbol are shown in Figure 11-1. ‘The pnpn structure can be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of a pnp tran- sistor and an npn transistor. as shown in Figure 11-2(a). The upper pnp layers form Q; and the lower npn layers form Q>, wi the two middle layers shared by both equivalent transis- tors. Notice that the base-emitter junction of Q; corresponds to pn junction I in Figure 11-1, the base-emitter junction of Q» corresponds to pn junction 3, and the base-collector Junctions of both Q; and Q, correspond to pn junction 2. ‘When a positive bias voltage is applied to the anode with respect to the cathode, as shown in Figure 11-2(b), the base-emitter junctions of Q; and Q> (pn junctions 1 and 3 in Figure 11-1(a)) are forward-biased, and the common base-collector junction (pn junction 2 in Figure L1-1(@) is reverse-biased we sos . Te) So . oe Scans The layer diode. AAlayer diode equivalent circuit.566 + Taynistors HISTORY NOTE ‘The currents in a d-layer diode are shown in the equivalent circuit in Figure 11-3. At low-bias levels, here is very little anode current, and thus itis in the off state or forward- blocking region, Dp FIGURE 11-3 Currents in a layer diode ‘equivalent circu Forward Breakover Voltage The operation of the 4-layer diode may seem unusual be- ‘cause when itis forward-biased, it can act essentially as an open switch. There is a region of forward bias, called the forward-blocking region, in which the device bas a very high forward resistance (ideally an open) and isin the off tate. The forward-blocking region ex- ists from Vax = 0V up toa value of Vax called the forward-breakover voltage, Van ‘This is indicated on the 4-layer diode characteristic curve in Figure 11—4. piGuRE 11-4 I ‘A‘tlayer diode characteristic curve + Forward condtion on ‘eee ap Forward fax Mocking region |As Vax is increased from 0, the anode current, Ig, gradually increases, as shown on the ‘graph, As I, increases, a point is reached where Jy ~ Js, the switching current. AC this point, Vax — Vere and the internal transistor structures become saturated, When this happens, the forward voltage drop, Vax, suddenly decreases to a low value, and the 4-layer diode enters the forward-conduction region a8 indicated in Figure 11-4. Now, the device is in the on state and acts as a closed switch. When the anode current drops back below the holding value, fy, the device turns off Holding Current Once the 4-Layer diode is conducting (in the on state), it will continue to conduct until the anode current is reduced below a specified level, called the holding ‘current, Ig. This parameter is also indicated on the characteristic curve in Figure 11-4. When Js falls below [y, the device rapidly switches back to the off state and enters the forward-blocking region, Switching Current The value of the anode current at the point where the device ‘switches from the forward-blocking region (off) to the forward-conduction region (on) is called the switching current, Is, This value of current is always less than the holding current, fyThe Four-Laver Diovt * 567 EXAMPLE 11-1 Solution Related Problem’ MU ae aya A awa king xin wit nde ends wags of 20 VU tas cmon sods crc ph Demi i tanh ees ewarhking en ce Vax _ 20 _ Soman? If the anode current is 2 wA and Vax = 20 V, what is the 4-layer diode’s resistance in Pee sir Answers cam be found at www. pearsonbighered. comand EXAMPLE 11-2 Solution Related Problem An Application Determine the value of anode current in Figure 11-5 when the device is on. Vani) IOV. Assume the forward voltage drop is 0.9 V. FIGURE 11-5 Ry 1OKD ay ‘The voltage at the anode, Va, is 0.9. The voltage across Rg is Vag = Vatas — Va = 20V - 09V = 19.1V ‘The anode current is Vig _ 19.1 Rs 10KM he = 19.1mA ‘What is the resistance in the forward-conduction region of the 4-layer diode in Figure 11-5? The circuit in Figure 11-6(a) is a relaxation oscillator. The operation is as follows. When the switch is closed, the capacitor charges through R until its voltage reaches the forward- breakover voltage of the 4-layer diode. At this point the diode switches into conduction, and the capacitor rapidly discharges through the diode. Discharging continues until the current through the diode falls below the holding value. At this point, the diode switches568 © THyRisrors ALFIGURE 11 ‘Ablayer diode relaxation oscilator. ‘back to the off state, and the capacitor begins to charge again. The result ofthis action is a voltage waveform across C like that shown in Figure 11—6(6). anode-to-cathode voltage exceeds the forward-breakover ‘layer diode be turned off? 11-2_Tue Siicon-Controuen RectiFieR (SCR) Like the 4-layer diode, the SCR has two possible states of operation. In the off state, it acts ideally as an open circuit between the anode and the cathode; actually, rather than ‘an open, there isa very high resistance. In the on state, the SCR acts ideally as a short from the anode to the cathode; actually, there isa small om (forward) resistance. The LASCR operates as an SCR except iti triggered by light. After completing this section, you should be able 10 An SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier) is a 4-layer pmpn device similar to the 4-layer diode except with three terminals: anode, cathode, and gate. The basic structure of an SCR is shown in Figure 11~7(a), and the schematic symbol is shown in Figure 11~7(b). Typical SCR packages are shown in Figure 11—7(c). Other types of thyristors are found in the same ‘or similar packages,THe Siticon-ConrroLeo RecriFieR (SCR) © 569 Anode (A) a xe 1G) G Cathode) K (@) Basie constriction (6) Sebomae symbol i (Type packages | ® SCR Equivalent Circuit Like the 4-Iayer diode operation, the SCR operation can best be understood by thinking of its internal pnpn structure as a two-transistor arrangement, as shown in Figure 11-8. This structure is lke that of the 4-layer diode except forthe gate connection. The upper pnp layers act asa transistor, Qy, and the lower npn layers act asa transistor, Qo. Again, notice that the ‘ovo middle layers are “shared.” 