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Chapter

Detection and Monitoring of

Marine Pollution Using Remote
Sensing Technologies
Sidrah Hafeez, Man Sing Wong, Sawaid Abbas,
Coco Y. T. Kwok, Janet Nichol, Kwon Ho Lee, Danling Tang
and Lilian Pun

Abstract

Recently, the marine habitat has been under pollution threat, which impacts
many human activities as well as human life. Increasing concerns about pollution
levels in the oceans and coastal regions have led to multiple approaches for measur-
ing and mitigating marine pollution, in order to achieve sustainable marine water
quality. Satellite remote sensing, covering large and remote areas, is considered
useful for detecting and monitoring marine pollution. Recent developments in
sensor technologies have transformed remote sensing into an effective means of
monitoring marine areas. Different remote sensing platforms and sensors have their
own capabilities for mapping and monitoring water pollution of different types,
characteristics, and concentrations. This chapter will discuss and elaborate the
merits and limitations of these remote sensing techniques for mapping oil pollut-
ants, suspended solid concentrations, algal blooms, and floating plastic waste in
marine waters.

Keywords: remote sensing, water pollution detection and monitoring, optical

sensors, oil spill, algal blooms, chlorophyll-a, suspended sediment concentration,
marine plastic litter

1. Introduction

The oceans act as a natural sink for carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
However, anthropogenic activities have severely polluted the marine environment
in the past few decades. Pollutants including plastic, oil, toxic chemicals, radioactive
waste, and domestic and industrial sewage can be found in marine waters. Marine
pollution is also caused by the discharge of sewage into rivers and excessive nutri-
ents entering marine waters from agricultural fertilizers and pesticides [1]. These
pollutants have adverse impacts on marine ecosystem including but not limited
to sensitive coral reefs, mangroves, and aquaculture [2]. Therefore, in addition to
reducing pollutant flow into oceans, it is essential to map and monitor marine pol-
lutants to ensure a sustainable marine ecosystem.
Scientists and researchers have been working on detailed ocean monitoring
for a sustainable blue economy. A variety of sensing systems are now available

1
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

for ocean monitoring including autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs),

profiling floats, gliders, drifters, volunteer measurements from ships, and
sensing nodes with cable networks [3]. These approaches to marine monitoring
usually measure temperature, conductivity, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen,
fluorescence due to chlorophyll, turbidity, and color dissolved organic matter
(CDOM). The most common approach for marine pollution measurements is to
use conventional method of collecting in situ water samples using boats/ships
from different depths of water with water samplers. The water samples are
analyzed in the laboratory to determine the physical and chemical properties
of the water. Such methods are accurate but time-consuming and geographi-
cally constrained and require trained professionals and laboratory analysis.
However, real-time or near real-time measurements of marine pollutants and
toxins across a range of spatial scales are necessary for monitoring and manag-
ing the environmental impacts and understanding the processes governing
their spatial distribution [3].
To overcome these problems, remote sensing technology provides spatially
synoptic and near real-time measurements that can be effectively used to detect,
map, and track many pollutants such as oil and chemical spills, algal blooms, and
high suspended solid concentrations. Aerial and satellite remote sensing has been
demonstrated as an effective tool in detecting and mapping pollutant spills and for
providing useful input data for oil spill models, to track pollutants through space
and time [4–6]. An added advantage of remote sensing is that it provides informa-
tion from remote areas. However, existing remote sensing technology still has some
limitations, such as estimating pollutants over the vertical dimension of the water
column.
The initial premise of watercolor remote sensing was to determine optical water
quality variables such as chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) concentration, diffuse attenuation
coefficient, and water-leaving radiance spectra [7]. The optical properties of water
depend on many factors, e.g., suspended organic and inorganic particles and dis-
solved substances. There have been many successful applications of using remote
sensing sensors for water color monitoring. The coastal zone color scanner (CZCS),
having a spatial resolution of 825 m for six spectral bands from 443 to 750 nm, was
the earliest satellite sensor designed and launched in 1978 specially to study ocean
color. The sea-viewing wide field-of-view sensor (SeaWiFS) was the successor
to CZCS with a spatial resolution of 1.1 km for eight spectral bands from 402 to
885 nm. Currently, many satellite sensors provide ocean color data for marine moni-
toring such as the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS), the
geostationary ocean color imager (GOCI), the visible infrared imager radiometer
suite (VIIRS), the ocean and land color imager (OLCI), the Landsat operational
land imager (OLI), and the Sentinel-2 multispectral instrument (MSI), all of which
have suitable spectral and spatial resolutions capable of detecting marine pollutants
and other water quality parameters (Table 2).
In order to track marine pollutants, prior understanding of marine dynamics
is important, such as ocean current direction and magnitude, direction and speed
of surface winds, sea surface temperature (SST), and sea surface salinity (SSS).
Remote sensing now provides multiple satellite and airborne sensors to acquire
information about marine dynamics over the vast marine regions. Apart from opti-
cal data, scanning radiometers and microwave sounders measure SST data, altim-
eters collect wave height data, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can measure the
sea surface roughness patterns from which information on sea surface winds can be
derived [31]. These datasets are of critical importance for detection and tracking of
pollutants.

