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01 Units and Measurement
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01. Physical Quantities
All the quantities which are used to describe the laws of physics are known as physical
quantities.
Classification : Physical quantities can be classified on the following bases :
(A) Based on their directional properties
I. Scalars : The physical quantities which have only magnitude but no direction are called
scalar quantities.
e.g. mass, density, volume, time, etc.
II. Vectors : The physical quantities which both magnitude and direction and obey laws
of vector algebra are called vector quantities.
e.g. displacement, force, velocity, etc.
(B) Based on their dependency
I. Fundamental or base quantities : The quantities which do not depend upon other
quantities for their complete definition are known as
fundamental or base quantities.
e.g. length, mass, time, etc.
II. Derived quantities : The quantities which can be expressed in terms of the
fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities.
e.g. Speed (=distance/time), volume, acceleration, force, pressure, etc.
Example Classify the quantities displacement, mass, force, time, speed, velocity,
acceleration, pressure and work under the following categories:
(a) base and scalar
(b) base and vector
(c) derived and scalar
(d) derived and vector
Solution (a) mass, time
(b) displacement
(c) speed, pressure, work
(d) force, velocity, acceleration
02. Units of Physical Quantities
The chosen reference standard of measurement in multiples of which, a physical quantity is
expressed is called the unit of that quantity.
System of Units
(i) FPS or British Engineering system : In this system length, mass and time are taken as
fundamental quantities and their base units are foot (ft), pound (lb) and second (s)
respectively.
(ii) CGS or Gaussian system : In this system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and
time and their respective units are centimeter (cm), gram (g) and second (s).
(iii) MKS system : In this system also the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time
but their fundamental units are metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s) respectively.
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(iv) International system (SI) of units : This system is modification over the MKS system and
so it is also known as Rationalised MKS system. Besides the three base units of MKS
system four fundamental and tow supplementary units are also included in this system.
SI BASE QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS
S. No. Physical quantity Unit Symbol
1 Length metre m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
4 Temperature kelvin K
5 Electric current ampere A
6 Luminous intensity candela cd
7 Amount of substance mole mol
03. Classification of Units
The units of physical quantities can be classified as follows :
(i) Fundamental or base units
The units of fundamental quantities are called base units. In SI there are seven base
units.
(ii) Derived units
The units of derived quantities or the units that can be expressed in terms of the base
units are called derived units.
unit of distance metre
e.g. unit of speed = ms
unit of time second
Some derived units are named in honour of great scientists.
e.g. unit of force – newton (N), unit of frequency – hertz (Hz), etc.
(iii) Supplementary units
In International System (SI) of units two supplementary units are also defined viz. radian
(rad) for plane angle and steradian (sr) for solid angle.
Ÿ radian : 1 radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by and arc equal in
length to the radius of the circle.
Ÿ steradian : 1 steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere, by the
surface of the sphere which is equal in area to the square of the radius of the
sphere.
(iv) Practical units
Due to the fixed sizes of SI units, some practical units are also defined for both
fundamental and derived quantities. e.g. light year (ly) is a practical unit of distance (a
fundamental quantity) and horse power (hp) is a practical unit of power (a derived
quantity).
Practical units may or may not belong to a particular system of units but can be
expressed in any system of units.
e.g. 1 mile = 1.6 km = 1.6 × 103 m = 1.6 × 105 cm.
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Conversion factors
To convert a physical quantity from one set of units to the other, the required
multiplication factor is called conversion factor.
Magnitude of a physical quantity = numeric value (n) × unit (u)
While conversion from one set of units to the other the magnitude of the quantity must
remain same. Therefore
nu nu or nu = constant or n∝
u
This is the numeric value of a physical quantity is inversely proportional to the base unit.
e.g. 1m = 100 cm = 3.28 ft = 39.4 inch
(SI) (CGS) (FPS)
Example The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m s−2. Given its value in ft s−2
Solution As 1m = 3.2 ft
∴ 9.8 m/s2 = 9.8 × 3.28 ft/s2 = 32.14 ft/s2 ≈ 32 ft/s2
04. Dimensions
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers for exponents to which the base quantities
are raised to represent that quantity.
Dimensional formula
The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is that expression which represents how and
which of the base quantities are included in that quantity.
It is written by enclosing the symbols for base quantities with appropriate powers in square
brackets i.e. [ ]
e. g. Dimensional formula of mass in [M1L0 T0] is the dimensional formula of the force
and the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and −2 in time
05. Applications of Dimensional Analysis
(i) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to the other :
This is based on a fact that magnitude of a physical quantity remains same whatever
system is used for measurement i.e. magnitude = numeric value (n) × unit (u) = constant
or nu nu
So if a quantity is represented by [MaLbTc]
a b c
u M L T
Then
n n n
u M
L
T
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Here n2 = numerical value in II system
n1 = numerical value in I system
M1 = unit of mass in I system
M2 = unit of mass in II system
L1 = unit of length in I system
L2 = unit of length in II system
T1 = unit of time in I system
T2 = unit of time in II system
Example Convert 1 newton (SI unit of force) into dyne (CGS unit of force)
Solution The dimensional equation of force is [F] = [M1 L1 T-2]
Therefore if n1, u1, and n2, u2, corresponds to SI & CGS units respectively, then
M L T kg m s
n n × × × ∴
M L T g cm s
1 newton = 105 dyne.
(ii) To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation
If in a given relation, the terms on both the sides have the same dimensions, then the
relation is dimensionally correct. This is known as the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions.
Example Check the accuracy of the relation T L
g
for a simple pendulum using
Solution The dimensions of LHS = the dimension of T = [M0 L0 T1]
dimensions of ≤ ngth
The dimensions of RHS
dimensions of acceleration
(∵ 2π is a
dimensionless constant)
L
T T M L T
LT
Since the dimensions are same on both the sides, the relation is correct.
(iii) To derive relationship between different physical quantities
Using the same principle of homogeneity of dimensions new relations among physical
quantities can be derived if the dependent quantities are known.
Example It is known that the time of revolution T of a satellite around the earth depends
on the universal gravitational constant G, the mass of the earth M, and the radius
of the circular orbit R. Obtain an expression for T using dimensional analysis.
We have T G a Mb Rc
Solution M L T M a L a T a × M b × L c M b a L c a T a
Comparing the exponents
For T a ⇒ a For M b a ⇒ b a
For L c a ⇒ c a
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Putting the values we get T ∝ G M R ⇒ T ∝
R
GM
The actual expression is T R
GM
Dimensions of trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic function etc.
All trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions and their arguments are dimensionless.
NOTE ☞ Trigonometric function sinθ and its argument θ are dimensionless.
06. Limitations of this Method
Ÿ In Mechanics the formula for a physical quantity depending one more than three physical
quantities cannot be derived. It can only be checked.
Ÿ This method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication type. The formulae
containing exponential, trigonometrical and logarithmic functions cant’t be derived using
this method. Formulae containing more than one term which are added or subtracted like s
= ut +at2 /2 also can’t be derived.
Ÿ The relation derived from this method gives no information about the dimensionless
constants.
Ÿ If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical quantities
have the same dimensions.
Ÿ It gives no information whether a physical quantity is a scalar or a vector.
07. Significant Figures or Digits
The significant figure (SF) in a measurement are the figure or digits that are known with
certainity plus one that is uncertain.
Significant figures in a measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in
which we have confidence. Larger the number of significant figure obtained in a
measurement, greater is its accuracy and vice versa.
Rules to find out the number of significant figures
I Rule : All the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF.
II Rule : All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5
SF
III Rule : All the zeros to the left of first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g. 00108
has 3 SF.
IV Rule : If the number is less than 1, zeros on the right of the decimal point but to
the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4
SF.
V Rule : The trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit) in a number
with a decimal point are significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF.
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VI Rule : The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant
e.g. 010100 has 3 SF. But if the number comes from some actual
measurement then the trailing zeros become significant. e.g. m = 100 kg has
3 SF.
VII Rule : When the number is expressed in exponential form, the exponential term
does not affect the number of S.F. For example in x = 12.3 = 1.23 × 101 =
0.123 × 102 = 0.0123 × 103 = 123 × 10−1 each term has 3 SF only.
Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures
I Rule : In addition or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should
be equal to the number of decimal places of that term in the operation
which contain lesser number of decimal places. e.g. 12.587 − 12.5 = 0.087 =
0.1 (∵ second term contain lesser i.e. one decimal place)
II Rule : In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is
same as the smallest number of SF in any of the factors. e.g. 4.0 × 0.12 =
0.484 = 0.48
Ÿ To avoid the confusion regarding the trailing zeros of the numbers without the decimal
point the best way is to report every measurement in scientific notation (in the power of
10). In this notation every number is expressed in the form a × 10b, where a is the base
number between 1 and 10 and b is any positive or negative exponent of 10. The base
number (a) is written in decimal form with the decimal after the first digit. While
counting the number of SF only base number is considered (Rule VII).
Ÿ The change in the unit of measurement of a quantity does not effect the number of SF.
For example in 2.308 cm = 23.08 mm = 0.02308 m = 23080 µm each term has 4 SF.
Example Write down the number of significant figures in the following.
(a) 165
(b) 2.05
(c) 34.000 m
(d) 0.005
(e) 0.02340 N m−1
(f) 26900
(g) 26900 kg
Solution (a) 165 3 SF (following rule I)
(b) 2.05 3 SF (following rule I & II)
(c) 34.000 m 5 SF (following rule I & V)
(d) 0.005 1 SF (following rules I & IV)
(e) 0.02340 N m−1 4 SF (following rule I, IV & V)
(f) 26900 3 SF (see rule VI)
(g) 26900 kg 5 SF (see rule VI)
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08. Rounding Off
To represent the result of any computation containing more than one uncertain digit, it is
rounded off to appropriate number of significant figures.
Rules for rounding off the numbers :
I Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding digit is
increased by one. e.g. 6.87 ≈ 6.9
II Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, than the preceding digit is
unaffected and is left unchanged. e.g. 3.94 ≈ 3.9
III Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is 5 than the preceding digit is increased by
one if it odd and is left unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35 ≈ 14.4 and
14.45 ≈ 14.4
Example The length, breadth and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and
2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct number
of significant figures.
Solution length (l) = 4.234 m breadth (b) = 1.005 m
−2
thickness (t) = 2.01 cm = 2.01 × 10 m
Therefore area of the sheet = 2 (l × b + b × t + t × l)
= 2 (4.234 × 1.005 + 1.005 × 0.0201 + 0.0201 ×
4.234) m2
= 2 (4.3604739) m2 = 8.720978 m2
Since area can contain a maxm of 3 SF (Rule II of article 4.2) therefore,
rounding off, we get
Area = 8.72 m2
Like wise volume = l × b × t = 4.234 × 1.005 × 0.0201 m3 = 0.0855289 m3
Since volume can contain 3 SF, therefore, rounding off, we get
Volume = 0.0855 m3
09. Order of Magnitude
Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent that quantity. This
power is determined after rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding off,
the last digit is simply ignored if it is less than 5 and, is increased by one if it is 5 or more
than 5.
Ÿ When a number is divided by 10x (where x is the order of the number) the result will
always lie between 0.5 and 5 i.e. 0.5 ≤ N/10x < 5
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Example Order of magnitude of the following values can be determined as follows :
(a) 49 = 4.9 × 101 ≈ 101
Solution ∴ Order of magnitude = 1
(b) 51 = 5.1 × 101 ≈ 102
Solution ∴ Order of magnitude = 2
(c) 0.049 = 4.9 × 10-2 ≈ 10-2
Solution ∴ Order of magnitude = −2
(d) 0.050 = 5.0 × 10−2 ≈ 10−1
Solution ∴ Order of magnitude = −1
(e) 0.051 = 5.1 × 10−2 ≈ 10−1
Solution ∴ Order of magnitude = −1
l Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and Errors in Measurement
Accuracy and Precision
The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument contains some uncertainty.
This uncertainty is called error. Every calculated quantity which is based on measured
value, also has an error. Every measurement is limited by the reliability of the measuring
instrument and skill of the person making the measurement. If we repeat a particular
measurement, we usually do not get precisely the same result as each result is subjected to
some experimental error. This imperfection in measurement can be described in terms of
accuracy and precision. The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the
measured value is to the true value of the quantity. Precision tells us to what resolution or
limit the quantity is measured, we can illustrate the difference between accuracy and
precision with help of a example. Suppose the true value of a certain length is 1.234 cm.
In one experiment, using a measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, the measured value
is found to be 1.1cm, while in another experiment using a measuring device of greater
resolution of 0.01m, the length is determined to be 1.53cm. The first measurement has
move accuracy (as it is closer to the true value) but less precision (as resolution is only
0.1 cm), while the second measurement is less accurate but more precise.
10. Errors
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the
error of measurement.
Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as follows
Systematic or Controllable Errors
Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known. They can be either positive or
negative. Due to the known causes these errors can be minimised. Systematic errors can
further be classified into three categories
(i) Instrumental errors :- These errors are due to imperfect design or erroneous manufacture
or misuse of the measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using more accurate
instruments.
(ii) Environmental errors :- These are due to the changes in external environmental
conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust vibrations or magnetic and
electrostatic fields.
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(iii) Observational errors :- These errors arise due to improper setting of the apparatus or
carelessness in taking observations.
Random Errors
These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore they occur irregularly and are variable in
magnitude and sign. Since the causes of these errors are not known precisely they can not be
eliminated completely. For example, when the same person repeats the same observation in
the same conditions, he may get different readings different times.
Random errors can be reduced by repeating the observation a large number of times and
taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations. This mean value would be very close to
the most accurate reading.