4 Anode FIGURE 11-8 SSCR equivalent circu Ge % K cathode Turning the SCR On When the gate current, Ig i zero, as shown in Figure 11-9(a), the device acts as a 4-layer, iode in the off state, In this state, the very high resistance between the anode and cathode can be approximated by an open switch, as indicated. When a positive pulse of current (trigger) is applied to the gate, both transistors turn on (the anode must be more positive than the cathode). This action is shown in Figure 11-9(b). Iy2 tums on Q>, providing a path for Ig; into the (3 collector, thus turning on Q. The collector current of Q provides Figure 11-7 ‘The silicon controlled rectifier (CR).570 + Taynistors @)scRot Yona Reverse: avalanche region (For fg =0 Revere Mocking region (@)SCR wiggered on (SCR says on ater wigzes pulse AFIGURE 11-9 ‘The SCR turn-on process withthe switch equivalents shown, additional base current for Qs so that Q» stays in conduction after the trigger pulse is re ‘moved from the gate. By this regenerative action, (> sustains the saturated conduction of Q; by providing a path for Jp); in turn, Q; sustains the saturated conduction of Q> by pro- viding /y. Thus, the device stays on (latches) once itis triggered on, as shown in Figure 11-9(¢). In this state, the very low resistance between the anode and cathode can be ap- proximated by a closed switch, as indicated. Like the 4-layer diode, an SCR can also be turned on without gate triggering by increas- ing the anode-to-cathode voltage to a value exceeding the forward-breakover voltage Vana. a8 shown on the characteristic curve in Figure 11-10(a). The forward-breakover, voltage decreases as /g is increased above 0 V, as shown by the set of curves in Figure 11-10(6). Eventually, a value of Ig is reached at which the SCR turns on at a very low anode-to-cathode voltage, So, as you can see, the gate current controls the value of forward breakover voltage, Vani, Tequired for turn-on, | Forwird: condition ‘ region (oa) forlg=0 es Io, Igy >for ton=0 ve Ye 6 ye Forwud bioeking region (0 Ik (by For varios fe values AFIGURET SCR characteristic curves,THE SiLICON-ConTRoLten RecriFiER (SCR) Although anode-to-cathode voltages in excess of Vag Will not damage the device if ccurrent is limited, this situation should be avoided because the normal control of the SCR is lost It should normally be triggered on only with a pulse at the gate Turning the SCR Off ‘When the gate returns to 0V after the tigger pulse is removed, the SCR cannot turn of it stays in the forwatd-conduction region. The anode current must drop below the value of the holding curren, Jy, in order for turn-off to occur. The holding curren is indicated in Figure 11-10 “There are two basic methods for tuning off an SCR: anode current interruption and {forced commutation. The anode current can be interrupted by ether a momentary seties or parallel switching arrangement, as shown in Figure 11-11. The series switch in past (a) simply reduces the anode cuzzent to zer0 and causes the SCR to tum off. The parallel switch in part (b outes pat ofthe total current away ftom the SCR, thereby reducing the anode current to a value les than Jy. The forced commutation method basically requires momentarily forcing current through the SCR inthe diection opposite tothe forward conduction so thatthe net forward current is reduced below the holding value. The basic cicuit, as shown in Figure 11-12, consists ofa switch (normally a tansistor switch) and a capacitor. While the SCR is con- ducting, the switch is open and C, is charged tothe supply voltage through R., as shown in part (a). To tum off the SCR, the switch is closed, placing the capacitor aoss the SCR and forcing curent through it opposite tothe forward current, as shown in part (b. Typically, turn-off times for SCR range from a few microseconds up to about 30 4s. nm ‘| 1 sw a Inst \ ~ 7 s co ® © 00 mon A FIGURE 11-11 AFIGURE 11-12 SCR turnoff by anode current interruption. ‘SCR turnoff by forced commutation SCR Characteristics and Ratings Several of the most important SCR characteristics and ratings are defined as follows. Use the curve in Figure 11-10(a) for reference where appropriate. Forward-breakover voltage, Ve) This is the voltage at which the SCR enters the forward-conduction region. The value of Vang is maximum when Ic, ~ 0 and is des ignated Vago. When the gate current in increased, Vag decreases and is designated Vance. Varga and so on, for increasing steps in gate current (Iq, fc2. and So on). Holding current, fy, This is the value of anode current below which the SCR switches {rom the forward-conduction region to the forward-blocking region. The value inereases with decreasing values of Zg and is maximum for Ig = 0. 