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

2. Remote sensing of water monitoring

Remote sensors capture the response of the electromagnetic interaction with

water (Figure 1). Absorption and scattering are inherent optical properties (IOP)
of water; and variations in IOP change the reflectance of water which is captured
by a remote sensing sensor, and this is known as the apparent optical properties
(AOP) of water (Figure 2). Reflection, absorption, and transmittance of electro-
magnetic radiation are highly dependent on the concentrations, types, and presence
of substances in water. Total absorption is the sum of absorption by phytoplankton
(microalgae), non-algal pigments (NAP), color dissolved organic matter (CDOM),
and absorption by water, whereas light scattering by water is mainly controlled
by suspended sediments (SS) present in water. Hence, ocean color represents the
responses in , green, and red region, and data can be used to estimate the concen-
trations of water constituents [7].
Generally, clear water has low reflectance in the visible spectrum and has
no reflection in near infrared (NIR) region, as it is absorbed by clear water.
However, high reflectance measurements in red (600–700 nm) and NIR region
(750–1400 nm) show a strong correlation with SS concentrations. A high con-
centration of suspended sediments blocks the transmittance to and from lower
depths and therefore increases reflectance from the water surface. Similarly, high
concentrations of chlorophyll (a photosynthetic pigment in phytoplankton and
macroalgae) in water cause high reflectance in the green region (500–600 nm)
and high absorption in the blue and red regions due to photosynthetic activity
(Figure 2).
A portion of absorbed incident energy by the earth’s features is also re-emitted
in the thermal infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Many satellite
sensors such as MODIS, VIIRS, the advanced very high-resolution radiometer
(AVHRR), and the sea and land surface temperature radiometer (SLSTR) measure
the emitted thermal energy to determine sea surface temperature (SST). SST is an
important parameter for understanding ocean water circulation. In case of large oil
spills, these data can be effective for pinpointing the oil spilled areas, as they appear
cooler than water surface due to their lower emissivity [31].

Figure 1.
Interaction of light with the water surface. a is absorption (aph, absorption by phytoplankton; anap, absorption
by non-algal pigments; aCDOM, absorption by color dissolved organic matter; and aw, absorption by water), b
is backscattering (bb, backward scattering; bf, forward scattering), Rrs is remote sensing reflectance recorded by
sensor, Ed is downwelling irradiance, Lu is upwelling radiance, and Lw is water-leaving radiance [32].

3
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

Figure 2.
Reflectance (Rrs) by clear water (blue), water with chlorophyll content (green), water with CDOM (black),
and sedimented water (orange) [32].

Fluorescence is another type of energy emitted by a substance when it comes to

a lower energy level from a higher energy level. The emitted energy is in a longer
wavelength than the excitation wavelength. Algae absorb visible light for the
photosynthesis process and emit excessive energy in the form of fluorescence signal
(681 nm, the fluorescence band) when chlorophyll molecule comes to the non-
excitation state during the photosynthesis process. The fluorescence can be detected
by optical sensors with fine spectral resolution in the far-red and NIR and has a
potential source for monitoring changes in the photosynthesis process in plants.
Furthermore, in laser fluorometry, laser light is used to excite molecules [33]. This
technique is common to detect oil and chemical spills [31].

2.1 Remote sensing platforms and sensors for water monitoring

There are now several remote sensing platforms for monitoring water pollutants,
and they can be categorized into two types: airborne and spaceborne.

2.1.1 Airborne sensors

An aircraft flies at relatively low altitudes (a few hundred meters to a few

kilometers above the surface); therefore, the acquired data always have higher levels
of detail. Airborne data are particularly useful for real-time monitoring of oil and
chemical spills. Four common airborne sensors used for spill surveillance [34] are
listed below:

i. Infrared/ultraviolet line scan (IR/UVLS)

ii. Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR)

iii. Microwave radiometer (MWR)

iv. Laser fluorosensor (LF)

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

Airborne hyperspectral sensors with fine spatial resolution are able to cap-
ture detailed spectral variations. Therefore, they help to select the appropriate
spectral region to study a specific water quality parameter, design satellite sen-
sors, and improve already developed algorithms. Some airborne hyperspectral
sensors particularly useful for studying coastal/river water quality are described
in Table 1.