NOTE ☞
If the number of observations is made times then the random error reduces to times.
Gross Errors : Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in reading the
instruments or calculating and recording the measurement results.
For example :-
(i) Reading instrument without proper initial settings.
(ii) Taking the observations wrongly without taking necessary precautions.
(iii) Exhibiting mistakes in recording the observations.
(iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations.
These errors can be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertness of the observer.
11. Representation of Errors
Errors can be expressed in the following ways
Absolute Error (∆a) : The difference between the true value and the individual measured
value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the measurement.
Suppose a physical quantity is measured times and the measured values are a1, a2, a3
.............an. The arithmetic mean (am) of these values is
a a a an n
am ai
n n i
...(i)
If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (am) can be taken as the true
value. Then the absolute errors in the individual measured values are
∆a am a
∆a am a
∆an am an
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error
(∆a)m or ∆a of the value of the physical quantity a
∆a ∆a ∆an n
a
∆ m n
∆ai
n i
...(ii)
So if the measured value of a quantity be ‘a’ and the error in measurement be ∆a, then the
true value (at) can be written as
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at a ±∆a ...(iii)
Relative or Fractional Error : It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error ((∆a)m or
∆a ) to the true value or the mean value (am or a ) of the quantity measured.
Mean absolute error ∆am a
∆
Relative or fractional error or ...(iv)
Mean value am a
When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error, percentage
error = relative error × 100
mean absolute error
∆a
or percentage error = × × ...(v)
true value a
12. Propagation of Errors in Mathematical Operations
Rule I : The maximum absolute error in the sum or difference of the two quantities is equal
to the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
If or and if ± ∆A and ± ∆B represent the absolute errors in A and B
respectively, then the maximum absolute error in ∆ ∆ ∆ and
∆X
Maximum percentage error × ...(i)
X
The result will be written as X ±∆X (in terms of absolute error)
∆X
or X ± × (in terms of percentage error)
X
Rule II : The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or division of quantities is
equal to the sum of the fractional or relative errors in the individual quantities.
If X A ×B or X AB
∆X ∆A ∆B
then X
±
A B ...(ii)
Rule III : The maximum fractional error in a quantity raised to a power (n) is n times the
fractional error in the quantity itself, i.e.
∆X ∆A
If X An then X
n
A
...(viii)
∆X ∆A ∆B ∆C
If X A pB qC r then X
p q r
A B C
p q
A B ∆X ∆A ∆B ∆C
If X
C r then X
p q r
A B C
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IMPORTANT POINTS
Ÿ Systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and are
produced due to improper conditions or procedures that are consistent in action whereas
random errors are accidental and their magnitude and sign cannot be predicated from the
knowledge of the measuring system and conditions of measurement.
Systematic errors can therefore be minimised by improving experimental techniques,
selecting better instruments and improving personal skills whereas random errors can be
minimised by repeating the observation several times.
Ÿ Mean absolute error has the units and dimensions of the quantity itself whereas fractional
or relative error is unitless and dimensionless.
Ÿ Absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in other cases.
Example The initial and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6
± 0.2)ºC and (78.3 ± 0.3)ºC. Calculate the rise in temperature with proper error
limits.
Solution Given θ1 = (40.6 ± 0.2)ºC and θ2 = (78.3 ± 0.3)ºC
Rise in temp. θ = θ2 − θ1 = 78.3 − 40.6 = 37.7ºC.
∆θ = ±(∆θ1 + ∆θ2) = ± (0.2 + 0.3) = ± 0.5ºC ∴ rise in temperature =
(37.7 ± 0.5)ºC
13. Least Count
The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with and
instrument is called the least count (L. C.) of the measuring instrument.
Least Count of Vernier Callipers
Suppose the size of one main scale division (M.S.D.) is M units and that of one vernier
scale division (V. S. D.) is V units. Also let the length of ‘a’ main scale divisions is equal
to the length of ‘b’ vernier scale divisions.
a
aM bV ⇒ V M
b
a ba
∴ M V M M or M V M
b b
The quantity (M− V) is called vernier constant (V. C.) or least count (L. C.) of the vernier
callipers.
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ba
LC M V M
b
Least Count of screw gauge or spherometer
Pitch
Least Count
Total number of divisions on the circul scale
where pitch is defined as the distance moved by the screw head when the circular scale is
given one complete rotation. i.e.
Distance moved by the screw on the linear scale
Pitch
No of full rotations given
NOTE ☞ With the decrease in the least count of the measuring instrument, the accuracy of the
measurement increases and the error in the measurement decreases.
Example One cm on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If
20 divisions of vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale.
What will be the least count of callipers ?
Solution 20 div. of vernier scale = 8 div. of main scale ⇒ V S D M S D
M S D
Least count 1 M. S. D. − 1 V. S. D. = 1 M. S. D. − M. S. D. =
M. S. D.
M S D × cm cm
∵ M S D cm cm
NOTE ☞ The final absolute error in this type of questions is taken to be equal to the least count of the
measuring instrument.
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NEET
Exercise (1)
1. A physical quantity of the dimension of length that can be formed out of c, G and is [c
is velocity of light, G is universal constant of gravitation and e is charge]
(a) (c)
(b)
(d)
2. If dimensions of critical velocity vc of a liquid flowing through a tube are expressed as [ηx ρy
rz], where η, ρ and r are the coefficient of viscosity of liquid, density of liquid and radius of
the tube respectively, then the values of x, y and z are given by
(a) 1, −1, −1
(b) −1, −1, 1
(c) −1, −1, −1
(d) 1, 1, 1
3. In an experiment, four quantities a, b, c and d are measured with percentage error 1%, 2%, 3%
and 4% respectively. Quantity P is calculated P = %. Error in P is
(a) 14%
(b) 10%
(c) 7%
(d) 4%
4. If energy (E), velocity (v) and time (T) are chosen as the fundamental quantities, the
dimensional formula of surface tension will be
(a) [Ev−2T−1]
(b) [Ev−1T−2]
(c) [Ev−2T−2]
(d) [E−2v−1T−3]
5. Dimensions of resistance in an electrical circuit, in terms of dimension of mass M, of length L,
of time T and of current I, would be
(a) [ML2T−3I−1]
(b) [ML2T−2]
(c) [ML2T−1I−1]
(d) [ML2T−3I−2]
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6. Which two of following five physical parameters have the same dimensions?
(i) Energy density
(ii) Refractive index
(iii) Dielectric constant
(iv) Young’s modulus
(v) Magnetic field
(a) (ii) and (iv)
(b) (iii) and (v)
(c) (i) and (iv)
(d) (i) and (v)
7. In a vernier callipers N divisions of vernier scale coincide with N −1 divisions of main scale
(in which length of one division is 1 mm). The least count of the instrument should be
(a) N
(b) N −1
(c)
(d)
8. The dimensional formula for permeability of free space, μ0 is
(a) [MLT−2A−2]
(b) [ML−1T2A−2]
(c) [ML−1T−2A2]
(d) [MLT−2A−1]
9. If p represents radiation pressure, c represents speed of light and S represent radiation energy
striking unit area per sec. The non-zero integers x, y, z such that px Sy cz is dimensionless are
(a) x = 1, y = 1, z = 1
(b) x = −1, y = 1, z = 1
(c) x = 1, y = −1, z = 1
(d) x = 1, y = 1, z = −1
10. A certain body weighs 22.42 g and has a measured volume of 4.7 cc. The possible error in the
measurement of mass and volume are 0.01 g and 0.1 cc. Then, maximum error in the density
will be
(a) 22%
(b) 2%
(c) 0.2%
(d) 0.02%
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Class 11 | Chemistry
02 Mole Concept
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01. Classification of matter
Chemistry deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter. These aspects can be
best described and understood in terms of basic constituents of matter: atoms and molecules.
That is why chemistry is called the science of atoms and molecules.
MATTER
Anything that has mass and occupies
space
Physical Classification Chemical Classification
Solid Liquid Gas Mixtures Pure substances
definite shape no specific shape but has no fixed shape variable composition fixed composition
and volume definite volume and volume
Homogeneous mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures
uniform composition composition is not uniform
throughout throughout
`
Elements Compounds
can not be decomposed can be decomposed by chemical
into simpler substances methods into constituent elements
Matter
The thing which occupy space and have mass, which can be felt by our five sense is called
as matter. Matter is further classified into two categories :
a. Physical classification
b. Chemical classification
02. Prefixed Used With Units
The S.I. system recommends the multiples such as 103, 106, 109 etc. and fraction such as
10-3, 10-6, 10-9 etc. i.e. the powers are the multiples of 3. These are indicated by special
prefixes. These along with some other fractions or multiples in common use, along with their
prefixes are given below in Table and illustrated for length (m).
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※TABLE : SOME COMMONLY USED PREFIXES WITH THE BASE UNIT
Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor Example
deci d 10-1 1 decimetre (dm) = 10-1 m
centi c 10-2 1 centimetre (cm) = 10-2 m
milli m 10-3 1 millimetre (mm) = 10-3 m
micro µ 10-6 1 micrometre (µm) = 10-6 m
nano n 10-9 1 nanometre (nm) = 10-9 m
pico p 10-12 1 picometre (pm) = 10-12 m
femto f 10-15 1 femtometre (fm) = 10-15 m
atto a 10-18 1 attometre (am) = 10-18 m
deka da 101 1 dekametre (dam) = 101 m
hecto h 102 1 hectometre (hm) = 102 m
kilo k 103 1 kilometre (km) = 103 m
mega M 106 1 megametre (Mm) = 106 m
giga G 109 1 gigametre (Gm) = 109 m
tera T 1012 1 teremetre (Tm) = 1012 m
peta P 1015 1 petametre (Pm) = 1015 m
exa E 1018 1 exametre (Em) = 1018 m
As volume is very often expressed in litres, it is important to note that the equivalence in S.I. units
for volume is as under: 1 litre (1 L) = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 and 1 millilitre (1 ml) = 1 cm3 = 1 cc
Example Convert 2 atm into cm of Hg.
Solution 2 atm = 2 × 76 cm of Hg = 152 cm of Hg {1 atmosphere = 76 cm of Hg
03. Different types of masses
One mole
Avogadro’s Number (NA)= ×. It is the number of atoms present in exactly 12 g of
(C12) isotope.
Atomic Weight (A)
Atomic weight is the relative weight of one atom of an element with respect to a standard
weight.
Weight of one atom ofan element
th part by weight of an atom of C isotope
amu (atomic mass unit)
amu th part by weight of an atom of C isotope
×
Atomic weight (A)×amu =Absolute atomic weight.
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NOTE ☞ Atomic weight is a relative weight that indicates the relative heaviness oof one atom
of an element with respect to amu weight. Atomic weight has no unit because it is
the ratio of weights. One mole of an amu = 1.00 g.
Change of Scale for Atomic Weight
If an amu is defined differently as (1/x)th part by weight of an atom of (C12)isotope rather
(1/12)th part then the atomic weight (A’) can be derived as:
′
Where, A = conventional atomic weight
Molecular Weight (MW)
Like atomic weight, it is the relative weight of a molecule or a compound with respect to
amu weight.
Weight of one molecule of a compound
Molecular Weight
th part by weight of an atom of C isotope
Gram Atomic, Gram Molecular Weight (M)
It is the weight of 1.0 mole (Avogadro’s numbers) of atoms, molecules or ions in gram unit.
M = A amu × Avogadro number = A gram Hence, gram molecular weight (M) is
numerically equal to the atomic weight or (molecular weight) in gram unit because
1.0 mole of amu is 1.0 g.
Example A piece of Cu contain 6.022 × 1024 atoms. How many mole of Cu atoms does it
contain?
6.022 × 1024 6.022 × 1024
Solution No. of mole = = = 10 mole
NA 6.022 × 1023
04. Law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier-1774):
In any physical or chemical change, mass can neither be created nor be destroyed.
It means:
Total mass of the reactants = total mass of the products.
This relationship holds good when reactants are completely converted into products.
In case the reacting material are not completely consumed the relationship will be-
Total mass of the reactants = Total mass of the products + mass of unreacted reactants.
Example 1.7 gram of silver nitrate dissolved in 100 gram of water is taken. 0.585 gram of
sodium chloride dissolved in 100 gram of water is added it and chemical reaction
occurs. 1.435 gm of AgCl and 0.85 gm NaNO3 are formed. Show that these
results illustrate the law of conservation of mass.
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Solution Total masses before chemical change
= mass of AgNO3 + mass of NaCl + mass of water
= 1.70 + 0.585 + 200g
= 202.285 g
Total masses after the chemical reaction
= mass of AgCl + mass of AgNO3 + mass of water
= 1.435 + 0.85 + 200
= 202.258 g
Then, in this chemical change
Total masses of reactants = Total masses of product
05. Law of constant composition : [proust 1799]
A chemical compound always contains the same element combined together in fixed
proportion by mass.
Example 1.08 gram of Cu wire was allowed to react with nitric acid. The resulting
solution was dried and ignited when 1.35 gram of copper oxide was obtained. In
another experiment 1.15 gram of copper oxide was heated in presence of
Hydrogen yielding 0.92 gram of copper. Show that the above data are in
accordance with law of constant composition?
Solution % of “Cu” in copper oxide in 1st case = ×
= 80%
% of oxygen = 20%
% of “Cu” in copper oxide in 2nd case = ×
= 80%
% of oxygen = 20%
06. Law of multiple proportion : [Dalton 1806]
When two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the different masses of one
element which combine with a fixed mass of the other element, bear a simple ratio to one
another.
Example Two compounds each containing only tin and oxygen had the following
composition.
Mass % of Tin Mass % of oxygen
Compound A 78.77 21.23
Compound B 88.12 11.88
Show that these data illustrate the law of multiple proportion?