571572 + Tavnistors Yy AFIGURE 11-15 LASCR symbol Gate rigger current, ley This is the value of gate current necessary to switch the ‘SCR from the forward: blocking region to the forward-conduction region under speci- fied conditions. Average forward current, Igqyg) This isthe maximum continuous anode current (de) that the device can withstand in the conduction state under specified conditions Forward-conduction region This region corresponds tothe on condition of the SCR ‘where there is forward current from anode to cathode through the very low resistance (approximate short ofthe SCR. Forward-blocking and reverse-blocking regions ‘These regions correspond to the off condition of the SCR where the forward current from anode to cathode is blocked by the effective open circuit of the SCR. Reverse-breakdown voltage, Vppix) This parameter specifies the value of reverse voltage from cathode to anode at which the device breaks into the avalanche region ‘and begins to conduct heavily (the same as in a pn junction diode), The Light-Activated SCR (LASCR) The light-activated silicon-controlled rectifier (LASCR) is a four-layer semiconductor de- ‘vice (thyristor) that operates essentially as does the conventional SCR except that it can also be light-triggered. The LASCR conducts current in one direction when activated by a sufficient amount of light and continues to conduct until the current falls below a specified value. Figure 11-13 shows a LASCR schematic symbol. The LASCR is most sensitive to light when the gate terminal is open. If necessary, «resistor from the gate to the cathode ‘can be used to reduce the sensitivity. Figure 11-14 shows a LASCR used to energize a latching relay. The input source tums ‘on the lamp the resulting incident light triggers the LASCR. The anode current energizes the relay and closes the contact. Notice that the input source is electrically isolated from the rest of the circuit. gh AriguRE 11-14 ALASCR dct. on (made to conduct)? off? 11-14 to turm off the LASCR and de-energize the relay?SCR Apruicanions © 573 11-3 SCR APPLICATIONS ‘The SCR is used in many applications, including motor contol, time-delay circuits, ‘neater controls, phase controls, relay controls, and sawtooth generators. Afier completing this section, you should be able to 4 Discuss several SCR On-Off Control of Current Figure 11-15 shows an SCR circuit that permits current to be switched to a load by the momentary closure of switch SWI and removed from the load by the momentary closure of switch SW2. ww Fiune 11-15 On-Off SCR contol circuit & 4 Ke + ow Assuming the SCR is initially off, momentary closure of SWI provides a pulse of cur- rent into the gate, thus triggering the SCR on so that it conducts current through R,, The SCR remains in conduction even after the momentary contact of SW1 is removed if the anode current is equal to or greater than the holding current, Jy. When SW2 is momentarily closed, current is shunted around the SCR, thus reducing its anode current below the hold- ing value, /y. This turns the SCR off and reduces the load current to zero. and the anode current when the switch, SWI, is I-16. Assume Vax = 0.2V, Vox = 0.7 V, and = Vox _3V-07V 5.60. = 410 HA Vax _ 15V - 02V 30 on574 © Tuynisrors /q is reduced to 12 V? Explain. E11-03 in the Examples folder on the companion website, ‘close SW1. Compare the measured anode current . Notice that the anode current continues even after SW1 is dobserve the anode current. Explain your observation, Half-Wave Power Control ‘A.common application of SCRs is in the control of ac power for lamp dimmers, electric heaters, and electric motors. A half-wave, variable-resistance, phase-control circuit is shown in Figure 11-17; 120 V ac are applied across terminals A and B; Ry represents the resistance ofthe load (for example, a heating element or lamp filament), Resistor Ry limits the current, and potentiometer Rz sets the trigger level for the SCR, > FIGURE 11-17 Halfvave, variable resistance, phase- control ctcuit. A m & 120 Ve & By adjusting R, the SCR can be made to trigger at any point on the positive half-cycle ‘of the ac waveform between 0° and 90°, as shown in Figure 11-18. ‘When the SCR triggers near the beginning of the cycle (approximately 0°), as in Figure 11-18(@), it conducts for approximately 180° and maximum power is delivered tothe load, ‘When it triggers near the peak of the positive half-cycle (90°), as in Figure 11-18(b), the ‘SCR conducts for approximately 90° and less power is delivered to the load. By adjusting R;, triggering can be made to occur anywhere between these two extremes, and therefore, 4 Variable amount of power can be delivered tothe load. Figure 11-18) shows triggering at the 45° point as an example. When the ac input goes negative, the SCR tums off and ddoes not conduct again until the trigger point on the next positive half-cycle. The diode prevents the negative ac voltage from being applied to the gate of the SCR.SCR Apruicanions © 575 I ‘Trigger point I A Le AL R / \ Ry A Rx \ A é Se lle + eile “ees % & I od t (2) 180" conduction ‘Tigeepoint A a. tT ‘A FIGURE 11-18 Operation of the phase-control circuit. the SCR in Figure 11-19 from anode to cathode for 180°, 45°, and 90° conduction. Assume an is conducting and the voltage across it is ideally ‘the voltage across the SCR is the same as the shown in Figure 11-20. if itis never triggered?576 + Taynistors Backup Lighting for Power Interruptions ‘As another example of SCR applications, let's examine a circuit that will maintain lighting by using a backup battery when there is an ac power failure. Figure 11-21 shows a center- tapped full-wave rectifier used for providing ac power to a low-voltage lamp. As long as the ac power is available, the battery charges through diode Ds and Ry nov im ov 63 (@) ae power on (b) Backup batery power ae power off) AFIGURE 11 ‘Automatic backup lighting circu. ‘The SCR’s cathode voltage is established when the capacitor charges to the peak value of the full-wave rectified ac (6,3 V rms less the drops across R, and D;). The anode is at the 6 V battery voltage, making it less positive than the cathode, thus preventing conduc tion. The SCR’s gate is at a vollage established by the voltage divider made up of Ry and Rs, Under these conditions the lamp is illuminated by the ac input power and the SCR is off, as shown in Figure 11-21). ‘When there