2.1.2 Spaceborne sensors

Spaceborne sensors can cover extensive and remote areas for water quality
monitoring. Optical spaceborne sensors used for marine monitoring are mostly in
sun-synchronous orbit; only GOCI, designed specifically for marine monitoring, is
placed in geostationary orbit. The spatial coverage of these sensors ranges from tens
to hundreds of kilometers, and the temporal frequency is from hourly to weekly
monitoring.
Many algorithms have been developed to retrieve water quality information such
as primary productivity, Chl-a variability, SS, total suspended solids (TSS), turbid-
ity, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, CDOM, and SST. Table 2 shows the satellite
sensors most used for the study of water quality parameters related to marine pol-
lution. The major application areas of active spaceborne sensors include, but are not
limited to, sea surface currents, oil spills, biogenic films (algal blooms), and river
plumes (Table 5).

Sensor Manufacturer Number Spectral Spatial Studied parameter

of bands range resolution
(nm) (m)

Airborne visible NASA Jet 224 400– 17 Bottom albedo,

infrared imaging Propulsion 2500 water absorption,
spectrometer Lab backscattering
(AVIRIS) coefficients [35],
Chl-a, CDOM, TSS
[36]

HyMap Earth Search 128 400– 3–10 Heavy metals [37]

Sciences Inc. 2500

Portable NASA Jet — 350– 0.3 Sediment, CDOM,

remote imaging Propulsion 1050, chlorophyll
spectrometer Lab SWIR fluorescence [38]
(PRISM) band turbidity, Chl-a,
(1240 dissolved organic
and carbon [39]
1640)

Airborne prism VITO 313 VIS and 2–5 Chlorophyll

experiment (Belgium) NIR fluorescence, SS
(APEX) (380– [40]
970),
SWIR
(970–
2500)

Table 1.
Hyperspectral airborne sensors used in water quality assessment.

5
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

Satellite sensor Launch date Spectral bands Spatial Swath Marine

(nm) resolution width parameter
(m) (km) accessed
Satellite sensors with moderate spatial resolution
Landsats 4 and 1 March 5 (450–1750), 1 30–120 185 Chl-a, SS, Secchi
5 TM 1984 (2080–2350), and 1 depth [8]
(1040–1250)
Landsat 7 15 April 6 (450–1750), 1 15–30–60 183 Chl-a, SS, Secchi
ETM+ 1999 Pan (520–900), 1 depth, turbidity
(2090–2350), and 1 [9]
(1040–1250)
Terra Aster 18 December 3 (520–860), 6 15–30–90 60 Chl-a [10]
1999 (1600–2430), and 5
TIR (8125–11,650)
EO-1 November (443–2350) 30 Turbidity [11],
ALI 2000 SS [12]
EO-1 Hyperion 1 November 242 (350–2570) 30 7.5 Chl-a, SS, CDOM
2000 [13, 14]
PROBA CHRIS 22 October 19 (400–105) 18–36 14 Chl-a,
2001 phycocyanin
[15] behenic
macroalgae [16]
HICO 10 128 (350–1080) 100 45–50 Chl-a, turbidity,
September CDOM [17], SS
2009 [18]
Landsat 8 OLI/ 11 February 1 cirrus cloud 15–30–100 170 Chl-a, SS,
TIRS 2013 detection (1360– turbidity, TN, TP
1380), 5 (430–880), [19]
1 Pan (500–680), 2
(1570–2290), 2 TIRS
(10,600–12,510)
Sentinel-2 MSI 23 June 2015 8 (490–865), 1(443) 10–20–60 290 Chl-a, CDOM,
coastal aerosol, and DOC [20], SS [21]
3 (1375–2190)
Satellite sensors for regional coverage
Orb View 2 1 August 8 (402–885) 1130 2806 Chl-a [22]
SeaWiFS 1997
Terra, Aqua 18 December 2 (620–876), 5 250–500– 2330 Chl-a, CDOM SS
MODIS 1999 (459–2155), 29 100 [23], turbidity
(405–877), and [24], TP [25]
thermal
ENVISAT-1 1 March 15 (390–1040) 300–1200 1150 Chl-a, SS [26, 27]
MERIS 2002
GOCI 26 June 2010 8 (412–865) 500 2500 Chl-a, SS,
turbidity [28]
Suomi NPP 28 October 5 bands (640–1145), 375–750 3060 Chl-a [29]
VIIRS 2011 16 bands
(412–12,013), DNB
(500–900)
Sentinel-3 16 February 21 (400–1020) 300 1270 Chl-a, SS, CDOM,
OLCI 2016 and Secchi depth
[30]

Table 2.
Satellite sensors mostly used to retrieve marine water quality parameters.