Solution In compound A
21.23 parts of oxygen combine with 78.77 parts of tin.
1 part of oxygen combine with parts of Sn
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In compound B
11.88 parts of oxygen combine with 88.12 parts of tin.
1 part of oxygen combine with parts of tin
Thus the mass of Tin in compound A and B which combine with a fixed mass
of oxygen are in the ratio 3.7:7.4 or 1:2. This is a simple ratio. Hence the data
illustrate the law of multiple proportion.
07. Law of reciprocal proportion : [Richter 1794]
When two different elements combine with the same mass of a third element, the ratio on
which the do so will be same or simple multiple if both directly combined with each other.
Example The % composition of NH3, H2O and N2O3 is as given below:
NH3 → 82.35% N and 17.65 H.
H2O → 88.9% O and 11.1 H
N2O3 → 63.15% O and 36.85% N
On the basis of above data prove the law of reciprocal proportion?
Solution 63.15 parts of oxygen combine with 36.85 parts of “N”
Therefore, 88.9 part of oxygen combine with × part of
“Nitrogen”
Therefore ratio is
Now compare with the ratio of Nitrogen and Hydrogen in NH3
Hence the Law of reciprocal proportion is verified
08. Gay- Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes [Gay-Lussac-1808]
When gases combined or produced in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by
volume provided all the gases are at same temperature and pressure.
09. Limiting Reagent
It is the reagent that is consumed completely during a chemical reaction. If the supplied
mass ratio of reactants are not stoichiometric ratio, one of the reagent is consumed
completely leaving parts of others unreacted. One that is consumed completely is known as
limiting reagent.
‘Limiting reagent determine the amount of product in a given chemical reaction’
Example If 20 gm of CaCO3 is treated with 20 gm of HCl, how many grams of CO2 can
be generated according to following reaction?
CaCo3(g) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq)+H2O()+CO2(g)
Solution CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
1 mole CaCO3 → 2 mole HCl
∴ 100 g CaCO3 combine → 2 × 36.5 g HCl
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× ×
∴ 20 g → HCl
CaCO3 completely consumes in the reaction and HCl is in excess.
Therefore,
CaCO3 → Limiting reagent
HCl → Excess reagent
Now
100 g CaCO3 given 1 mole CO2 (44g CO2)
×
20 g CaCO3 will give = 8 g CO2
10. Percentage yield
In general, when a reaction is carried out on the laboratory we do not obtain the theoretical
amount of product. The amount of product that is actually obtained is called the actual yield.
Knowing the actual yield and theoretical yield, the % yield can be calculated by the
following formula-
Actual yield
Percentage yield ×
Theoritical yield
Example For the reaction
CaO+2HCl → CaCl2+H2O
1.12 gram of CaO is reacted with excess of hydrochloric acid and 1.85 gm
CaCl2 is formed. What is the % yield of the reaction?
Solution 1 mole CaO gives 1 mole CaCl2
56 g CaO gives 111 g CaCl2
×
1.12 g CaO will give g CaCl2 = 2.22 g CaCl2
Now
Actual yield
% yield = ×
Theoretical yield
Actual yield = 1.85 gm
Theoretical yield = 2.22 gm
% yield = ×100 = 83.33%
11. Percentage Purity
Depending upon the mass of the product, the equivalent amount of reactant present can be
determined with the help of given chemical equation. Knowing the actual amount of the
reactant taken and the amount calculated with the help of a chemical equation, the purity van
be determined, as
Amount of reactant calculated from the chemical equation
Percentage purity = ×100%
Actual amount of reactant taken
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Example Calculate the amount of (CaO) in kg that can be produced by heating 200 kg
lime stone that is 90% pure CaCO3.
Solution CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
1 mole CaCO3 gives 1 mole CaO
100 g CaCO3 gives 56 g CaO
× ×
×
g CaCO3 gives = g CaO
×
= g CaO
= g CaO
= 100.8 g CaO
12. Types of Average masses
Average Atomic Mass
Average atomic mass =
Let a sample contains n1 mole of atomic mass M1 and n2 mole of atoms with atomic mass
M2 then
Average Molecular Mass
Average molecular mass =
Let a sample contains n1 mole of molecules with molecular mass M1 and n2 mole of
molecules with molecular mass M2 ,then
nM nM
M
n n
Example Find the average atomic mass of a mixture containing 25% by mole Cl37 and
75% by mole Cl35?
Solution n1 = 25 n2 = 75 M1 = 37 M2 = 35
25×37+75×35
Mav = = 35.5
25+75
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13. Empirical & molecular formula
The empirical formula of a compound is a chemical formula showing the relative number of
atoms in the simplest ratio. An empirical formula represents the simplest. whole number ratio
of various atoms present in a compound.
The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. The
molecular formula shows the exact number of different types of atoms present in a molecule
of a compound. The molecular formula is an integral multiple of the empirical formula.
molecular formula mass
i.e. molecular formula=empirical formula × n where n =
empirical formula mass
Example An organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen gave the following
percentage composition.
C=40,684% ; H=5,085% ; and O=54,228%
The molecular weight of the compound is 118 g. Calculate the molecular formula
of the compound.
Solution Step-1 : To calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
Element Sym percent At. Relative no. of Simplest Simplest
bol age of mass of atoms= atomic whole no.
element element Percentage ratio atomic ratio
At mass
Carbon C 40.678 12 2
Hydrogen H 5.085 1 3
Oxygen O 54.228 16 2
∴ Empirical Formula is C2 H3 O2
Step-2 : To calculate the empirical formula mass. The empirical formula of the
compound is C2 H3 O2 .
Empirical formula mass = × × ×
Molecular mass
Step-3 : To calculate the value of ‘n’ n
Empirical formula mass
Step-4 : To calculate the molecular formula of the salt.
Molecular formula = n Empirical formula × CHO CHO
Thus the molecular formula is C4H6O4
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14. Vapour Density
Some times in numericals molecular mass of volatile substance is not given, instead vapour
density is given. Vapour density van be defined as
Density of gas at a given T and P
V.D.=
Density of H2 at same T and P
Mgas
or, V.D.=
Mgas × VD
15. Eudiometry – Gas Analysis
The study of gaseous reactions is done in a eudiometer tube with the help of Gay-Lussac’s
law and Avogadro’s law. Eudiometer tube is a closed graduated tube open at one end. The
other end is a closed one which is provided with platinum terminals for passing electricity
for electric spark, through the known volume of mixture of gases and known volume of
oxygen gas. Volume of CO2 formed is determined by absorbing in KOH solution, O2 is
determined by dissolving unreacted O2 in alkaline pyrogallol and water vapours formed are
determined by nothing contraction in volume caused due to cooling.
16. Avogadro’s Law
In 1812, Amadeo Avogadro stated that samples of different gases which contain the same
number of molecules (any complexity, size, shape) occupy the same volume at the same
temperature and pressure.
For ideal gas at constant Temperature & Pressure, pressure is directely proportional to no. of
moles
17. Some Absorbents of Gases
The absorbent which is used for specific gas is listed below
Absorbent Gas or gases absorbed
Turpentine oil O3
Alkaline pyrogallol O2
Ferrous sulphate solution NO
Heated magnesium N2
Heated palladium H2
Ammonical coprous chloride O2, CO, C2 H2 or CH ≡ CH
Copper sulphate solution H2S, PH3, AsH3
Conc. H2SO4 H2O I.e., moisture, NH3.
NaOH or KOH solution CO2, NO2, SO2, X2, all acidic oxides
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18. Volume Expansion and Contraction In The Eudiometer Tube
aA(g) + bB(g) cC(g) + dD(g)
△ng = No. of gaseous products–No. of gaseous reactants = (c+d)–(a+b)
(a) If △ng >0, then expansion will occur
(b) If △ng =0, No contraction/expansion (volume remains constant)
(c) If △ng <0, then contraction will occur
19. Assumptions
(i) All gases are assumed to be ideal.
(ii) Nitrogen gas formed during reaction will not react with any other gas.
(iii) The volume of solids and liquids are negligible in comparision to the volume of gas.
20. General Reactions for Combustion of Organic Compounds
(i) When an organic compound is hydrocarbon :
y y
CxHY x O→ xCO HO
(ii) When an organic compound contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen :
y z y
CxHyOz x O →xCO HO
(iii) When an organic compound contain carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen :
y y z
CxHyNz x O →xCO HO N
Example 10 ml of a mixture of CO, CH4 and N2, exploded with excess of oxygen, gave a
contraction of 6.5 ml. There was a further contraction of 7 ml. when the
residual gas was treated with KOH. What is the composition of the original
mixture?
Solution CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
x ml ml x ml
y ml 2y ml y ml
volume of oxygen used = 2y + ml
Total volume of all gases before combustion = 10 + 2y + x/2
21. Percentage
Concentration of solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a known amount of the
solvent or solution. The concentration of solution can be expressed in various ways as
discussed below.
It refers to the amount of the solute per 100 parts if the solution. It can also be called as
parts per hundred (pph). It can be expressed by any of following four methods:
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Wt of solute g
(i) Weight by weight percentage (%w/w) = ×
Wt of solution g
e.g., 10%Na2CO3 solution w/w means 10 g of Na2CO3 is dissolved in 100 g of the
solution. (It means 10 g Na2CO3 is dissolved in 90 of solvent)
Wt of solute g
(ii) Weight by volume percent (%w/v) = ×
Wt of solution cm
e.g., 10%Na2CO3 (w/v) means 10 g Na2CO3 is dissolved in 100 cm3 of solution
Volume of solute cm
(iii) Volume by volume percent (%v/v) = ×
Volume of solution cm
e.g.,10% ethanol (v/v) means 10 cm3 of ethanol dissolved in 100 cm3 of solution.
Vol of solute
(iv) Volume by volume percent (%v/v) = ×
Wt of solution
e.g.,10% ethanol (v/w) means 10 cm3 of ethanol dissolved in 100 g of solution.
Example Concentrated nitric acid used as laboratory reagent is usually 69% by mass of
nitric acid. Calculate the volume of the solution which contains 23 g nitric acid.
The density of concentrated acid is 1.41 g cm-3.
Solution 69 g of HNO3 in 100 g solution
given density = 1.41 g/cc
mass
density =
volume
mass
volume = cc
volume
Now,
69 g HNO3 is in volume solution
23 g HNO3 → × volume solution = 23.64 cm3
22. Molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre solution is called its molarity.
Number of moles of solute n
Molarity
volume of solution in litres V
Molarity × Volume ofsolution in mL × molecular weight
weightofsolute in gram
Numbers of moles of solute ×
Molarity
Volume of solution in mL
weight of solute in grams ×
Molecular weight × Volume ofsolution in mL
strength of solution in gramlitre Equivalent weight of solute
Normality × .
Molecular weight of solute Molecular weight of solute
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Example A bottle of commercial sulphuric acid (density 1.787 g ml-1) is labelled as 86%
by weight. What is the molarity of acid?
Solution 86 g H2SO4 is in 100 g solution
Now
mass
density =
volume
1.78 =
V
V = = 56.18 ml.
Again
no of moles of HSO ×
molarity(M) =
Volume of sol in ml
×
= = 15.62 M
23. Molarity (m)
The number of moles or gram molecules of solute dissolved in 1000 gram of the solvent is
called molality of the solution.
Number of moles of solute Number of moles of solute ×
Molality of a solution
Amount of solvent in kg Amount of solved in gram
It is independent of temperature.
24. Parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb)
When a solute is present in very small quantity, it is convenient to express the concentration
in parts per million and parts per billion. It is the number of parts of solute per million
(106) or per billion (109) parts of solution. It is independent of the temperature.
Mass of solute component
ppm
Mass of solute component
ppb
Example Calculate the parts per million of SO2 gas in 250 ml water (density 1g cm-3)
containing 5×10-4 g of SO2 gas.
Solution Mass of SO2 gas = 5×10-4 g; Mass of H2O = Volume×Density
= 250 cm3×1g cm3 = 250 g
5×10-4
∴Parts per million of SO2 gas = × 106 = 2
250g
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25. Formality (F)
Formality of solution may be defined as the number of gram formula units of the ionic
solute dissolved per litre of the solution. It is represented by F. Commonly, the term
formality is used to express the concentration of the ionic solids which do not exist as
molecules but exist as network of ions. A solution containing one gram formula mass of
solute per liter of the solution has formality equal to one and os called Formal solution. It
may be mentioned here that the formality of a solution changes with change in temperature.
Number of gram formula units of solute
Formality(F) =
Volume of solution in litres
Mass of ionic solute (g)
=
gram formula unit mass of solute×Volume of solution (l)
Example What will be the formality of KNO3 solution having strength equal to 2.02 g per
litre?
Solution Strength of KNO3 =2.02 gL-1 and g formula weight of KNO3 =101 g
strength in gl-1 2.02
∴Formality of KNO3 = = = 0.02F
g. formula wt. of KNO3 101
26. Mole fraction (x)
The ratio of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all the components
present in the solution, is called the mole fraction of that component.
nA
Mole fraction of solute XA is given by XA
nA nB
nB
Mole fraction of solute XB is given by XB
nA nB
where nA is moles of solute A and nB is moles of solvent B.
27. Mass Fraction
Mass fraction of a component in a solution is the mass of the component divided by the
total mass of the solution. For a solution containing wA gm of A and wB gm of B.
WA WB
Mass fraction of A= Mass fraction of B=
WA+WB WA+WB
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NOTE ☞ It may be notes that molarity, mole fraction, mass fraction etc. are preferred to
molarity, normality, formality etc. Because the former involve the weights of the solute
and solvent where as later involve volumes of solutions. Temperature has no effect on
weights but it has significant effect on volumes.