is an interruption of ac power, the capacitor discharges through the closed path R;, Ds, and Rs, making the cathode less positive than the anode or the gate, This action establishes a triggering condition, and the SCR begins to conduct, Current from the battery is through the SCR and the lamp, thus maintaining illumination, as shown in Figure 11-21(b). When ac power is restored, the capacitor recharges and the SCR turns off. The battery begins rechargingAn Over-Voltage Protection Circuit Figure 11-22 shows a simple over-voltage protection circuit, sometimes called a “crow- ‘bat” circuit, in a de power supply. The de output voltage from the regulator is monitored by the zener diode (D,) and the resistive voltage divider (R, and Ry). The upper limit of the output voltage is set by the zener voltage. If this voltage is exceeded, the zener conducts and the voltage divider produces an SCR trigger voltage. The trigger voltage turns on the SCR, which is connected across the line voltage. The SCR current causes the fuse to blow, thus disconnecting the line voltage from the power supply. sw Fuse 20 Vae oot II ken Vous power supply Sawtooth Generator ‘The SCR can be used in conjunction with an RC circuit to produce a repetitive sawtooth waveform. The circuit is shown in Figure 11-23, The time constant is set by Ry and Cy, and the voltage at which the SCR triggers on is determined by the variable voltage-divider formed by Rp and Rs, When the switch is closed, the capacitor begins charging and turns fon the SCR. When the SCR tums on, the capacitor quickly discharges through it; the anode current then decreases below the holding value, causing the SCR to tum off, As soon as the SCR is off the capacitor starts charging again and the cycle is repeated. By adjusting the potentiometer, the frequency of the sawtooth waveform can be changed, a no SCR Apruicanions * 577

, thus sustaining the on state of the device. This regenerative action isthe same as in the turn-on process of the SCR and the 4-layer diode and is illustrated in Figure 11-34(a). “The SCS can also be turned on with a negative pulse on the anode gate, as indicated in Figure 11-34(a) This drives Qy into conduction which, in turn, provides base current for z, Once 0 ison, it provides a path for Q; base current, thus sustaining the on state. “To tum the SCS off, a positive pulse is applied to the anode gate. This reverse-biases the base-emitter junction of Q; and turns it off. Qp, in tum, cuts off and the SCS ceases con- duction, as shown in Figure 11-34(b). The device can also be turned off with a negative pulse on the cathode gate, as indicated in part (b). The SCS typically has a faster turn-off time than the SCR,THe UNDUNCTION Transistor (WIT) 583 (@) Tuan-om Positive pulse on (©) Tamff Posie pulse on Gy or negative pulse on Gy or negative pulse on Gx In addition tothe positive pulse on the anode gate or the negative pulse on the cathode sate, there is another method for tuming off an SCS. Figure 11-35(a) and (b) shows two switching methods to reduce the anode curent below the holding value. In each case, the bipolar junction transistor (BIT) acts a a switch to interrupt the anode current. wv w e Rs By on e —_} oor {@) Series swteh tums off SS () Shon swt tums off SCS Applications ‘The SCS and SCR are used in similar applications, The SCS has the advantage of faster ‘turn-off with pulses on either gate terminal; however, itis more limited in terms of maxi- ‘mum current and voltage ratings. Also, the SCS is sometimes used in digital applications such as counters, registers, and timing circuits. 11-6 THE UNUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT) ‘The unijunction transistor does not belong tothe thyristor family because it does not hhave a four-layer type of construction. The term unijunction refers to the fact that {FIGURE 11-34 SCS operation

FIGURE 11-36 Base The unijunction transistor (UMD. B ‘junction miter ® B Bae 1 (@ Basie constuction ©) Symbol Equivalent Circuit ‘The equivalent circuit for the UJT, shown in Figure 11-37(a), will aid in understanding the basic operation. The diode shown in the figure represents the pr junction, ry repre~ sents the internal dynamic resistance of the silicon bar between the emitter and base 1, p FIGURE 11-37 2B UsT equivalent circuit. 8 @ o‘The UNvUNCTION Transistor (WT) and rxz tepresents the dynamic resistance between the emitter and base 2. The total resist ance between the base terminals is the sum of rs; and rfp and is called the interbase resistance, ryp. rhs = rss + ro The value of rj, varies inversely with emitter current /g, and therefore, itis shown as a variable resistor. Depending on Jy, the value of rp, can vary from several thousand obms down to tens of ohms. The internal resistances rg; and ryp form a voltage divider when the device is biased, as shown in Figure 11~37(b). The voltage across the resistance rp) can be camesedae Vins = (2) The ratio rg,/riag is a UIT characteristic called the intrinsic standoff ratio and is desig- nated by 7 (Greek ea). Standoff Rat As long as the applied emitter voltage Vay is less than Vi, + Vpp, there is no emitter ccurrent because the pn junction is not forward-biased (Vpyis the barrier potential of the pr junction). The value of emitter voltage that causes the pn junction to become forward- biased is called Vp (peak-point voltage) and is expressed as, Vp = Van + Y, ‘When Vga; reaches Vp, the pn junction becomes forward-biased and z begins. Holes are injected into the n-type bar from the p-type emitter. This increase in holes causes an inerease in free electrons, thus increasing the conductivity between emitter and By (de- creasing rf). ‘Alter turn-on, the UIT operates in a negative