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

3. Remote sensing for marine monitoring

3.1 Chlorophyll (Chl-a) and algal blooms

Most algal species are nontoxic and are always present in coastal and open
oceans. Planktons are the base of the marine food chain [22]. But, algae do not have
to produce toxins to be harmful to the environment. The accelerated growth of
algae produces a large amount of biomass which blocks sunlight and produces an
anoxic or hypoxic condition (dissolved oxygen is depleted from the water column),
which is hazardous to marine life. Algal blooms also affect coastal operations such
as movement of ships, coastal tourism, and coastal sports (Figure 3). Algal blooms
can persist from a few days to more than a month and spatially they may extend
from a few meters to tens of kilometers.
The impact of algal blooms on marine life depends largely on the algal species
involved. In situ field data collected using vessels are important for determining the
algal species and level of toxicity during the bloom. However, field data are always lim-
ited for estimating the spatial extent as well as the dispersion. Detection of algal bloom
by estimating the Chl-a concentrations using satellite imagery has been well-researched,
as remote sensing has been used to observe ocean primary productivity since the launch
of CZCS in 1978. High spatial and temporal resolutions are the main requirements of
remote sensing data to study the variability in ocean and coastal Chl-a. By comparing a
time series of satellite images, researchers can evaluate the spatial and temporal varia-
tions in Chl-a concentration during the bloom. This can also help to understand the
dynamics of blooms. However, there are still certain conditions for using optical remote
sensing to detect Chl-a, including (i) no or low cloud cover, (ii) the bloom should be
near to the surface, and (iii) the bloom must cause the coloration of the water.
Optical remote sensing can observe the coloration of water due to algal pig-
ments. In the open ocean, the color of water is mainly determined by phytoplank-
ton; hence, it is relatively simple to develop algorithms using a bio-optical approach
and remote sensing reflectance [22]. In the open ocean, Chl-a can be retrieved
from the ratio of blue and green wavelengths as Chl-a absorption is sensitive to
blue wavelength and reflectance peak occurs in the green wavelength region [22].
However, in coastal waters, the color of water also depends on organic matter
such as NAP, CDOM, and inorganic solids, and consequently it is more complex
to determine accurate Chl-a concentrations in coastal/turbid waters. Researchers
have demonstrated that waters with increased Chl-a concentrations show a lower

Figure 3.
Spread of green algae along the coast of Qingdao in 2008, when summer Olympics was planned in this coast
(source: Corey Sheran/Flickr) (right) and algae visible in MODIS false color image (shortwave, NIR, and Red)
(source: MODIS rapid response project at NASA/GSFC) (left).

7
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

spectral response at short wavelengths especially in the blue wavelength regions

[41]. This is due to increased absorption of red and blue wavelengths during
photosynthetic process. Figure 4 shows the reflectance of water with increasing
Chl-a concentrations. Thus, in coastal waters, the red/NIR ratio is more effective for
retrieval of Chl-a due to the presence of suspended solids and the increased spectral
response of Chl-a pigments at longer wavelengths [43].
Narrow spectral bandwidth is a necessity for accurate retrieval of Chl-a concentra-
tions [7]. The height of the spectral peak between 700 and 710 nm is used as a proxy
for phytoplankton biomass [44]. Many researchers have used broad wavelength data
(i.e., Landsat, HJ-1A/1B) as input to regression and neural network approaches for
estimating Chl-a, achieving reasonable accuracy (70–90%) [9, 19, 45, 46].
Table 3 shows some studies and datasets used to study Chl-a in marine regions. Lim
and Choi [19] found that green and NIR bands of OLI are highly correlated with
Chl-a (R = 0.71) in Korean waters. Nazeer and Nichol [46] also used the red/blue
ratio to retrieve Chl-a with high accuracy (R = 0.85). Gurlin et al. [43] calibrated
three models for Chl-a concentrations from 0 to 100 mg m−3 using two bands (red
and NIR) of MERIS and MODIS reflectance data. They found that a simple two-band
model achieved a higher accuracy than a complex three-band model. Moses et al. [51]
also calibrated a red-NIR algorithm for high Chl-a concentrations in productive turbid
waters. Figure 5 shows Chl-a concentrations in highly turbid Pearl River Estuary and
connecting rivers, derived using high-resolution MSI data with the method of Moses
et al. [51].
Recently, machine learning approaches taking advantages of reflectance in
all bands have also been applied using Landsat [45, 52] and GOCI data [28]. Our
work also shows the potential use of Landsat TM, ETM+, and OLI with a machine
learning approach to estimate Chl-a in coastal waters (Figure 6). We have evalu-
ated three machine learning models to estimate Chl-a in the coastal waters of Hong
Kong, of which artificial neural networks (ANN) performed best resulting in
higher R (0.91) and lower RMSE (1.4 μg/L) than models based on support vector
regression (SVR) and random forest (RF) algorithms. Chlorophyll indices such as
the cyanobacteria index [53], maximum chlorophyll Index [54], and maximum
peak height algorithm [55] have been demonstrated the robustness for detecting
algal blooms and surface scum in coastal waters. Lunetta et al. [56] described the
potential of using cyanobacteria index to measure cyanobacteria cell counts in
bloom situations using MERIS data. Nazeer et al. [57] used board waveband band
data (Landsat TM, ETM+, and HJ-1A/1B CCD) along with meteorological data
as inputs to an artificial neural network model to map phytoplankton cell counts

Figure 4.
Changing spectral response of water with different levels of chlorophyll concentration [42].