28. Equivalent Weight
Equivalent weight of an element is that part by weight which combines with 1.0 g of
hydrogen or 8.0 g of oxygen or 35.5 g of chlorine.
Molar mass
(i) Equivalent weight of a salt (EW)
Net positive or nagativevalency
M M M
e.g. Equivalent weight CaCl Alcl Al So
Moller mass
(ii) Equivalent weight of acids
Basicity
M
e.g. Equivalent weight HCl Mbasicity HSO basicity
M
HPO basicity
Moller mass
(iii) Equivalent weight of bases
Acidity
M M
e.g. Equivalent weight NaOH M CaOH AlOH
The number of gram-equivalents (Eq)
Weight of compound w
Equivalent
≡ valent weight Equivalent weight
Mole Equivalent Relationship In a given weight (w) of sample, number of moles (n) and
number of equivalents (eq) are related as
w w
n and Eq
m Equivalent weight
Eq M
n factor
n Equivalent weight
n-factor For salt, it is valency, for acid it is basicity, for base it is acidity.
Normally/Molarity Relationship
Eq n N Eq MW
N and M ⇒ n factor
V V M n EW
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29. Relation Between Molarity And Normality
S Molarity × molecular weight of solute and S Normality × equivalent weight of solute.
So we can write
Molarity × molecular weight of solute Normality × equivalent weight of solute.
molarity × molecular weightofsolute molarity × molecular weightofsolute
Normality
equivalentweightofsolute moleculer weightofsolutevalencyfactor
Normality molarity × valencyfactor
N M ×n NM
Example Calculate the molarity and molality of a solution of H2SO4 (sp. gr.=1.98)
containing 27% H2SO4 by mass.
3.3 M, 3.77 M
Solution wt. 100
Vol of 100 g of 27% H2SO4 = = ml
d 1.098
wt./mol.wt. 27×1.198×1000
MH SO = = 3.3mol L-1
vol, of solution (litre) 98×100
wt./mol.wt. 27×1000
MH SO = = 3.77mol Kg-1
vol, of solvent (kg) (100-27)×98
30. Dilution Formula
If a concentrated solution is diluted, following formula work
(M1 and V1 are the molarity and volumes before dilution and M2 and V2 are molarity and
volumes after dilution)
31. Mixing of two or more solutions of different molarities
If two or more solutions of molarities are mixed together, molarity of the
resulting
solution can be worked out as :
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32. Strength of H2O2 solution
The strength of H2O2 is aqueous solution is expressed in the following two ways:
(i) Percentage strength
The mass of H2O2 present in 100 ml of the aqueous solution is termed as percentage
strength. For example, a 25% solution (w/v) of H2O2 means that 25 grams of H2O2 are
present in 100 ml of the solution.
(ii) Volume strength
Strength of the sample of H2O2 is generally expressed in terms of the volume of oxygen
at 0°C and 1 atm that one volume of the sample of hydrogen peroxide gives on heating.
The commercial samples are marked as ‘10 volume’. ‘15 volume’ or ‘20 volume’. 10
volume means that one volume of the sample of hydrogen peroxide gives 10 volumes of
oxygen at 0°C and 1 atm. 1 ml of a 10 volume solution of H2O2 will liberate 10 ml of
oxygen at 0°C and 1 atm.
33. Percentage labelling of oleum
Oleum is fuming sulphuric acid which contains extra SO3 dissolved in H2SO4 . To convert
this extra SO3 into H2SO4, water has to be added (SO3+H2O → H2SO4). The amount of
sulphuric acid obtained when just sufficient water is added into 100 g of oleum so that all
SO3 present in it is converted into H2SO4 is called percentage labelling of oleum.
34. Relationship Between Different Concentration Terms
(i) N = M × n factor
md
(ii) M
mM
× x
(iii) m
xM
× dx
(iv) M
xM xM
M
(v)
d M
m
× Percentagestrength
(vi) Volume strength of HO × N ×
Eq wt ofHO
× Percentagestrength ×
(vii) Volume strength of HO × M
Mol wt ofHO
(viii) In oleum labelled as x
× x
of free SO ww
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where N=Normality
M = Molarity m = molarity
d = density of solution M2= Molecular mass of solute
x2 = Mole fraction of solute x1 = Mole fraction of solvent
M1= Molecular mass of solvent d = Density of solution
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NEET Pattern
Exercise (1)
1. Which has maximum molecules?
(a) 7 g N2O
(b) 20 g H2
(c) 16 g NO2
(d) 16 g SO2
2. Haemoglobin contains 0.334% of iron by weight. The molecular weight of haemoglobin is
approximately 67200. The number of iron atoms (Atomic weight of Fe is 56) present in one
molecule of haemoglobin is
(a) 4
(b) 6
(c) 3
(d) 2
3. If the weight of metal chloride is x gram containing y gram of metal, the equivalent weight of
metal will be
x
(a) E ×
y
y x
(b) E
x
y
(c) E ×
x y
x y
(d) E
y
4. An organic compound containing C and H gave the following analysis C = 40%, H = 6.7%. Its
empirical formula would be
(a) CH4
(b) CH2O
(c) C2H4O2
(d) C2H4
5. 2.5 litre of 1 M NaOH solution mixed with another 3 litre of 0.5 M NaOH solution. Then find
out molarity of resultant solution.
(a) 0.80 M
(b) 1.0 M
(c) 0.73 M
(d) 0.50 M
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6. The total number of electrons in 2.0 g of D2 O to that in 1.8 g of H2O
(a) Double
(b) Same
(c) Triple
(d) One fourth
7. If the weight of metal oxide is x g containing of y g of oxygen, the equivalent weight of metal
will be
x
(a) E
y
y x
(b) E
x
y
(c) E
x y
(d) E
y
8. The number of significant figures in 2.653×104 is
(a) 8
(b) 4
(c) 7
(d) 1
9. Mole fraction of solute in aqueous solution of 30% NaOH.
(a) 0.16
(b) 0.05
(c) 0.25
(d) 0.95
Assertion-Reason Type Questions
10. In the following questions, a statements of assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason
(R)
(i) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the
assertion, then mark (a).
(ii) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion, then mark (b).
(iii) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (c).
(iv) If both Assertion and Reason are false statement, then mark (d).
A: In the reaction
2NaOH + H3PO4 Na2HPO4 + 2H2O,
M
equivalent weight of H3PO4 is where M is its molecular weight.
Molecular weight
R : Equivalent weight =
n factor
21
Class 11 | Biology
03 The Living World
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01. Introduction
Ÿ Biology; Bios = life, Logos = Study, means study of life is biology.
Ÿ “Biology is the science of life forms and living processes”
Ÿ Systematic and monumental description of life forms made human to make a detailed
system of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms i.e. Taxonomy.
Ÿ Hence the study of identification, nomenclature and identification is called taxonomy.
Ÿ All the organisms have been evolved by a very long and complex process of evolution, so
they all are related to each other by sharing of some common genetic material but up to
varying degrees. This sharing may be less or more among different cases..
Ÿ When human came to know this fact then he humbled and led to cultural movements for
conservation of biodiversity.
Ÿ Sharing of common characters was also proved when human studied the similarities among
living organisms both horizontally and vertically.
Ÿ The living world is full of amazing diversity of living organisms.
Ÿ The diversity of habitats of organisms is also very vast and amazing.
Ÿ This diversity makes us deeply reflect on “What indeed is life” ? This question actually
asks to solve two problems.
(i) First is a technical → What living is as opposed to the non living means Living v/s Non
living.
(ii) Second is a philosophical one → what the purpose of life is?
As scientists we will try to solve the first question, because the second question is more
related to philosophy rather science.
02. Characters of Living Organism
Following are the main characters of “living”-
GROWTH
REPRODUCTION Not the defining properties/characters/features
METABOLISM Defining properties/characters/features
CELLULARORGANISATION
CONSCIOUSNESS
The character which has no exception is called as defining property of life.
Growth
Ÿ Increase in mass or overall size of a tissue or organism or its parts is called growth.
Ÿ Increase in mass and increase in number of individuals are twin characters of growth.
Ÿ Growth is an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or even of an
individual cell.
Ÿ Growth is of two types :
(a) Intrinsic growth :- This growth is from inside of the body of living organisms.
(b) Extrinsic growth :- This growth is from outside i.e. accumulation of material on any body
surface Non living exhibts this type of growth.
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Ÿ Growth is of two types :
(a) Indeterminate growth = Unlimited growth → Growth which occurs continuously
throughout their life span is indeterminate growth or unlimited growth. It occurs in plants
and not in animals.
(b) Determinate growth = Limited growth → Growth which occurs only up to a certain age
is determinate growth or Limited growth. It occurs in animals. However, cell division
occurs in certain tissues to replace lost cells.
Ÿ In majority of higher plants and animals, growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive
events.
Ÿ Because both living and nonliving exhibit growth so it can not be taken as defining
property.
Ÿ Growth from inside (intrinsic growth) can be taken as defining property.
Reproduction
Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. It can be defined
as the production of new individuals of same kind by the grown up individuals. It is
characteristic exhibited by living organisms which can produce new young ones of their own
kind. There are two modes of reproduction ― asexual and sexual.
Ÿ In lower organisms like yeasts and Hydra, budding takes place in which new individuals
are produced by the formation of an outgrowth known as ‘bud’.
Ÿ Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction, as in this, body of an organism
(parent body) breaks up into two or more parts (known as fragments) each of which
grows into a new individual. It is also quite common in filamentous algae, fungus,
bryophytes (at protonema stage which occurs during life cycle in mosses).
Ÿ Planaria (flat worms) exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate its lost body parts
completely (which is known as true regeneration).
Ÿ This is a method of reproduction as new planarians develop by splitting of parent
planarian body either lengthwise or transversely. In higher organisms like plants, animals
sexual mode of reproduction is quite common which involves formation of gametes (i.e.,
sex cells) from two parents of opposite sexes but same species. These gametes then fuse
to form zygote (2n) which develops to form a new organism of same kind.
Ÿ Hence, reproduction is shown by all living organisms except a few which are either sterile
or infertile, like mule, worker-bees, infertile human couples, etc. do not reproduce at all.
Ÿ Hence, reproduction can be regarded as characteristic of living organisms but it is not their
exclusive defining characteristic.
Metabolism :
Ÿ The sum total all the chemical reactions occuring in our body is metabolism.
Ÿ All living organisms, both unicellular and multicellular exhibit metabolism.
Ÿ No non-living object shows metabolism.
Ÿ In this way metabolism is a defining character of living organisms because it has no
exceptions.
Ÿ Now we have known most of the chemical or metabolic reactions occuring in our body so
we can demonstrate many of them in a cell free medium or in a test tube in lab.
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Ÿ The isolated metabolic reaction outside the body of an organism, performed in a test tube
(in-vitro) is neither living nor nonliving.
Ÿ These isolated reaction can be regarded as living things, but they are definitely living
reactions because they are similar to the reactions performing in our body.
Ÿ Here we should not forget the fact that metabolism is the total sum of all the chemical
reactions performing in our body, it is not the sum of few or more living reactions.
Ÿ All organisms are made of small or big chemicals perform thousands of reactions and form
some other chemicals also in the bodies of living organisms.
Ÿ All plants, animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism.
Consciousness
Ÿ Most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organism. All living
organisms are able to detect changes, i.e., sense their surroundings and can also respond to
them. This is known as sensitivity which is defined as the ability to detect changes in the
environment and to give response towards it accordingly. Any change that can be detected
by an organism is called stimulus. This can be physical (like intensity, duration, direction
of light, sound, change in temperature, duration of day length, i.e., photoperiod, etc.),
chemical (like acids, pollutants, etc.) or biological (like other organisms).
Ÿ Besides, human being is the only organism, who is aware of himself. He has
self-consciousness too with awareness of the surroundings. He relate his mind to the
changes taking place in the world. He is an intelligent animal with thoughts, feelings and
self-hood. sensitivity or awareness is regarded as defining property of living organisms as
non-living things do not have power of sensing their surroundings and give response
according to it. However, patients lying in coma in hospitals virtually supported by
machines which replace heart and lungs are neither living nor dead otherwise brain-dead.
03. Diversity In The Living World
Ÿ We consider vast areas like forest, desert, plateau etc. we find that number and kinds of
living organisms increase many folds. These different kinds of plants, animals and other
organisms are referred to as ‘Biodiversity’ of this earth.
Ÿ Biodiversity is the number and various kinds of organisms found on earth. It stands for the
variability found among living organisms inhabiting this world.
Ÿ Biodiversity (Greek word bios = life; diversity = forms) or biological diversity can be
defined as the vast array of species of microorganisms, algae, fungi, plants, animals
occuring on the earth either in the terrestrial or aquatic habitats and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part.
Ÿ According to IUCN (International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural resources),
currently known and described species of all organisms are between 1.7-1.8 million. These
millions of plants, animals and other organisms in the world cannot be recognised, studied
or described by an individual on its own.
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Ÿ There is need to standardize the names of all living organisms after proper identification, in
order to study such diverse life forms. Therefore, for better understanding of biodiversity
scientists have established a definite system of principles, procedures and terms which
identifies, categories and assigns specific name to each and every organism known to us.
Such systems are acceptable to all biologists all over the world.
Ÿ The scientific need for simple, stable and internationally accepted systems for naming the
living organisms of the world has generated, a process called “Nomenclature”. And, before
assigning a specific name to an organism, one should determine or know its kind or
features correctly, so that one can identify it in each every part of the world. This is
known as “Identification”
04. Taxonomy
Ÿ This word was proposed by A.P. De Candolle in his book “Theories elementaire de la
botanique” (Theory of elementary botany)
Ÿ Taxonomy includes study of following 4 points
Characterization - Identification of character
Identification - Identification of living organisms
Nomenclature - Nomenclature of living organisms
Classification - Classification of living organisms in groups
05. Systematics
(i) The term “Systematics” was pro posed by Linnaeus. The word systematics is derived
from the latin word “systema” which means systematic arrangement of organisms.