resistance region up to a certain value of Jg, as shown by the characteristic curve in Figure 11-38. As you can see, after the peak point (Vg = Vp and fg = Ip), Vg decreases as fy continues to increase, thus producing the negative resistance characteristic. Beyond the valley point (Vg = Vy and Ip = I), the device isin saturation, and Vig increases very litle with an increasing Ip. Ye Negative cost teastance —et+—— Saturation a SURE 11-38 UIT characteristic curve fora fixed value of Ves, Equation 11-1 Equation 11-2 585586 + Tavnistors ‘The datasheet of a certain UST gives 1 = 0.6. Determine the peak-point emitter volt- age Vp if Van = 20V. Vp = nVap + Vpn = 0.620) + 0.7 = 12.7 How can the peak-point emitter voltage of a UIT be increased? AUST Application ‘The UIT can be used as a trigger device for SCRs and triacs. Other applications include nonsinusoidal oscillators, sawtooth generators, phase control, and timing circuits. Figure 11-39 shows a UIT relaxation oscillator as an example of one application » ‘The operation is as follows. When de power is applied, the capacitor C charges expo- —) nentially through R, until it reaches the peak-point voltage Vp. AC this point, the pr G jncton becomes forward-biased, and the emitter charscerstic goes int the negative vie resistance region (Vig deereases and ly increases), The capacitor then quickly discharges c fh through the forward-biased junction, rs, and Ry. When the capacitor voltage decreases to the valley-point voltage Vy, the UIT turns off, the capacitor begins to charge again, and the cycle is repeated, as shown in the emitter voltage waveform in Figure 11-40 (top). During the discharge time of the capacitor, the UTT is conducting. Therefore, a voltage is developed AFIGURE 11-39 ___geross Rp, as shown in the waveform diagram in Figure 1140 (bottom), Relaxation oscillator. a AFIGURE 11-40 ‘Waveforms for UT relaxation oscillator. Conditions for Turn-On and Turn-Off In the relaxation oscillator of Figure 11-39, certain conditions must be met for the UIT to reliably turn on and turn off. First, to en- sure turn-on, R, must not limit fy at the peak point to less than Jp. To ensute this, the voltage drop across Rj at the peak point should be greater than JpR}. Thus, the condition for turn-on is Van ~ Vp > IR‘Te UNDUNCTION Transistor (WT) 587 Van ~ Ve RX Ip To ensure turn-off of the UIT at the valley point, Ry must be large enough that Is (at the valley point) can decrease below the specified value of fy. This means that the voltage across Ry atthe valley point must be less than IyR. Thus, the condition for turn-off is Vpn — Vy < WR, Ven — Vw Ry > V8 wy ‘Therefore, for a proper turn-on and turn-off, Ry must be in the range Van — Ve Ven - Vw nV a, 5 Vee Ip hy EXAMPLE 11-6 Determine a value of Ry in Figure 11-41 that will ensure proper turn-on and turn-off of the UFT. The characteristic of the UIT exhibits the following values: n = 0.5, Vy 1V, Ty = 10mA, Ip = 201A, and Vp = 14. FIGURE 11-41 Ven ~ Vi Van — Vi Solution =F > R, > BY Tp Wy 30V- MV, | 30V-1V 20 uA 1° 1omaA 800KD > Ry > 29K As you can see, Ry has quite a wide range of possible values that will work. ‘Related Problem Determine a value of Ry in Figure 11-41 that will ensure proper turn-on and turn-off for the following values: n = 0.33, Vy = 0.8 V, Iy = 15 mA, Ip = 354A, and Vp = I8V.588 © Tuynisrors scillator such as in Figure 1139, what three factors deter- ? £ UNUUNCTION TRANSISTOR (PUT) “The programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) is actually a type of thyristor and not like the UST at all in terms of structure. The only similarity to a UST is that the PUT can bbe used in some oscillator applications to replace the UIT. The PUT is similar to an SCR. ‘except that its anode-to-gate voltage can be used to both turn on and turn off the device. ‘After completing this section, you should be able to 11-7_THE PROGRAMM: A PUT (programmable unijunction transistor) isa type of three-terminal thyristor that is triggered into conduction when the voltage at the anode exceeds the voltage at the gate. ‘The structure of the PUT is more similar to that of an SCR (four-layer) than to a UIT. The exception is thatthe gate is brought out as shown in Figure 11—42. Notice thatthe gate is connected to the m region adjacent to the anode. This pn junction controls the on and off states of the device. The gate is always biased positive with respect tothe cathode, When the anode voltage exceeds the gate voltage by approximately 0.7 V, the pn junction is forward~ biased and the PUT tums on, The PUT stays on until the anode voltage falls back below this level, then the PUT turns off b FouRE 11-42 Ano (A) ‘The programmable unijunction tran 4 sistor (PUD. ae (6) 6 K catede (0) Basic consuuction © Symbol Setting the Trigger Voltage ‘The gate can be biased to a desired voltage with an extemal voltage divider, as shown in Figure 11-43(a), so that when the anode voltage exceeds this “programmed” level, the PUT tums on.THe PROGRAMMABLE UNDUNCTION TraNsistox (PUT) ¢ 589 Vg (anode t-cathode voltage) ty (anode curren) a Cent © Characteristic uve A FIGURE 11-43, PUT biasing An Application A plot of the anode-to-cathode voltage, Vax. versus anode current, [, in Figure 11~43(b)re~ veals a characteristic curve similar to that of the UIT. Therefore, the PUT replaces the UIT in ‘many applications. One such application isthe relaxation oscillator in Figure 11-44(a. ‘The basic operation of the PUT is as follows, The gate is biased at +9 V by the voltage divider consisting of resistors Ry and Ry. When de power is applied, the PUT is off and the capacitor charges toward +18 V through Rj. When the capacitor reaches Vg + 0.7, the PUT turns on and the capacitor rapidly