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

Band combination Sensor Reference

All bands (neural network and other machine learning methods) GOCI [28]
TM, SAR [45]

Multiple bands and their ratios (multiple regression) OLI band (2–5) [19]

OLCI [30]
TM [8]

HICO [17]

Blue (400–500 nm) and green (500–600 nm) ratio In situ [22]

Blue (400–500 nm) and red (600–700 nm) ratio TM, ETM+, HJ-1A/1B [9, 46]
CCD

Green (500–600 nm) and red (600–700 nm) ratio TM [47]

In situ (0.70/0.56 μm) [44]

Red (600–700 nm) and NIR (700 μm–900 μm) ratio MERIS, MODIS [43]

HICO [48]

Using a single band Green (500–600 nm) Daedalus Airborne [49]

Thematic Mapper

Red (600–700 nm) AVHRR [50]

Table 3.
Methods used to retrieve Chl-a using remote sensing data in the river and marine waters.

Figure 5.
Chl-a concentration observed in the Pearl River Estuary and its connecting rivers on 31 December 2017.

during a bloom in the complex coastal waters of Hong Kong and validated the
model in two lakes in the United States and Japan.
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data can also be used to detect large algal blooms
in cloudy weather as algal blooms may appear as an area of low backscatter com-
pared to surrounding water surfaces [50].

9
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

Figure 6.
Comparison of measured and predicted values from three machine learning models. (a) Chl-a concentration
using artificial neural network, (b) Chl-a concentration using support vector regression, and (c) Chl-a
concentration using random forest.

3.2 Turbidity, total suspended sediments, and stormwater runoff plumes

Turbidity is an optical property of water and is highly influenced by concentra-

tions of suspended and dissolved organic and inorganic materials in water, includ-
ing Chl-a, SS, and CDOM. SS is mainly responsible for the light scattering, whereas
CDOM and Chl-a control the light absorption properties of water [58].
Turbidity and TSS are two important variables of marine systems studies
because of their direct linkages with photosynthetically available radiation, which
affects the growth of plankton and other algae [41]. Turbidity has also been used
to measure fluvial SS concentrations in rivers and river plumes [59]. These fluvial
SS loads are rich in nutrients and considered a cause of eutrophication. So, it is
vital to have time series records of suspended sediment concentrations for better
understanding of land-ocean interactions. High SS loads negatively affect aqua-
culture [59] and are hazardous to benthic invertebrates [60]. These parameters are
also associated with the diffuse attenuation coefficient (penetration of light, in the
blue-green region of the spectrum, through water column) and Secchi disk depth (a
measure of water transparency) [41]. For all these reasons, turbidity and TSS con-
centrations are considered to be critical parameters in the study of marine systems.
Ocean color remote sensing techniques are widely used to monitor spatiotem-
poral variations in SS concentration and for mapping of water turbidity. Figure 7
shows the changes in ocean color due to high sediment loads in the Yangtze River
Estuary [60] and the Pearl River Estuary [61]. It is suggested that an algorithm
using single bands provides a good estimation of TSS concentrations if an appro-
priate band is used [62]. Moreover Novo et al. [63] and Curran et al. [64] have
demonstrated that a single-band approach may be adopted when water reflectance
in the single band has a linear relationship with TSS concentrations. However,
coastal water often consists of a complex mixture of substances and results in large
variations in reflectance. In this case, multiple spectral bands should be adopted
for TSS retrieval [62, 65, 66]. These methods using band arithmetic can achieve
high accuracy around 80% for retrieving TSS concentrations in complex waters
[67, 68]. The peak of the reflectance curve shifts from the green region to the red
region with increasing concentration of dissolved and suspended matter; and water
starts reflecting significantly in NIR region [21] (Figure 8). For water with high
TSS concentrations, the spectral region between 600 and 900 nm should be used.
Several studies using Landsat TM, ETM+, and OLI show that the blue, green, red,
and NIR bands are useful for the determination of TSS [8, 19, 68–70]. Literature
also shows that TM, ETM+, OLI, and MODIS are the most frequently used sensors
for developing algorithms to study seasonal TSS variability in coastal and estuarine

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

Figure 7.
Terra-MODIS true color image, captured on 16 September 2000, shows the sediment plume of the Yangtze
River Estuary (left). The Sentinel-2 true color image, captured on 31 December 2017, shows high sediment
concentrations in the Pearl River Estuary (right).