(ii) According to G. Simpson : Systematics is the study of diversity of organisms and all
their comparative and evolutionary relationship.
NOTE It includes description of external morphological characters of plants of living
☞ organisms.
eg. Morphological characters of Root, Stem, Leaves, Flowers.
06. New Systematics or Neosystematics or Biosystematics
Ÿ Neo-systematics – A new branch – Name given by Julian Huxley (1940)
Ÿ It includes description of all the characters (external + internal)
e.g. Anatomical characters, Histological characters, Embryological characters, Identical
characters
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Ÿ It is used to know the inter-relationship between living organisms.
NOTE ☞ New systematics is mainly based on evolutionary as well as genetic relationship as
compared to morphological characters.
07. Types of Taxonomy
Ÿ Alpha taxonomy or classical taxonomy : It is based on external morphology of plants.
Ÿ Bete taxonomy or Explorative taxonomy : Besides external morphology it also includes
internal characters like embryological, cryological, anatomical characters etc.
Ÿ Omega taxonomy or Encyclopaedic taxonomy : Omega taxonomy have widest scope. It is
based on all the information or data available about plants.
Ÿ Chemotaxonomy : The uses of chemical characters of plants in classification or in solving
taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy or chemical taxonomy. It is based on the
chemical constituents of plants. The fragrance and taste vary from species to species.
The basic chemical compounds used in chemotaxonomy are alkaloids, carotenoides, tannins,
polysaccharide, nucleic acids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds etc.
Ÿ Cytotaxonomy : The use of cytological characters of plants in classification or in solving
taxonomic problems is called cytotaxonomy.
Ÿ Following characters are used in cytotaxonomy
v Chromosome number.
v Chromosome morphology – including chromosome size, total length of chromatin, arms
ratio, primary and secondary constriction.
v Heterochromatin.
v Chromosome behaviour at meiosis.
v Polyploidy – autopolyploidy, allopolyploidy and aneuploidy.
v Chromosomal aberrations.
v Different type of cytochromes.
Cytological data have been used in many cases to find out the affinities among genera.
Ÿ Karyotaxonomy : Based on characters of nucleus and chromosomes. Pattern of chromosomal
bands (dark bands and light bands) is most specific character.
Ÿ Adansonian system or Phenetic Classification or Numerical Classification.
v Proposed by “Sokel and Sneath”
v In it plants are classified on the basis of number of similarities and dissimilarities.
v In this, importance to any one character is not given, all characters have same
importance.
While in natural classification floral characters have importance than morphological
characters.
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08. Significance of Taxonomy
Ÿ Most significant feature is identification of living organism.
Ÿ With the help of taxonomy diversity of living being can be studied easily.
Ÿ Maximum diversity of living beings are found in tropical rain forests.
Ÿ These forest have heavy rain fall through out the year.
Ÿ In India maximum tropical rain forest are found in Andaman & Nicobar and in all eastern
states (Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal etc.)
Ÿ At present, 300 lakh (30 million) type of living organism are found on our earth.
Ÿ 17 lakh (1.7 million) type of living organism have been discovered till now.
Ÿ Out of them 12 lakh types are animal and 5 lakh types are plants.
09. Taxonomic Category
Classification is not a single step process but involves heirarchy of steps in which each step
represent a rank or category.
Ÿ Species :
Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organism with fundamental similarities as
a species. One should be able to distinguish one species from the other closely related
species based on the distinct morphological difference.
Ÿ Genus :
Genus comperises a group of related species which has more characters in common in
comparison to species of other genera.
Ÿ Family :
Family has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to
genus and species. Families are characterized on the basis of both vegetative and
reproductive feature of plant species.
For example :Three different genera Solanum, Petunia and Datura are included in family
solanaceae.
Ÿ Order :
Order being a higher category is the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar
character.
For example : Plant families like convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included in the order
polymoniales mainly based on the floral characters.
Ÿ Class :
Class includes organism of related orders having less similarities than orders.
Ÿ Division :
Division includes all organisms belonging to different classes having a few common
characters. There 7 main taxonomic categories. They are obligate or essential or broad
categories i.e. they are strictly used at the time of any plant classification. There are some
extra or sub categories, like sub division, sub order, sub family, etc. They are used only
when they are needed.
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Biggest group → Kingdom
Division/Phylum
Class
Order - Cohort
Family
Genus
Species
v The classification of any plant or animal is written in descending or ascending order.
v Hierarchy – Descending or ascending arrangement of taxonomic categories is known as
hierarchy.
v Species : Smallest taxonomic category → It is basic unit of classification.
NOTE ☞ As we go higher from species to kingdom, number of common characters decreases.
Lower the taxa more are the characteristics that the members with in the taxon share.
Higher the category, greater is the difficulty of determining the relationship to other
taxa at the same level.
Suffix for taxa (Taxon)
Division ― phyta
Sub div ― phytina
Class ― opsida, phyceae, ae
Order ― ales
Sub-order ― ineae
Family ― aceae
Sub Family ― oideae
NOTE ☞ There is no suffix for Genus, Species and Kingdom.
10. Nomenclature
Ÿ Polynomical system :
v According to this system name of any plant consists of many words.
v For eg. Caryophyllum → Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis
v Based of morphology mainly
Ÿ Trinomical system :
v Proposed by Lamarck.
v According to this system name of any plant or species is composed of three names-
Ÿ Generic name
Ÿ Specific epithet
Ÿ Subspecific name (Name of variety)
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v When members of any species have large variations then trinomial system is used.
v On the basis of dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species. eg.
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Ÿ Binomial system :
v Binomial system was first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book -“Pinax Theatre
Botanica”
v Carolus Linnaeus : Linnaeus used this nomenclature system for the first time on large
scale and proposed scientific name of all the plants and animals.
v Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book “Species Plantarum”
v It was published on 1 May, 1753. So this was the initiation of binomial system for
plants.
v So any name proposed (for plants) before this date is not accepted today.
v Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book “Systema Naturae” (10th
edition).
v This 10th edition of Systema Naturae was first published on 1 August, 1758.
v So initiation of binomial system for animals is believed to be started on 1 August,
1758.
11. ICBN
Ÿ Main rules of ICBN :
v According to binomial system name of any species consists of two components or
words.
Ÿ Generic name Name of genus
Ÿ Specific epithet
e.g. Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Mangifera indica (Mango)
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Generic name Specific epithet Generic name Specific epithet
v In plant nomenclature (ICBN) tautonyms are not valid i.e. generic name and specific
epithet should not be same in plants.
eg. Mangifera mangifera
But tautonyms are valid in animal nomenclature (ICZN-International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature)
eg. Naja naja (Indian cobra), Rattus rattus (Rat)
v First letter of generic name should be in capital letter and first letter of specific epithet
should be in small letter.
eg. Mangifera indica
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v But if specific epithet is based on the name of any person, its first letter should be in
capital letter.
eg. Isoetes Pantii
v When written with free hand or typed, then generic name and specific epithet should
be separately underlined.
But during printing name should be in italics to indicate their latin orgin.
v Name of scientist (who proposed nomenclature) should be written in short after the
specific epithet.
eg. Mangifera indica Linn.
v Name of scientist should be neither underlined nor in italics, but written in Roman
letters (simple alphabets)
v Sciectific names should be derived from Latin (usually) or Greek languages because
they are dead languages.
v Type specimen (Herbarium Sheet) of newly discovered plant should be placed in
herbarium (Dry garden).
12. Classification
According to “A.P. de Candolle”, Classification is of two types
(i) Empirical Classification (ii) Rational Classification
Ÿ Empirical Classification :
v In this type, the actual nature or character of plants is not considered.
v Plants are classified on the basis of their alphabetical order.
v In this way plants are classified into 26 groups.
Ÿ Rational Classification
In this classification, plants are classified on the basis of their actual character or nature
i.e. by viewing the characters.
Types of rational classification
(iii) Practical classification
In this type of classification, plants are classified on the basis of their economic importance.
e.g. Oil yielding plants → Coconut, Walnut, Soyabean
Fibre yielding plants → Jute, Cotton
Medicinal plants → Rauwolfia, Cinchona, Eucalyptus
NOTE ☞ In this classification, any one plant can be a member of more than one group.
eg. Turmeric : Multi uses plant, it gives both medicines and spices.
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(iv) Artificial classification :
In this type of classification plants are classified on the basis of one or two morphological
characters. i.e. over all morphology is not considered.
for e.g. - Classification proposed by Linnaeus is Artificial
Linnaeus classified plant kingdom on the basis stamen into 24 classes.
NOTE ☞ Linnaeus classification is also called sexual classification.
NOTE ☞ Linnaeus divided flowering plants into 23 classed starting with class monandria with a
single stamen (eg. Canna) and plants with twenty or more stamens attached with calyx
were assigned to class Icosandria. He also included all non-flowering plants such as
algae, fungi, mosses and ferns in a separate class called cryptogamia.
(v) Natural classification:
In this type, plants are classified on the basis of their complete morphological characters of
stem, root, leaves, flowers etc.
Importance ―
Natural classification is believed to be the best classification, because it represents the
natural similarities and dissimilarities of plants i.e. it represents the interrelationship among
plants.
In this classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows many similarities, while
in artificial classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows only, 1 or 2 similar
characters. They have many dissimilarities.
Natural classification is of two types
Ÿ Natural formal
Ÿ Natural phylogenetic
(a) Natural formal → In this classification, the phylogeny of the plant is not considered
i.e. only the morphology of the plant is considered.
(b) Natural phylogenetic → In this classification, both morphology and phylogeny are
considered. In phylogenetic classification, the plants are arranged on the basis of their
evolution.
Thallophyta → Bryophyta → Pteridophyta → Gymnosperm → Angiosperm (most advanced
plants)
Note : Phylogenetic classification also known as cladistic classification
(vi) Adansonian system or phenetic classification or Numerical classification :
In it plants are classified on the basis of numbers of similarities and dissimilarities. This
classification is easily carried out by using computers and it is based on all observable
characteristics. In this classification number and codes are assigned to all the characters and
the data are prepared and then processed. Those organism which have maximum similarities
are placed in same group. In this way each character is given equal importance and at the
same hundreds of characters can be considered.
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NOTE ☞ In this classification importance to any one character is not given, all characters have
same importance. While in natural classification floral (reproductive) characters have
more importance than vegetative (root, stem and leaves) characters.
13. Taxonomical Aids
Ÿ Accurate classification and identification of organisms is required which needs field studies
and intensive laboratory work. This is done after collection of actual specimens of plants
and animal species which is the primary source of all taxonomic studies.
Ÿ Hence, these taxonomical studies help in
Fundamental study of different living organisms.
Also aid in their systematic study.
Information gathered is stored with specimens for future studies.
Herbarium
Ÿ It is defined as “store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets”. Further, these sheets are arranged in the sequence of a universally
accepted system of classification.
Ÿ Such herbaria serve as quick source of reference in taxonomical studies. It also provides
information about the local flora as well as flora of distant areas. This information is also
useful in locating wild varieties and relatives of economically important plants.
List of some Herbaria of the world :
(i) Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (England)
(ii) Central National Herbarium, Calcutta
14. Botanical Gardens
Botanical garden is an institution located in an enclosed piece of land which grows numerous
kinds of plants obtained from different places for botanical studies. Each plant is first
identified and then labelled indicating its botanical/scientific name and its family.
List of some Botanical Gardens
(i) Royal Botanical Garden, Kew (England)
(ii) National Botanica Garden, Lucknow
(iii) Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah
(iv) Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling
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15. Museum
Ÿ Museum is a place used for storing, preservation and exhibition of both plants and
animals. All educational institutes and universities maintain museums in their Botany and
Zoology departments.
Ÿ A commonly used preservative solutions is “Formalin”. Plants and animals specimen may
also be preserved as dry specimens. For instances, insects are collected, killed and pinned
before preserving them in special insect boxes while larger animals like reptiles, birds
and mammals are usually stuffed and then preserved.
Ÿ National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) in Delhi is important from natural science
point of view.
16. Zoological Parks
Ÿ Zoological parks commonly known as zoos are the places where live wild animals are
kept in protected environment which is made similar to their natural habitats as much as
possible. Here, they are provided with protection and care by human beings.
Ÿ These parks serve as ideal means to study and learn different food habits and behaviour
of variety of animals. So, students should visit nearby zoos for knowledge and
entertainment both.
Ÿ National Zoological Park (Delhi) is one of the finest zoos of Asia.
17. Key
Ÿ Key is an important taxonomic aid used for identification of plants and animals based on
the similarities and dissimilarities. Actually, it is a set of alternate characters of different
types arranged sequence wise in such a fashion that by selection and elimination one can
quickly find out the name of the organism.
Ÿ The keys are based on the set of contrasting characters generally in a pair known as
“couplet”. Each character of the couplet or statement in the key is called as “lead”.
Ÿ One has to choose correct option between two statements of characters of definite species
so that the animal or plant is identified accurately. Keys are generally analytical in nature.
18. Flora, Manuals, Monographs and Catalogues
Ÿ These flora, manuals, monographs, etc. are recorded descriptions of plants, animals and
other organisms. They provide correct identification and description of variety of living
organisms.
v Flora : It is a book containing information about plants found in a particular area. It
gives the actual account of habitat and distribution of various plants of a given area.
These provide the index to the plant species found in a particular area. For example,
Flora of Delhi by J.K. Maheshwari.