discharges through the low on resistance of the PUT and Ry. A voltage spike is developed across Ry during the discharge. As soon as the capacitor discharges, the PUT tums off and the charging cycle starts over, as shown by the waveforms in Figure 11-44(b). ay, @ » FIGURE 11-44 PUT relaxation oscillator. ‘mean as used in programmable unijunction tran- ‘and the operation of a PUT to those of other devices such as590 © Tuynisrors VU eA Cm yee eT In this application, an SCR and a PUT are used to control the speed of a conveyor belt ‘motor. The circuit controls the speed of the conveyor so that a predetermined average ‘number of randomly spaced pars flow past a point on the production line in a specified period of time. This isto allow an adequate amount of time for the production line workers to perform certain tasks on each part. A basic diagram of the conveyor speed-control sys- tem is shown in Figure 11-48. Infrared Processing detector ‘reits — ‘Motor speed 120.Vae contol eet | A FIGURE 11-45 Block diagram of conveyor speed-control system, Each time a part on the moving conveyor belt passes the infrared (IR) detector and interrupts the IR beam, a digital counter in the processing circuits is advanced by one. ‘The count ofthe passing parts is accumulated over a specified period of time and converted. to a proportional voltage by the processing circuits. The more parts that pass the IR detector luring the specified time, the higher the voltage. The proportional voltage is applied to the ‘motor speed-control circuit which, in turn, adjusts the speed of the electric motor that dives the conveyor belt in order to maintain the desired number of parts in a specified period of time, ‘The Motor Speed-Control Circuit ‘The proportional voltage from the processing circuits is applied to the gate of a PUT. ‘This voltage determines the point in the ac cycle at which the SCR is triggered on. For a higher PUT gate voltage, the SCR tums on later in the half-cycle and therefore delivers less average power to the motor to decrease its speed. For a lower PUT gate voltage, the ‘SCR turns on earlier in the half-cycle and delivers more average power to the motor to increase its speed. This process continually adjusts the motor speed to maintain the required number of parts per unit time moving on the conveyor. A potentiometer is used {or calibration of the SCR wigger point. The motor speed-contzol circuit is shown in Figure 11-46,Motor speed-contrl circuit. Appuicarion Actiry © 591 ‘The SCR used in the motor speed control is the 2N6397 n-channel. The partial datasheet is shown in Figure 11-47, The PUT is the 2N6027 and its partial datasheet is also shown in Figure 11-47, 2NEI04 Series Sicon Controlled Reettrs wre bce tas @ 2N6027, 206028 Programmable I Uniunetion Transistor iS fee Partial datasheets for the 2N6297 silicon controled rectifier and for the 2N6027 programmable tunijunction transistor. Copyright of Semiconductor Component Industries, LC. Used by permission592 © Tavnistors Answer the following questions using the partial datasheets in Figure 11-47. If sufficient information doesn't appear on these datasheets, go to onsemi.com and download the ‘complete datasheets). 1. How much peak voltage can the SCR withstand in the off state? 2. What is the maximum SCR current when itis turned on? 3. What is the maximum power dissipation of the PUT? Simulation ‘The motor speed-control circuit is simulated in Multisim with a resistive/inductive load in place of the motor and a de voltage source in place of the input from the processing circuit, as shown in Figure 11-48. The diode is placed across the motor for transient suppression, ie “7 toes STE TEE=1 [hp ne AFIGURE 11-48 ‘Simulation results for the motor speed-control circuit 4, On the scope display in Figure 11-48 identify when the SCR is conducting 5. Ifthe control voltage is reduced, will the SCR conduct more or less? 6, I the control voltage is reduced, will the motor speed increase or decrease? Figure 11-49 shows the results of varying Veopiet - You can sce that as the control voltage is decreased, the SCR conducts for more of the cycle and therefore delivers more power to the motor to increas its specd. ‘Simulate the motor speed-control circuit using your Multisim software. Observe how the SCR voltage changes with changes in Veonset Prototyping and Testing ‘Now thatthe circuit has been simulated, the prototype cireuit is constructed and tested ‘After the circuit is successfully tested on a protoboatd, itis ready to be finalized on a printed circuit board, Lab Experiment To build and testa similar circuit, go to Experiment 11 in your lab manual (Laboratory Exercises for Electronic Devices by David Buchla and Steven Wetterling).AppuicaTion ActwiTy © 593 [> — |r| ypt[— r [ SiL94 || 26] 6 {OE PEL 01 | oe Se elas: | an i Ears Fe res | rh oA RE | Of |e ste A FIGURE 11-49 'SCR waveforms fortwo control voltages Circuit Board “The motor speed-contvol circuit boatd is shown in Figure 11-50. The heat sink is for power dissipation in the SCR. PRIGURETI“§0 ‘Motor speed control circuit board 7. Check the printed circuit board for correctness by comparing with the schematic in Figure 11-46, 8. Label each input and output pin according to function. ‘Troubleshooting “Three circuit boards are tested, and the results are shown in Figure 11-S1.594 © Tavnistors aim IL. 120 Vee Simulates load of motor (Test of board 1 @Testofbourd? (oTestof board 3 FIGURE 11-51 9, Determine the problem, if any, in each of the board tests in Figure 11-51. 