Figure 8.
Remote sensing reflectance (Rrs) spectra of water containing different suspended solid concentration
(mg/L) [21].

areas, due to the large amount of archived remote sensing data [24, 71, 72]. The
recently launched MSI sensor onboard Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B provide high
spatial resolution of 10–20 m with a high temporal resolution of 5 days. The high
spatial resolution (10 m) red and NIR bands are capable of routine monitoring of
TSS concentration and turbidity in narrow bays, rivers, and inlets. Figure 9 shows
the suspended matter concentrations, and Figure 10 shows turbidity in the Pearl
River Estuary and connecting rivers using MSI data with algorithms of Nechad et al.
[62] and Nechad et al. [73], respectively.
Methods and algorithms for estimation of TSS and turbidity have been evolved
from simple methods such as linear/nonlinear regression and principal component
analysis (PCA) to relatively complex techniques such as genetic algorithms and
ANN. Nazeer and Nichol [68] initially developed a regression model resulting

11
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

Figure 9.
High levels of suspended matter concentration were observed in the Pearl River Estuary and its connecting
rivers on 31 December 2017.

in an RMSE of 2.60 mg/L. Later, Nazeer et al. [52] evaluated the potential of a

machine learning model for estimating TSS in the complex coastal area of Hong
Kong achieving an RMSE of 4.59 mg/L. Our work of machine learning models with
Landsat TM, ETM+, and OLI data in the same area also shows promising results
for estimation of TSS (Figure 11). In our work, ANN outperformed the other two
machine learning approaches, SVR (support vector machine) and RF (random
forest), resulting in the lowest RMSE of 2.8 mg/L. Table 4 includes some studies
and methods used to study TSS in rivers, bays, estuaries, and relatively open coastal
waters.
Stormwater runoff is also a large source of marine pollution as runoffs and
pollutants from the urban watershed enter into the coastal environment after
rainstorms. Stormwater runoff and municipal wastewater plumes may sometimes
be overlooked due to persistent cloud cover in optical imagery. These types of

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

Figure 10.
High levels of turbidity were observed in the Pearl River Estuary and its connecting rivers on 31 December 2017.

Figure 11.
Comparison of measured and predicted values from three machine learning models. (a) TSS concentration
using artificial neural network, (b) TSS concentration using support vector regression, and (c) TSS
concentration using random forest.

13
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

Band combination Sensor Reference

All bands (neural network and other machine learning methods) GOCI [28]
Landsat TM, [52]
ETM+, OLI, HJ-1
A/B CCD

TM, SAR [45]

Multiple bands and their ratios (multiple regression) Landsat OLI [19]
band (2–5)

Landsat ETM+ [9]

Multiple green (500–600 nm) and red (600–700 nm) ratio Landsat TM, [68]
ETM+

Green (500–600 nm) and red (600–700 nm) ratio HJ-1A/1B CCD [67]

Red (600–700 nm) and NIR (700–900 nm) ratio MODIS [65]

Single band algorithms Green (500–600 nm) SeaWiFS [58]

EO-ALI [12]

Red (600–700 nm) Landsat TM, [47, 68]

ETM+, HJ-1

AVHRR, SeaWiFS [58]

MODIS, MERIS, [24, 62, 65]

SeaWiFS
HICO [17]

NIR (700–900 nm) MODIS, MERIS, [62]

SeaWiFS

Table 4.
Methods used to retrieve TSS using remote sensing data in marine waters.

runoff are often detectable via SAR as they deposit surfactants on the sea surface,
smoothing the small gravity waves and thus producing an area of low backscatter in
comparison to the surrounding sea surface [74]. DiGiacomo et al. [74] used high-
resolution SAR to monitor such plumes in the Southern California Bight. In their
study, the dynamics of runoff plume was modeled using SAR images together with
meteorological data as a function of cumulative event discharge, timing of the peak
flow, and total storm precipitation. Holt et al. [75] used multi-platform SAR data
along with MODIS and precipitation data to study a stormwater plume and its flow
direction.

3.3 Oil spill

A large oil spill from tankers causes not only significant economic loss but also
destruction to the aquatic ecosystem. After the spill, oil undergoes several processes
such as spreading, evaporation, dissolution, drifting, photolysis, biodegradation,
and the formation of oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions [76].
Owing to the dynamic spreading nature of the spill, both remote and station-
based sensors are essential for comprehensive and effective monitoring. Airborne
survey of an oil spill can be carried out by side-looking airborne radar (SLAR), laser
fluorosensor (LF), and ultraviolet and thermal infrared video cameras. Ultraviolet,
microwave, thermal, and optical airborne sensors all exhibit the ability to detect
oil spills [6]. Ultraviolet sensors are sensitive to oil thickness of 0.01–0.05 μm. Oil