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v Manual : It is a book containing complete listing and description of the plants growing
in a particular area. They provide useful information for identification of names of
various species found in an area.
v Monograph : It contains information of any one taxon.
v Catalogue : It include the alphabetical arrangement of species of a particular place
describing their features.
19. Species concept
John Ray : Proposed the term and concept of species.
Ÿ Biological concept of species
v Ernst Mayr (Darwin of 20th century) proposed the biological concept of species.
v Mayr defined the “species” in the form of biological concept.
v According to Mayr “All the members that can interbreed among them self and can
produce fertile offsprings are the members of same species”
But this definition of Mayr was incomplete because this definition is applicable to
sexually reproducing living beings because there are many organisms that have only
asexual mode of reproduction.
eg. Bacteria, Mycoplasma, BGA
v The main character in determination of any species is interbreeding. But this character
is not used in taxonomy. In taxonomy, the determination of species is mainly based on
morphological characters.
v In higher plants, the determination of species is mainly based on the morphology of
flower (floral morphology). Because floral (reproductive) characters are more
conservative as compared to vegetative (Root, Stem, Leaf) characters i.e. they do not
show major changes.
Ÿ Typological Concept
v It was proposed by “Aristotle” and “Plato”.
v This concept is based on single individual of a species.
v According to this concept, “There is a definite type or pattern of characters in the each
species and every living organisms and all the members of species shows maximum
resemblance with this pattern”.
v The species in which one foxed pattern of characters is present are called as monotypic
species.
eg. Bacteria, Blue green algae
v In many species, more than one type of pattern of characters are present. These are
called “Polytypic species” or “Macrospecies”.
eg. Brassica oleracea → Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-Khol.
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NEET Pattern
Exercise (1)
1. Which one of the following scientist’s name is correctly matched with the theory put forth by
him?
(a) Weismann − Theory of continuity of germplasm
(b) Pasteur − inheritance of acquired characters
(c) De Vries − Natural selection
(d) Mendel − Theory of pangenesis
2. Carbohydrates the most abundant biomolecules on earth, are produced by
(a) all bacteria, fungi and algae
(b) fungi, algae and green plant cells
(c) some bacteria, algae and green plant cells
(d) viruses, fungi and bacteria
3. Age of fossils in the past was generally determined by radio-carbon method and other methods
involving radioactive elements found in the rocks. More precise methods, which were used
recently and led to the revision of the evolutionary periods for different groups of organism,
include
(a) study of carbohydrates/proteins in fossils
(b) study of the conditions of fossilisation
(c) Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) and fossil DNA
(d) study of carbohydrates/proteins in rocks
4. According to Oparin, which one of the following was not present in the primitive atmosphere of
the earth?
(a) Methane
(b) Oxygen
(c) Hydrogen
(d) Water vapour
5. There is no life on moon due to the absence of
(a) O2
(b) water
(c) light
(d) temperature
6. First life on earth was
(a) cyanobacteria
(b) chemoheterotrophs
(c) autotrophs
(d) photoautotrophs
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7. If there was no CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere the temperature of earth’s surface would be
(a) higher than the present
(b) less than the present
(c) the same
(d) dependent on the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
8. The CO2 content by volume, in the atmospheric air is about
(a) 0.0314%
(b) 0.34%
(c) 3.34%
(d) 4%
9. Glycogen is a polymer of
(a) galactose
(b) glucose
(c) fructose
(d) sucrose
10. A nucleotide is formed of
(a) purine, pyrimidine and phosphate
(b) purine, sugar and phosphate
(c) nitrogen base, sugar and phosphate
(d) pyrimidine, sugar and phosphate
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Answer & Solution
Q1 (a)
Pasteur gave the Theory about the Germ Plasm, De Vries give the Theory about Mutation and
mendel works on Theory of Inheritance. So the Weismann give the Theory of Continuity of
germplasm, according to the germ-plasm theory, inheritance in a multicellular organism only takes
place by means of the germ cells: the gametes, such as egg cells and sperm cells. Genetic
information cannot pass from soma to germ-plasm and on to the next generation.
Q2 (c)
Some Photosynthetic Bacteria such as Rhodopseudomonas can prepare carbohydrates. but during this
type of food synthesis O2 is not evolved because in this case hydrogen donor is other than H2O.
Algae (blue and green-blue) and all green plant cells prepare their food (carbohydrate) through
photosynthesis. Here, hydrogen ions are donated by water molecules by the process of photolysis of
water, i.e. O2 is released during this type of food synthesis.
Q3 (c)
Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) is a technique used to date newly formed materials, which
Radiocarbon dating cannot, like carbonates, tooth enamel, or materials that have been previously
heated like igneous rock. The age of substance can be determined by measuring the dosage of
radiation since the time of its formation. DNA in ices and DNA in hydrated solids give nearly
identical results, suggesting that the DNA strands in ices are as closely packed as those in the
hydrated solid DNA samples. Our results suggest that previous reports of extensive electron-transfer
distances for DNA in icy media are found to be better explained by substantial inter-double-strand
electron transfer. this was best method which were used recently for study the evolutionary periods
for different groups of organism.
Q4 (b)
According to Oparin, in the primitive Earth's surface, carbon, hydrogen, water vapour, and ammonia
reacted to form the first organic compounds. He believed that organic molecules could be formed
from abiogenic materials in the presence of an external energy source (e.g., ultraviolet radiation) and
that the primitive atmosphere was reducing (having very low amounts of free oxygen) and contained
ammonia and water vapour, among other gases. Both also suspected that the first life-forms
appeared in the warm, primitive ocean and were heterotrophic (obtaining preformed nutrients from
the compounds in existence on early Earth) rather than autotrophic (generating food and nutrients
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from sunlight or inorganic materials). So in the primitive environment Oxygen is absent.
Q5 (b)
Water is an essential constituent of cytoplasm of all living organisms it helps in distribution of
substances within the organism elimination of waste products, body temperature maintenance etc.
It is absent on moon. Anaerobic organisms can live in the absence of O2. Light and temperature
are already known to exist on moon. Lack of liquid water: Life, as we know it, requires liquid
water to thrive. The lack of atmosphere means no greenhouse effect and very low pressure. The
surface temperature is either extremely cold, or extremely hot- water cannot exist in a liquid state
on the lunar surface.
Q6 (b)
Chemoautotrophs does carbon fixation on their own and chemoautotrophs gets the carbon from
outside. If you consider the process of evolution, traits evolve over long periods of time and
applying the principle of incremental complexity, the complex will follow simpler. Since autotrophs
need more time to evolve complex mechanisms to synthesize carbon on their own compared to get
it somewhere else, heterotrophs would have evolved first on the earth.
Q7 (b)
CO2 keeps our earth warm by not letting earth's terrestrial radiation escape into space. It acts like a
greenhouse. Remove this layer of insulation, out earth will become really cold. The amount of
atmospheric CO2, or carbon dioxide, is inextricably linked to climate. Average global carbon dioxide
levels and average global temperatures go hand in hand, and temperature changes cause changes in
precipitation. Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere tend to fluctuate in a cyclical
pattern over tens of thousands of years, as do worldwide periods of cold including Ice Ages and
warmth.
Q8 (a)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the 5th most abundant gas in the atmosphere and, together with water
vapor, probably the best known of the greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
are not constant -- they have risen by nearly 40 percent since the Industrial Revolution, according
to climate scientist Todd Sanford. They are small compared to the main atmospheric components of
nitrogen and oxygen. Scientists express them as parts per million, or ppm. In March 2014, carbon
dioxide levels were at 314 ppm, which is 0.0314 percent of the atmosphere. This roughly
corresponds to a mass of 3 trillion tons. After nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and argon, carbon
dioxide is the fifth most abundant gas in the atmosphere.
Q9 (b)
Glycogen is a readily mobilized storage form of glucose. It is a very large, branched polymer of
glucose residues that can be broken down to yield glucose molecules when energy is needed. Most
of the glucose residues in glycogen are linked by α-1, 4-glycosidic bonds. Branches at about every
tenth residue are created by α-1, 6-glycosidic bonds. Recall that α-glycosidic linkages form open
helical polymers, whereas β linkages produce nearly straight strands that form structural fibrils, as in
cellulose.
Q10 (c)
DNA is just a pattern made up of four different nucleotides. Each chain of the double helix is
made up of repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose) in
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the middle of a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. Nucleotides form a pair in a molecule of
DNA where two adjacent bases form hydrogen bonds. The nitrogenous bases of the DNA always
pair up in specific way, purine with pyrimidine (A with T, G with C), held together by weak
hydrogen bonds. A single nucleotide is composed of three functional groups: a sugar, a
triphosphate, and a nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) base.
20
Class 12 | Physics
01 Electrostatics-I
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01. Introduction
Electrostatics, deals with the study of charges in rest. These stationary charges occurs due to
friction of two insulting bodies, therefore it is often called frictional electricity.
Important points
(i) Gravitational force is the weakest while nuclear force is the strongest force of the nature
(ii) Nuclear force does not depend upon charge, it acts equally between proton-proton,
proton neutron and neutron-neutron.
(iii) There are weak forces acting in β-degradiation in radio-activity.
(iv) A stationary charge produces electric filed while a moving charge produce electric as
well as magnetic field.
(v) Moving charge produce electric field as well as magnetic field but does not radiate
energy while uniform acceleration.
(vi) Accelerated charge produce electric field as well as magnetic field and radiate energy.
02. Charge
Property of a substance by virtue of which it can repel or attract another charged substance.
Charges are of two types
(a) Positive charge : Lesser number of electrons than number of protons.
(b) Negative charge : More number of electrons than number of protons
Importants Points : Only, electron is responsible for a substance to be charged and not the
proton.
Properties of Charge
(i) Like charges repel while unlike charges attract each other.
(ii) Charge is quantized in nature i.e. The magnitude of charge possessed by different objects
is always and integral multiple of charge of electron (or proton) i.e. q = ± ne where n
= 1, 2, 3 ..........
(iii) The minimum possible charge that can exist in nature is the charge of electron which
has a magnitude of e =1.60207 × 10－19 coulomb. This is also known as quantum of
charge or fundamental charge.
(iv) In an isolated system the algebraic sum of total charge remains constant. This is the law
of ‘Conservation of charge’.
03. Coulomb’s Las
The force of attraction or repulsion between two stationary point charges is directly
proportional to the product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance
between them. This force acts along the line joining the two. If q1 & q2 are charges in
consideration r, the distance between them and F, the force acting between them
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q1 q2
r
Then, F ∝ q q
F ∝r
q q
∴ F∝
r
q q
⇒ F K where k = constant.
r
×
K N mC
r r
where,
Electric permittivity of vacuum or air
× C N m and
K or r Relative permittivity or Dielectric constant or Specific inductive capacity
r ⇒ r
[Newton’s law for particles is analogous to coulomb’s law for rest charge. The difference is
that Newton’s law gives attraction force while coulomb’s law gives attraction as well as
repulsion force]
NOTE ☞ (i) Coulomb’s law is applicable to point charges only. But it can be applied for
distributed charges also
(ii) This law is valid only for stationary charges and cannot be applied for moving
charges.
(iii) This law is valid only if the distance between two charges is not less than 10－15
m
Direction
Direction of the force acting between two charges depends upon their nature and it is along
the line joining two charges.
r
q1 q2
F r
F
q1q2 > 0
r
q1 q2
F
F
r
q1q2 < 0
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F force on q2 due to q1
qq
F
r A
rr
(where r is a unit vector pointing from q1 to q2)
F Force on q due to q
1 2
qq
F
r B
rr
(where
r is a unit vector pointing from q2 to q1)
⇒ Electric force between two charges not depends on neighbouring charges.
⇒ If a dielectric slab ∈r of thickness ‘t’ is placed between two charges (distance d),
force decreases.
QQ
F where r d t t
∈r
∈ r
04. Electric Field
A charge produces something called and electric field in the space around it and this electric
field exerts a force on any charge placed in it.
NOTE ☞ The electric field does not exert force on source charge.
Electric field Intensity
Force experienced by a unit positive charge placed in and electric field at a point is called
electric field intensity at that point. It is also known as electric field simply. Let q0 be the
positive test charge placed in an electric field. If F is the force experienced
by this charge, then
F
E lim
q→ q
(i) Unit : N/C or volt/metre
(ii) This is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as force on the positive test
charge.
● q0
p
(iii) Since
E is the force on unit charge, force on charge q is.
F q
E
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(iv) Dimension is [M1L1T－3A－1]
(v) Electric field due to a point charge is
kq
E r
r
(vi) Direction of electric field due to positive charge is away from charge while direction of
electric field due to negative charge is towards the charge.
+q
E
O P
－q P
O
E
Special point
(a) If q1 and q2 are at a distance r and both have the same type of charge, then the distance
q r
‘d’ of the point from q1 where electric field is zero is given by d This
q
q
point will lie between line joining q1 & q2.
r
q1 q2 P
(b) If q1 and q2 have opposite charges then distance ‘d’ of the point ‘p’ from q1 where
electric field is zero is given by
q r
d q q
q
q
d
q1 q2 P
(c) There charges +Q1, +Q2 and q are placed on a straight line. If this system of charges is
in equillibrium, charge q should be a given
QQ
q
Q Q
⇒ For measuring E practically a test charge (+ve) of magnitude much less than the
source charge should be used.