10, List possible causes of any problem from item 9.” BTM a mod | +O**% f OF (@tlyerdode GYSCR @LASCR Due Tie HSCS UT — PUTKey Formuias ¢ 595) SS Section 11-1 Section 11-2 Section 11-4 Section 11-5 Section 11-6 Section 11-7 ‘© ‘Thyrstors are devices constructed with four semiconductor layers (Pp) © ‘Thyristors include 4 layer diodes, SCRs, LASCRs, diac, wiacs, SCSs, and PUTS © The 4-Layer diode isa thyristor that conducts when the voltage across its terminals exceeds the breakover potenti. ‘© The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) can be triggered on by a pulse a the gate and tured off by reducing the anode current below the specified holding value. © Light acts asthe tigger source in light-ativated SCRs (LASCRS) ‘© ‘The diac can conduct current in either direction and is tumed on when a breakover voltage is exceeded, It umm off when the current drops below the holding value ‘© The tac, lke the diac, i @bitectional device. It can be tuned on by a pulse atthe gate and congiucts ina direction depending on the voltage polarity across the two anode terminals, © ‘The silicon-contolled switeh (SCS) has two gate terminals and can be turned on by a pulse at the cathode gate and turned off by a pulse at the anode gate. ‘© The intrinsic standoff ratio of unijnction transistor (UIT) determines the voltage at which the device will wigger on © ‘The programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) can be externally programmed to turn on at a desired anode-to-gate voltage level CKEYTERMS Key terms and other bold terms inthe chapter are defined in the end-ot-book glossary Diac A (wo-terminal four-layer semiconductor device (hyrsto) that can conduct current in eer Alection when properly activated Forward-breakover voltage (Vggiy) ‘The voltage at which a device enters the forward-blocking region, 44-layer diode The type of two-terminal thyristor that conducts current when the anode-to-cathode voltage reaches a specified “breakover" valu, Holding current (fy) The value of the anode current below which a device switches from the forward-conduction tegion to the forward-blacking region. LASCR_ Light-activated silicon-contolled rectifier, a four-layer semiconductor device (thyristor) that conducts current in one direction when activated by a sulfiient amount of light and continues fo coneiuct until the current falls below a specified value PUT Programmable unjunction transistor; a type of three-erminal thyristor (more like an SCR than AUT) that is tiggered into conduction when te vltage at the anode exceeds the voltage at he ate. SCR_ Silicon-controlled rectifier type of thee-terminal thyristor that conducts current when trig gered on by a vollage at the single gate terminal and remains on until the anode current falls below a specified valve SCS_ Silicon-controlled switeh; «type of fou used to tigger the device on and ofl terminal thyristor that has two gate terminals at are Standoff ratio The characteristic of a UIT that determines its turn-on point Thyristor A class of four-layer (pnp) semiconductor devices ‘Triae A three-terminal thyristor that can conduct curtentin either direction when properly activate. UIT Unijunction transistor; a hree-terminal single pn junction device that exhibits a negative sesstance characteristic LUNT intrinsic standoff ratio UIT peak: point voltage596 © Tuynisrors TRUEIFALSE QUIZ Answers ca be found at ww pearsonhighered.comifloyd. 1. A thyristor is characterized by four semiconductor layers. 2, An SCR isa silicon conduction rectifier. ‘3. The three terminals of an SCR ate the anode, cathode, and gate. 4. One method for turing off an $CR is called forced commutation, 5, The SCR is turned on by a pulse on the anode, 6, A diac can conduct current in two directions 7. A diac has two terminals, ‘Atala has four terminals, 9. The SCS isa silicon-controlled switch. 10, The UST is commonly used to trigger thyristors but isnot a thyristor itself, 11. The PUT is athree-erminal thyristor that can be turned on and off by a voltage on its gate, 12, PUT stands for positive unijunction transistor, _CIRCUIT-ACTION QUIZ Answers can be found at www.pearsonhighered.com/loyd. Section 11-1 Section 11-2 1. the potentiometer in Figure 11-19 is adjusted from a seting near the bottom (low resistance {rom wiper to ground) toa setting near the top (higher resistance from wiper to ground), the average curent through will (a) increase (b) decrease (€) not change the diode in Figure 11-19 opens, the voltage across Ry, wll (a) increase (b) decrease (€) not change ‘3. Assume that tho batiary in Figure 11-21 is fully charged and the ac power goes off. Dy ‘opens, the curent through the lamp will immediately (a) increase (b) decrease (¢) not change 4, Ithe capacitor in Figure 11-44 short to ground, the voltage atthe cathode of the PUT will (a) increase (b) decrease (¢) not change Answers cat be found at www pearsonhighered.comiloyd. ‘A thyristor has | (a) (wo pn junctions () three pn junctions (©) fourpn junctions (4) only two terminals ‘Common types of thyristors include (a) BITS and SCRs_—(b) USTs and PUTS (©) FETs and wines (@) diacs and triacs 3. A dlayer diode turns on when the anode-to-cathode voltage exceeds (ov () the gate voltage (6) the forward-breakover voltage (the forward-blocking voltage 4. Once it is conducting, a layer diode can be turned off by (a) reducing the curent below a certain value (b) disconnecting the anode voltage (©) answers (a) and (0) (@) neither answer (a) nor (6) 5. An SCR differs from the 4-layer diode because (a) ithas a gate terminal () itis nota thyristor (6) itdoes not have four layers) itcannot be tured on and offSection 1-4 9. 