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
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appears as a bright target in this region of the spectrum, and brightness increases
with the thickness of the oil. Optical sensors can measure thicker oil (2–500 μm)
and are able to detect oil dispersed in water, whereas thermal infrared sensors
measure oil with a thickness of about 10–50 μm [34]. Airborne LF and microwave
radiometers (MWR) are considered to be the most appropriate sensors for oil spill
detection. SLAR, ultraviolet, and thermal video cameras were used to identify areas
of thick oil during the Sea Empress oil spill in 1996. Oil also undergoes weathering
and aging. Multispectral satellite images, taking advantage of fluorescence charac-
teristics of oil, can detect spills and assess the levels of weathering of the oil [31].
Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is commonly used for ocean pollu-
tion monitoring, especially oil spills. Table 5 includes some SAR-equipped satellites
used for oil spill detection. The advantage of SAR is the capability to take measure-
ments during all day and all-weather conditions. Therefore, they are considered
superior to optical sensors in this application [5]. The spreading trend of oil highly
depends on wind direction and speed. An oil spill would break up and disperse
if the wind speed is greater than 10 m/s [74]. DiGiacomo et al. [74] used ERS-2
SAR and RADARSAT-1 SAR images to map oil spills in the Southern California
Bight. Shirvany et al. [77] evaluated the potential of different polarizations using
RADARSAT-2 data for oil spill detection in the Gulf of Mexico. In another study,
ENVISAT data was used effectively as an input to a hydrodynamic model to track
the fate of oil after the Kerch Strait oil spill in 2007 [78]. Figure 12 shows an inci-
dent of large oil spill on the Galicia coast [79] and the Korean coast [80] for which
spaceborne SAR data was used to access the coverage areas and the damage caused
by the spills.

3.4 Marine plastic and coastal litter

With the increasing amount of marine plastic litter, its adverse chemical,
biological, and ecological impacts on the marine ecosystem have raised the public
concerns [81]. It is estimated that 4.8–12.7 million metric tons of plastic is dumped
in the sea every year [82] due to increased use of plastic in industry and daily life
[83, 84]. Although some surveys have been undertaken [85] to estimate the density
and weight of floating plastic in the oceans globally, there is a lack of long-term and
large-scale monitoring.
Some research has been conducted using remote sensing technology for the
detection of floating marine plastic [86]. However, this research domain is still in
its early stages. The reflectance from water captured by sensors is different from
that of floating plastic objects. There are several reasons for this, (1) the physical
properties of water are different from that of plastic, and they have significant
distinct reflectance; (2) the transmitting ability of light through water is different

Satellite sensor Operation

Sentinel-1A 2014, operating

Sentinel-1B 2016, operating

TerraSAR-X 2007, operating

ENVISAT advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) 2002, not operating

RADARSAT-1 1995, not operating

European remote sensing (ERS) satellites: ESR-2 1995, not operating

Table 5.
Active spaceborne sensors mostly used in oil spill detection.

15
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

Figure 12.
(a) ASAR wide-swath image of northwest coast of Spain, captured on 17 Nov 2002, at 10:45 UTC showing oil
from the wrecked tanker approaching Spanish coast (source, ESA), (b) ASAR image of South Korea, captured
on 11 Dec 2007, at 01:40 UTC, showing oil spill from 146,000 ton damaged crude oil tanker (source ESA).

from that through plastic; (3) the absorption of light by water is different from
plastic [87]. Figure 13 shows different pathways of incident light after interacting
with the surface (with and without marine plastic). Some studies have used hyper-
spectral remote sensing to study marine macroplastics [87] and microplastics [88].
Goddijn-Murphy et al. [87] considered the spectral signatures and geometric optics
of plastic and seawater to develop a reflectance model for detecting macroplastics.
The key is to determine the appropriate reflectance peak of plastic and consider its
ratio with wavelength bands where water-leaving reflectance is low. Their model
considers reflectivity of only one type of plastic litter in two dimensions. However,
there are some constraints for detecting marine plastics in a real scenario since there
have no standard shape, dimension, color, chemical composition, etc. Nevertheless,
this study demonstrated the possibility of using remote sensing as a useful means
for mapping and tracking of marine plastic.

Figure 13.
Schematic of solar radiance interacting with (A) an open water body and (B) the same water body but with
floating plastic. Ld is total downwelling radiance (solar beam + diffuse skylight), Lds is subsurface downwelling
radiance, Lws is subsurface upwelling radiance, Lwr is radiance reflected directly off the water surface, Lwt is
subsurface upwelling radiance transmitted through the water-air interface, Lpr is radiance reflected off the
plastic, and Lpt is subsurface upwelling radiance transmitted through the plastic. Lw is total water-leaving
radiance, Lwr + Lwt, and Lp is total plastic leaving radiance, Lpt + Lpr; subscript ‘0’ indicates all the variables in
the absence of plastic and FOV is a field of view [87].