⇒ Electric force on a charge in uniform E is constant and hence acceleration is constant, so
equations of motion can be used
qE
(acceleration a )
m
⇒ Electric field due to linear charge distribution (a) Finite wire
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(d) Finite wire
λ
+
+
+ α
M P
+ R
+
+
k
Ep sin
R
(e) Infinite wire (α = 180º)
λ
+
+
+
P
+ R
+
+
k
EP
R
(f) Charged arc
+ λ
+
+
+ R
+ α
P
+
+
+
+
+
k
EP sin
R
(g) Charged ring of radius R
Q
O x
P
R
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kQx
at and axial point EP
R x
kQ
x R ⇒ EP
x
If
kqx
x ≪ R ⇒ EP
R
R
As x is increases:
E due to ring first ↑ then ↓ and at X it is maximum.
Electric lines of forces : (ELF)
The electric field in a region can be represented by drawing certain curves known as electric
lines of force.
An electric line of force is that imaginary smooth curve drawn in an electric field along
which a free isolated unit positive charge moves.
Properties
(i) Imaginary
(ii) Can never cross each other
(iii) Can nerver be closed loops
(iv) The number of lines originating or terminating on a charge is proportional to the
magnitude of charge. In rationalised MKS system electric lines are associated with
unit charge, so if a body encloses q, total lines of force associated with it (called flux)
will be q
(v) Total lines of force may be fractional as lines of force are imaginary.
(vi) Lines of force ends or starts normally at the surface of a conductor.
(vii) If there is no electric field there will be no lines of force.
(viii) Lines of force per unit area normal to the area at a point represents magnitude of
intensity, crowded lines represent strong field while distant weak field.
(ix) Tangent to the line of force at a point in an electric field gives the direction of
intensity. So a positive charge free to move follow the line of force.
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05. Electric Dipole
(i) An system consisting of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is
termed and electric dipole.
－q
p
+q
Example : Na+Cl－, H+ Cl－ etc.
(ii) An isolated atom is not a dipole because centre of positive charge coincides with centre
of negative centres. But if atom is placed in an electric field, then the positive and
negative centres are displaced relative to each other and atom become a dipole.
(iii) DIPOLE MOMENT: The product of the magnitude of charges and distance between
them is called the dipole moment.
It is denoted by p and
p q ×
(a) This is a vector quantity which is directed from negative to positive charge.
(b) Unit : C-m
(c) Dimension : [M0L1T1A1]
Electric field due to a dipole
(i) There are two components of electric field at any point
(a) Er→ in the direction of r
(b) E → in the direction perpendicular to r
p cos
Er
r
p sin
E
r
E
α Er
E
θ P
r
p cos
θ θ
O
－ p +q
q p sin
(i) Resultant θ
p
E Er E cos
r
(ii) Angle between the resultant E and r given
E
Er
by tan tan tan
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(iii) If θ = 0, i.e point is on the axis -
kp
Eaxis r ≫
r
(iv) If θ = 90º , i.e. point is on the line bisecting the dipole perpendicularly
kp
Eequatorial r ≫
r
(v) So, Eaxis Eequatorial (for same r)
pr
(vi) Eaxis
r
p
Eequatorial
r
where p q
(vii)
P
r2 r r1
θ
－ O +q
potential at a general qpoint.
p cos
V
r
kp
(viii)If θ = 0º, Vaxis
r
(ix) If θ = 90º, Vequator
(x) Here we see that V = 0 but E ≠ 0 for points at equatorial position.
(xi) Again, if r >> d is not true and d = 2ℓ,
p
Vaxis
r
Vequator
NOTE ☞ (i) This is not essential that at a point, where E = 0, V will also be zero there eg.
inside a uniformly charged sphere, E = 0 but V ≠ 0
(ii) Also if V = 0, it if not essential for E to be zero eg. in equatorial position of
dipole V = 0, but E ≠ 0
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Electric Dipole In an Electric Field – Uniform Electric Field
(i) When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric dipole, A torque acts on it
which subjects the dipole to rotatory motion. This τ is given by τ = pE sinθ or
p×
E
(ii) Potential energy of the dipole
U pEcos
p E
+q
F
2
p
2 sinθ E
－q θ
F
Cases
(a) If θ = 0º, i.e. p
E and U = －pE, dipole is in the minimum potential energy
state and no torque acting on it and hence it is in the stable equilibium state.
(b) For θ = 180º, i.e. p and E are in opposite direction, then τ = 0 but U = pE which
is maximum potential energy state. Although it is in equilibium but it is not a stable
state and a slight perturbation can disturb it.
(c) i.e. p⊥ E then
τ = pE (maximum) and U = 0
Work done in rotating an electric dipole in and electric field
(i) To rotate the dipole by an angle θ from the state of stable equilibrium W = PE
(1－cosθ).
(ii) Work done in rotating the dipole from θ1 to θ2 in an uniform electric filed
W = pE (cosθ1 －cosθ2)
(iii) Work done in rotating the dipole through 180º from stable equilibrium state
W = 2pE = 2 (potential energy)
06. Electric Flux
(i) It is denoted by ‘’.
(ii) It is a scalar quantity.
(iii) It is defined as the total number of lines of force passing normally through a curved
surface placed in the field.
(iv) It is given by the dot product of E and normal infinitesimal
ds area integrated over a
closed surface.
d E
ds
E
ds
Edscos
where θ = angle between electric field and normal to the area
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ds
E
θ
S
(v) Unit : (a) N-m2/C (b) volt – meter
(vi) Dimension : [ML3T－3A－1]
(vii) Flux due to a positive charge goes out of the surface while that due to negative charge
comes into the surface.
(viii) Value of electric flux is independent of shape and size of the surface.
(ix) If only a dipole is present in the surface then net flux is zero.
(x) Net flux from a surface is zero does not imply that intensity of electric field is also
zero.
07. Gauss’s Law
This law states that electric flux E through any closed surface is equal to times the net
charge ‘q’ enclosed by the surface i.e
q
E
E ds
Important point about flux
(i) Independent of distances between charges inside the surface and their distribution.
(ii) Independent of shape, size and nature of surface.
(iii) Net flux due to a charge outside the surface will be zero.
(iv) Gauss law is valid only for the vector fields which obey inverse square law
Example A hemispherical surface of radius R is kept in a uniform electric field E such that E is
parallel to the axis of hemi-sphere, Net flux from the surface will be
Solution E ds E R
E (Area of surface perpendicular to E)
E R
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08. Application of Gauss’s Law
Electric field due to a solid conducting sphere/Hollow conducting sphere.
+ + + +
+
+ +
+
+ r +
+ +
+ O P
+ q
+ R +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
kq R
(i) Case: 1 r > R E r r
r
r
Case: 2 r = R E r
Case: 3 r < R
E
i.e. At point interior to a conducting or a hollow sphere, electric field intensity is zero.
(ii) For points outside the sphere, it behaves like all the charge is present at the centre.
(iii) Intensity of electric field is maximum at the surface
Imp.
(iv) Electric field at the surface is always perpendicular to the surface.
(v) For points, near the surface of the conductor, E perpendicular to the surface
Electric field due to infinitely long charge
(i) A long wire is given a line charge density λ. If wire is positively charged, direction of
E will be away from the wire (outward ⊥) while fro a negatively charged wire,
direction of
E will be (inward ⊥) towards the wirde.
(ii) E at point p
E r or E
r r
O
r
r
(iii) Potential difference between points A (r1) & Br V VB n
r
r
(iv) Potential difference between points A (r1) & Br V VB n
r
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Electric field at a point due to an infinite sheet of charge
(i) If σ = surface charge density. Intensity at points near to the sheet
E r
+
+
+ E
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(ii) Direction of electric field is perpendicular to the sheet of charge.
(iii) Intensity of electric field does not depend upon the distance of points from the sheet for
the points in front of sheet i.e. There is an equipotential region near the charged sheet.
(iv) Potential difference between two points A & B at distances r1 & r2 respectively is
VA VB r r
Electric field due to infinite charged metal plate
(i) Intensity at points near the plate
E r
where σ = surface charge density
(ii)
E is independent of distance of the point from the plate and also of the area of sheet
i.e. There is an equipotential region near the plate.
+ +
+ + σ
+ + E
+ +
r
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
(iii) Direction of electric field is perpendicular to the palate.
(iv) Potential difference between two point A (r1) and B (r2) (r1 < r2) near the plate is
∆V VA VB r r
Electric field due to charged ring : Q charge is distributed over a ring of radius R.
(i) Intensity of electric field at a distance x from the centre of ring along it’s axis-
Qcos Qx
E ∵ cos xr
r
r
Qx
∵ r
R x
R x
and it’s direction will be along the axis of the ring.
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d
+ +l ++
+
+ +
+ + r
+ R +
+
+ + θ P d E
+ O + x θ
cosθ
+ + d E
+ +
+ sinθ dE
Q+ +
+ +
+ ++
d
(ii) Intensity will be zero at the centre
l of the ring.
(iii) Intensity will be maximum at a distance R from the centre and
Q
Emax
R
(iv) Electric potential at a distance x from centre,
Q
V
x R
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NEET
Exercise (1)
1. The force between two charges situated in air is F, The force between the same charges if the
distance between them is reduced to half and they are situated in a medium having dielectric
constant 4 is
(a) F/4
(b) 4 F
(c) 16 F
(d) F
2. If charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining two equal charges Q, the system of three
charges will be in equilibrium if q is
(a) – Q/2
(b) – Q/4
(c) – 4 Q
(d) + Q/2
3. Two equally charged identical metal spheres A and B repel each other with a force 3 × 10–5 N.
Another identical unchanged sphere C is touched with A and then placed at the mid-point
between A and B. Net force on C is
(a) 1 × 10–5 N
(b) 2 × 10–5 N
(c) 1.5 × 10–5 N
(d) 3 × 10–5 N
4. The electric strength of air is 2 × 107 N/C. The maximum charge that a metallic sphere of
diameter 6 mm can hold is
(a) 3 nC
(b) 20 nC
(c) 1.5 nC
(d) 2 nC
5. An electric dipole is placed at an angle of 60º with an electric field of intensity 105 NC–1. It
experiences a torque equal to Nm. Calculate the charge on the dipole, if the dipole length
is 2 cm.
(a) – 8 × 103 C
(b) 8.54 × 10–4 C
(c) 8 × 10–3 C
(d) 0.85 × 10–6 C
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6. An electric field exists in the space around a point charge + Q. A positive charge + q is
carried from A to B and A to C, where B and C lie on a circle with + Q at the centre, Work
done is
+Q
B
A (+q) C
Figure
(a) greater along the path AC than along AB
(b) greater along the path AB than along AC
(c) same in both the cases
(d) zero in both the cases.
7. An α-particle and a proton are accelerated through same potential difference from rest. Find the
ratio of their final velocity
(a)
(b) 1 : 1
(c) 1 :
(d) 1 : 2
8. A, B and C are three points in a uniform electric field, in Figure. The electric potential is :
B
C
(a) Same at all the three points A, B and C
(b) Maximum at A
(c) Maximum at B
(d) Maximum at C
9. n small drops of same size are charged to V volt each. If they coalesce to form a single large
drop, then the potential will be
(a) Vn
(b) Vn–1
(c) Vn1/3
(d) Vn2/3
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10. A long string with a charge of λ per unit length passes through an imaginary cube of edge a.
The maximum flux of the electric field through the cube will be
(a) λa/∊0
(b) λa/∊0
(c) 6λ a2/∊0
(d) λ a/∊0
18
Class 12 | Chemistry
02 Solid State
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01. The Solid State
The solid are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength. The
molecules, atoms or ions in solids are closely packed i.e they are held together by strong
forces and can not move about at random. Thus solids have definite volume, shape, slow
definite, low vapour pressure and possesses the unique property of being rigid. Such solids
are known as true solids e.g. NaCl, KCl, Sugar, Ag, Cu etc. On the other hand the solid
which loses shapes on long standing, flows under its own weight and easily distorted by even
mild distortion forces are called pseudo solids e.g. glass, plastic etc.
Some solids such as NaCl, Sugar, Sulphur etc. have properties not only of rigidity and
incompressibility but also of having typical geometrical forms. These solids are called as
crystalline solids. In such solids there is definite arrangements of particles (atoms, ions or
molecules) throughout the entire three dimensional network of a crystal. This is named as
long-range order. This three dimensional arrangement is called crystal lattice or space lattice.
Other solids such as glass, rubber, plastics etc. have rigidity and incompressibility to a certain
extent but they do not have definite geometrical forms or do not have long range order are
known as amorphous solids.
02. Differences Between Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
(i). Characteristic Geometry
In the crystalline solids the particles (atoms, ions, or molecules are definitely and orderly
arranged thus these have characteristic geometry while amorphous solids do not have
characteristic geometry.
Melting Points
A crystalling solids has a sharp melting point i.e. it changes into liquid state at a definite
temperature. On the contrary an amorphous solid does not has a sharp melting point.
Cooling curve
Amorphous solids show smooth cooling curve while crystalline solids show two breaks in
cooling curve. In the case of crystalline solids two breaks points ’a’ and ’b’ are appear.
These points indicate the beginning and the end of the process of crystallization. In this
time interval temperature remains constant. This is due to the fact that during
crystallization process energy is liberated which compensates for the loss of heat thus the
temperature remains constant.
Temperature
Temperature
c indicate super cooled
a
c
b
↑ ↑
→ Time → Time
Cooling curve of an amorphous solid Cooling curve of an crystalline solid
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(i). Isotropy and Anisotropy
Amorphous solids differ from crystalline solids and resemble liquids in many respects. The
properties of amorphous solids, such as electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity,
mechanical strength, refractive index, coefficient of thermal expansion etc. are same in all
directions. Such solids are known as isotropic. Gases and liquids are also isotropic.
On the other hand crystalline solids show these physical properties different in different
directions. Therefore crystalline solids are called anisotropic.