10, Section 1-5 UL 2 1B Section 1-6 14, Section 11-7 15. SeurTest 597 5. An SCR can be tuned off by (@) forced commutation () negative pulse on the gate (©) anode current interruption (@) answers (2, (6), and (©) (6) answers (a and @) 7. Inthe forward-blocking region, the SCR is (a) reverse-biased —() inthe off state (©) inthe on state (@) at the point of breakdown . The specified value of holding current for an SCR means that (@) the device will tun on when the anode current exceeds this value () the device will tum off when the anode current falls below this value (©) the device may be damaged ifthe anode current exceeds this value (@) the gate curent must equal or exceed this value to tun the device on “The diac is (a) a thyristor () ailateral, worterminal device (6) like two parallel 4-layer diodes in reverse directions (2) answers (@). (6), and ©) ‘The wiac is (a) like a bidirectional SCR () a fourterminal device (©) not a thyristor (@) answers (@) and (6) ‘The SCS differs from the SCR because () it does not have a gate terminal () its holding curren is less (6) itean handle much higher curents (@) ithas two gate terminals ‘The SCS ean he tuned on by () an anode voltage that exceeds forward-breskover voltage () a positive pulse on the cathode gate (6) negative pulse on the anode gate () either &) or (©) ‘The SCS can be tuned off by (@) a negative pulse on the cathode gate and a positive pulse on the anode gate (b) reducing the anode current to below the holding value (6) answers (@) and (6) (@) a positive pulse on the cathode gate and a negative pulse on the anode gate ‘Which of te following is or a characteristic ofthe UIT? (@) intrinsic standott ratio (b) negative existance (6) peak point voltage (@ bilateral conduction ‘The PUT is () much like be UIT. () not thyristor (6) Uiggeted on and off by the gateto-anode voltage (A) not a four layer device598 + Taynistors Answers to all odd-numbered problems ae at the end of the book, BASIC PROBLEMS Section 11-1 The FourLayer Diode 4, The 4-ayer diode in Figuze 11-2 is biased such that it isin the forward-conduction region, Determine the anode current for Vain = 20V, Vag = 0.7 V. and Verisay = 02 V. pFiGuRE 2, (a) Determine the resistance ofa certain 4-layer diode in the forward-blocking region if Vax = 1SV and Jy = LMA. (b) If he forward-breakover voltage is 50 V, how much must Vax be increased to switch the diode into the forward-conduction region? Section 11-2 The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) ‘3. Explain the operation of an SCR in terms ofits transistor equivalent, 4, To what value must the variable resistor be adjusted in Figure 11-53 in order to urn the SCR (off? Assume fy = 10mA and Vax = 0.7 V. PFIGURE 11-53 _s+30v% with a logo and are in the Problems: z AFIGURE 11-54Prosiems * 599 6. Determine the voltage waveform across Ry in Figure 11-55, > FIGURE 11-55 Wee w Section 11-3 SCR Applications 7. Describe how you would modify the cicuil in Figure 11-17 so thatthe SCR triggers and conducts onthe negative half-eyele ofthe input 48. Whats the purpose of diodes Dy and D; in Figute 11-21? 9. Sketch the Vq waveform for he circuit in Figure 11-S6, given the indicated relationship ofthe input waveforms > FIGURE 11-56. Section 11-4 The Diac and Triae 410. Sketch the curent waveform forthe circuit in Figure 11-57. The diac has a breakover potential of 20. = 20m, > FIGURE 11-57 av 1oKn600 © TuyRisrors AL, Repeat Problem 10 for the tiae circuit in Figure 11-58. The breakover potential is 25 V and fy = Tm. pFIGURE 11-58 15 V peak 47K. Section 11-5 The Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS) 12, Explain the turn-on and turn-off operation of an SCS in terms ofits transistor equivalent. 13, Name the terminals of an SCS. Section 11-6 ‘The Unijunction Transistor (UT) 14, In acertain UIT, rjy = 2.SKO and ryy ~ 410. What isthe intrinsic standolf ratio? 15, Determine the peak-point voltage forthe UFT in Problem 14 if Vpg = 1S. 16, Find the range of values of Rin Figure 11-59 that will ensure proper turn-on and turn-olf of the UIT. 9 = 0668, Vy = OSV, fy = ISmA, fp = 10 pA, and Vp = 1OV. Dp FIGURE 11-59 mv f oie Sh a 00.2 Section 11-7 ‘The Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT) 17, Atwhat anode voltage (V) will each PUT in Figure 11-60 begin to conduct? 18, Draw the curent waveform for each circuit in Figure 11-60 when there is a 10 V peak sinusoidal voltage at the anode. Neglect the forward voltage of the PUT, Dp FIGURE 11-60 M% “ev Ry & Ry a Ry son Fixe s02 Fare @ °Prosiems * 601 49, Sketch the voltage waveform across R in Figure 11-61 in relation tothe input volage waveform. 20, Repeat Problem 19 i Ry is increased to 1SkO. sey Ry 10K sv Yq 0 my Ry osy 78. ox APPLICATION ACTIVITY PROBLEMS 21. In the motor speed-conteol circuit of Figure 11-46, at which PUT gate voltage does the electric rotor run atthe fastest speed: 0 V, 2 V, of SV? 22. Does the SCR in the motor speed.contol circuit tur on ealier or later inthe ac eye ifthe resistance ofthe theestat is reduced? 23. Describe the SCR action as the PUT gate voltage is increased inthe motor speed-control ADVANCED PROBLEMS 24, Refer to the SCR over-voltage protection circuit in Figure 11-22. For a +12 V output de power supply. specify the component values that will provide protection forte circuit ifthe output voltage exceeds +15 V. Assume the Fuse is rated at LA. 25, Design an SCR crowbar cies supply in excess of 6.2 V. 26, Design a relaxation oscillator to produce a frequency of 2.5 kHz using a UIT with » = 0.75 anda valley voltage of I V, The circuit must operate from a +12 V de source, Design values of dy = 10mA and lp = 20 nA are to be use. to protect eloctronic citcuits against a voltage from the power ‘MULTISIM TROUBLESHOOTING PROBLEMS ‘These file circuits are inthe Troubleshooting Problems folder onthe companion website. 27. Open file TSPL1-27 and determine the fault 28. Open fle TSP11-28 and determine the fault 29. Open file TSPL1-29 and determine the fault