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

Figure 14.
Distribution and density of marine litter along the coasts of the main Hawaiian Islands. Areas with 100 and
more item densities are shown as hotspots of high marine litter [89].

Detecting coastal litter near land surface is easier than in open ocean, as its
reflectance and shape characteristics are not affected by its pitching and rolling
on ocean waves. Moy et al. [89] used aerial imagery along with spatial analysis to
categorize and map marine litter deposited along the coasts of the Hawaiian Islands.
Very high-resolution aerial imagery allowed precise measurements of the quantity,
location, type, and size of dumped litter (>0.05 m2) (Figure 14). In another study,
Martin et al. [90] discussed the potential of combining images from unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAV) and a machine learning approach, to detect and map marine
litter. Machine learning algorithms are able to detect and classify objects when
training samples with known training objects are provided. Their results showed
that a UAV-based beach survey is 39 times faster than beach screening on foot and
the large footprint of a UAV can cover entire coastlines and beaches including those
in remote areas.

4. Conclusion

Increased levels of marine pollution due to anthropogenic activities are adversely

affecting marine sustainability of marine ecosystems. Reviewed literature suggested
that aerial and spaceborne sensors provide holistic information for monitoring
many of the major marine pollutants. These include oil and chemical spills, sew-
age, high suspended solids, and algal blooms. Solid waste deposited in coastal areas
can also be mapped using similar geospatial technology. However, there are some
technical limitations in assessing detailed information about pollutants. These
limitations stem from their dynamic nature, limited information of specific spectral
response of pollutants, substrate response in optically shallow waters, and complex
physics of light interaction through the water column. Despite these limitations,
remote sensing is still capable of providing useful information about pollution
events in sensitive marine areas.
Active and hyperspectral airborne sensors are often considered superior to
spaceborne sensors for monitoring coastal and estuarine pollutants due to their
real-time and detailed monitoring capability. Spaceborne sensors are more reli-
able for large-scale ocean, but with the recent development of sensor technology,

17
Monitoring of Marine Pollution

especially hyperspectral and active sensors with high temporal resolution, the
applications of spaceborne sensors in coastal regions are also increasing. Presently,
monitoring of marine waters is offered through numerous satellite sensors such as
MODIS, VIIRS, AVHRR, OLCI, GOCI, Landsat, and Sentinel-2 with spectral and
spatial resolutions able to measure marine pollutants and other marine parameters.
Active satellite sensors such as SAR, altimeters, scanning radiometers, and micro-
wave sounders, which are mostly used in physical oceanography, also possess the
potential for detection of marine pollution under specific meteorological conditions
and provide useful data to track and model the impact of these pollutants.
Heavy metal pollution in coastal and estuarine region is another major concern
of marine managers and researchers. Studies have attempted to use airborne
hyperspectral data for this task, but satellite remote sensing is not yet able to detect
these loads directly. However, the core factors causing these pollutants such as river
plumes, sewerage, and industrial waste entering into these sensitive systems can
be monitored using satellite remote sensing. If the point source of heavy metals is
traced by remote sensing, policies and management practices can be applied accord-
ing to the specific pollutants, and their mobilization and transfer of heavy metal
to sensitive coastal environments can be avoided. Multiple approaches have proven
reliable for this task.
In addition, recent developments in software and computation power have led
to the increased use of data captured by remote sensing systems. Computer systems
can now store and analyze large datasets. Therefore, marine protection agencies
and government can utilize the full potential of remote sensing data in geographic
information systems (GIS) and decision support systems (DSS) to manage marine
resources and pollution. Collaboration between the research community and gov-
ernment is of utmost importance for using the full potential of this data in marine
pollution management. Different applications of remote sensing such as detection
of floating marine plastic litter and the use of active remote sensing for detecting
algal blooms are still in the research. With the advancement of remote sensing sen-
sors, sophisticated methods will be developed in the future for monitoring marine
pollution.

Acknowledgements

Authors would like to acknowledge the General Research Fund (project id:
15246916), the Hong Kong Ph.D. Fellowship Scheme from the Research Grants
Council of Hong Kong. The authors would also like to acknowledge US Geological
Survey for providing Landsat (TM, ETM+, and OLI) image archive, the Copernicus
Open Access Hub for providing Sentinel-2 data, and the Hong Kong Environmental
Protection Department for providing station-based coastal water quality data for
developing numerical models.

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Detection and Monitoring of Marine Pollution Using Remote Sensing Technologies
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81657

Author details

Sidrah Hafeez1, Man Sing Wong1*, Sawaid Abbas1, Coco Y.T. Kwok1, Janet Nichol1,

Kwon Ho Lee2, Danling Tang3 and Lilian Pun1

1 Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic

University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

2 Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, Gangneung-Wonju

National University Gangneung, South Korea

3 South China Institute of Oceanology Chinses Academy of Sciences, China

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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Monitoring of Marine Pollution

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