03. Crystalline State
“A crystal is a solid composed of atoms (ions or molecules) arranged in an orderly repetitive
array”
“The smallest geometrical position of the crystal which can be used as repetitive unit to build
up the whole crystal is called a unit cell.” The unit cell should have same symmetry elements
as the crystal and there should be no gaps between unit cells.
The angle between the two perpendiculars to the two intersecting faces is termed as the
interfacial angle which may be same as the angle between the unit cell edges. Goniometer is
used to measure the interfacial angle. It is important to note that interfacial angle of a
substance remains the same although its shape may be different due to conditions of
formation.
Interfacial angles of crystal
04. Types of the Crystals
Crystals are divided into four important types on the basis of chemical bonding of the
constituent atoms.
(i) lonic Crystals
These are formed by a combination of highly electro-positive ions (cations) and highly
electronegative ions (anions). Thus strong electrostatic force of attraction acts with in the
ionic crystals. Therefore, a large amount of energy is required to separate ions from one
another.
e.g. NaCl, KF, CsCl etc.
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(ii) Covalent Crystals
These are formed by sharing of valence electrons between two atoms resulting in the
formation of a covalent bond. The covalent bonds extend in two or three dimensions
forming a giant interlocking structure called network. Diamond and graphite are the good
examples of this type.
(iii) Molecular Crystals
In these crystals, molecules occupy the lattice points of the unit cells, except in solidified
noble gases in which the units are atoms, where the binding is due to vander Waal’s’
forces and dipole-dipole forces. Since vander Waal’s’ forces are non-directional hence
structure of the crystal is determined by geometric consideration only. Solid H2, N2, O2,
CO2, I2, sugar etc. are well known examples of such crystal in which vander Waal’s’
forces are acting.
(iv) Metallic Crystals
These are formed by a combination of atoms of electropositive elements. These atoms are
bound by metallic bonds. It may be defined as:
The force that binds a metal ion to a number of electrons within its sphere of influences
is known as metallic bond.
05. Isomorphism
The occurrence of a given substance in more than one solid crystalline forms have different
physical properties is known as polymorphism. This property when occurs in elements is
known as allotropy.
Sometimes we come across examples of chemically different solids which crystalline in the
crystalline shape. Such substances are said to be Isomorphous (same shape). Their chemical
constitutions are very similar and in some cases crystals of one substance may continue to
grow when placed in a saturated solution of the other e.g. potash alum and chrome alum
crystals have the same shape and can be grown in each other’s solutions.
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06. SPACE LATTICE/CRYSTALLINE LATTICE/3-D LATTICE
Space lattice is a regular arrangement of lattice points showing how the particles are arranged
at different sites in 3D-view.
“The three dimensional distribution of component particles in a crystal can be found by X-ray
diffraction of different faces of the crystal. On the basis of the classification of symmetry, the
crystals have been divided into seven systems. These can be grouped into 32 classes which in
turn can be regrouped into 7 crystal systems. These seven systems with the characteristics of
their axes (angles and intercepts) along with some examples of each are given in the
following table.
The Seven Crystal System
Name of system Axes Angles Bravais Lattices
Cubic Primitive, Face-centred, Body
1. a = b = c
[Isometric] centred = 3
2. Tetragonal a = b ≠ c Primitive, Body centred = 2
Rhombohedral
3. a = b = c ≠ Primitive = 1
or Trigonal
Orthorhombic Primitive, Face-centred, Body
4. a ≠ b ≠ c
or Rhombic centred End centred = 4
5. Monoclinic a ≠ b ≠ c Primitive, End – centred = 2
≠
6. Triclinic a ≠ b ≠ c ≠ ≠ ≠ Primitive = 1
Primitive = 1
7. Hexagonal a = b ≠ c
Total = 14
07. Types of Unit Cells
There are four types of unit cells (among the cubic system).
(a) Simple or primitive. Particles are only at the comers of the unit cell.
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(b) Face-centred cubic unit cell. A particle is present at the centre of each face of the unit
cell.
(c) End-face-centred cubic unit cell. A particle is present at each comer plus particles are
present on the end faces of the unit cell.
(d) Body-centred cubic unit cell. In addition to the particles at the corners, there is one
particle in the body-centre of the unit cell.
08. Coordination Number
If atoms are represented by spheres, the number of spheres which are touching a particular
sphere is called coordination number of that sphere. In ionic crystals, the coordination number
may be defined as the number of the oppositely charged ions surrounding a particular ion.
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09. The number of particles per Unit Cell
(i) An atom at the corner is shared by 8 unit cells. Therefore, its contribution is = 1/8.
(ii) An atom at the face is shared by 2 unit cells. Therefore, its contribution is = 1/2.
(iii) An atom present in the body is unshared. Therefore, its contribution is 1.
(iv) An atom present on the edge is shared by four unit cells. Therefore, its contribution is =
1/4. Thus, in
(v) a primitive or simple cubic unit cell, the total number of particles is 1/8×8=1.
(vi) a face-centred cubic unit cell; the total number of particles is 1/8×8+1/2×6=4.
(vii) a body-centred cubic unit cell, the total number of particles is 1/8×8+1=2.
The number of atoms per unit cell are in the same ratio as the stoichiometry of the
compound or the ratio of the number of particles A and B present per unit cell gives the
formula of the compound formed between A and B.
10. LENGTH OF FACE DIAGONAL AND CUBE DIAGONAL
a Cube diagonal
a
a
Face diagonal
a/2
|―a/2―|
a/2
|―a/2―|
Consider the triangle ABC, with the help of pythagoras theorem
AC AB BC
a a
a (length of face diagonal.)
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Consider the triangle DAC, with the help of pythagoras theorem
DC DA AC a
a a (length of cube diagonal)
TYPES OF UNIT CELL (BRAVAIS LATTICE)
The distance between successive lattice planes of the same type is called the spacing of
planes or inter planar distance between the planes. On the basis of this aspect, the lattices
may be divided in following classes.
11. Simple/Primitive/Basic Unit cell
A unit cell having lattice point only at corners called as primitive or simple unit cell. i.e. in
this case there is one atom at each of the eight corners of the unit cell considering an atom
at one corner as the centre, it will be found that this atom is surrounded by six equidistant
neighbours (atoms) and thus the co-ordination number will be six. If ‘a’ is the side of the
unit cell, then the distance between the nearest neighbours shall be equal to ‘a’.
(a) Relationship between edge length ‘a’ and atomic radius ‘r’ :
a
a=2r i.e. r = (One face of SCC)
2
(b) Number of atoms present in unit cell
In this case one atom or ion lies at the each corner. Hence simple cubic unit cell contains
a total of × = 1 atom or ion/unit cell.
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(c) Packing efficiency(P. E.)
Volume occupied by atoms present in unit cell
P.E.=
Volume of unit cell
n × r
∵Volume of atom r
V
a
For SCC : PE
× × ×
a
∵ r and V a n
a
or
12. Body centred cubic (b.c.c.) cell:
A unit cell having lattice point at the body centre in addition to the lattice point at every
corner is called as body centered unit cell.
Here the central atom is surrounded by eight equidistant atoms and hence the co-ordination
a
number is eight. The nearest distance between two atoms will be
(a) Relationship between edge length ‘a’ and atomic radius ‘r’ :
In BCC, along cube diagonal all atoms touches each other and the length of cube diagonal is
a
a
So, a r ie r
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(b) Number of atom present in unit cell:
× × atomsunit cell
In this case one atom or ion lies at the each corner of the cube. Thus contribution of the
8 corners is × while that of thee body centred is 1 in the unit cell. Hence total
number of atoms per unit cell is 1 + 1 = 2 atoms (or ions)
(c) Packing efficiency:
PE
n × r
× ×
a
∵ n r
a
V a
V a
In B.C.C. 68% of total volume is occupied by atom or ions.
13. Face centred cubic (f.c.c.) cell:
A unit cell having lattice point at every face centre in addition to the lattice point at every
corner called as face centred unit cell. i.e. in this case there are eight atoms at the eight
corners of the unit cell and six atoms at the centre of six faces. Considering an atom at the
face centre as origin, it will be found that this face is common to two cubes and there are
twelve points surrounding it situated at a distance which is equal to half the face diagonal of
the unit cell. Thus the co-ordination number will be twelve and the distance between the two
a
nearest atoms will be .
(a) Relationship between edge length ‘a’ and atomic radius ‘r’ :
In FCC, along the face diagonal all atoms touches each other and the length of face
diagonal is a.
a a
So r a ie r
r
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Face diagonal
| a |
(b) Number of atoms per unit cell :
× × atoms unit cell
In this case one atom or ion lies at the each corner of the cube and one atom or ion lies
at the centre of each face of the cube. It may noted that only of each face sphere lie
with in the unit cell and there are six such faces. The total contribution of 8 corners is
× while that of 6 face centred atoms is × in the unit cell.
Hence total number of atoms per unit cell is 1+3 = 4 atoms (or ions).
(c) Packing efficiency :
n × r
a
PE ∵ for FCC n r V a
V
a
× ×
or
a
i.e. In FCC, 74% of total volume is occupied by atoms.
14. End Centered Unit Cell:
A unit cell having lattice point at the centres of only. one set of opposite faces in addition to
the lattice point at every corner called as end centered unit cell.
NOTE ☞ This type of Bravais lattice is obtained only in orthorhombic and monoclinic type unit
call.
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15. CRYSTAL DENSITY OF THE CRYSTAL
If the length of edge of the unit cell is known we can calculate the density of the crystal as
follow: Let length of edge of the unit cell be .
∴ Volume of the unit cell = = V cm3
Mass of unit cell
Density of the unit cell =
Volume of unit cell
Mass of the unit cell = Number of atoms present in a unit cell × Mass of one atom =
n×m g
Atomic mass M
But mass of one atom (m) = =
Avogadro Number NA
M
Mass of the unit cell = n× g
NA
M
n×
NA
Density of the unit cell = gm cm-3
V
n×M
Density of the unit cell = g cm-3 = Crystal density (p)
V×NA
Example An element (atomic mass = 60) having face centred cubic crystal has a density of
6.23 g cm-3. What is the edge length of the unit cell (Avogadro constant, NA =
6.02×1023 mol-1).
×
Solution Density = Z = 4 (for fcc)
×
× ×
× ×
× ×
= 64 × 10–24
a = 4 × 10–8cm
= 4 × 10–10m = 400 pm.
16. Close packing
It is type of packing with maximum packing fraction & space utilization. The constituent
particles of a solid are like hard spheres. These spheres can pack in space in various manner
to form a packing. To clearly understand the packing of these spheres, the packing can be
categorised as :
(i) Close packing in one dimension.
(ii) Close packing in two dimension.
(iii) Close packing in three dimension.
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17. Close packing in one dimension :
In one dimension, only one arrangement of spheres is possible as shown in fig.
Close packing of spheres in one dimension
Two dimensional packing of spheres :
Two possible types of two dimensional packing are.
(i) Square close packing in two dimension.
(ii) Hexagonal close packing in two dimension.
18. Two dimensional square packing of spheres :
When two rows are placed in such a manner, that spheres of one row are placed immediately
below of the other, the resulting packing is called two dimensional square close packing.
(i) Since all the rows are identical the packing is called AAA ...... type packing.
(ii) Each sphere is touched by four other hence coordination number is four.
(iii) Of centres of spheres are connected, square cells are formed, hence also called two
dimensional square packing.
(iv) This type of packing is not very effective in terms of utilization of space.
×r ×a
(v) Packing efficiency in D
.
a a
a
(vi) Packing efficiency in D
×
[In 3-D its unit cell is simple
a
cubic]
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19. Two dimensional hexagonal packing :
If various one dimensional close pack rows are placed in such a way that spheres of top row
fits in depression of bottom row spheres, the resulting packing is called two dimensional close
packing structure.
(i) Every third row sphere comes exactly at top of first row sphere, hence the packing is
called ABABAB packing.
(ii) If centres are joined, hexagonal unit cells are formed. Hence this is called two
dimensional hexagonal close packing.
(iii) This packing is most efficient in utilizing space in two dimensional arrangement.
(iv) Each sphere is touched by six other, hence coordination number is six.
a
×
(v) Packing efficiency in D
a
×
a
×
(vi) Packing efficiency in D
a
× × a
20. Close packing in three dimensions :
When two dimensional packing structure are arranged one above the other, depending upon
type of two dimensional arrangement in a layer, and the relative positions of spheres in above
or below layer, various types of three dimensional packing results. To define 3-D lattice six
lattice parameters are required – 3 edge lengths & 3 angles.
(i) Simple cubic packing (A A A A)
(ii) Hexagonal close packing (AB AB AB .....)
(iii) Cubic close packing or face centered cubic (...ABC ABC...)
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21. Simple cubic packing in three dimension :
The two dimensional square close packed layer are placed, in such a manner that spheres in
each layer comes immediately on top of below layer, simple cubic packing results. Important
points.
(i) Atoms all aligned vertically and horizontally in all directions.
(ii) The unit cell for this packing is simple cubic unit cell.
(iii) In this packing, only 52% of available space is occupied by atoms.
22. Three Dimensionally close packing :
In hexagonal close packing, there are two types of the voids (open space or space left) which
are divided into two sets ‘b’ and ‘c’ for convenience. The spaces marked ‘c’ are curved
triangular spaces with tips pointing upwards whereas spaces marked ‘b’ are curved triangular
spaces with tips pointing downwards. Now we extend the arrangement of spheres in three
dimensions by placing second close packed layer (hexagonal close packing) (B) on the first
layer (A). The spheres of second layer may placed either on space denoted by ‘b’ or ‘c’. It
may be noted that it is not possible to place sphered on both types of voids (i.e. b and c).
Thus half of the voids remain unoccupied by the second layer. The second layer also have
voids of the types ‘b’ and in order to build up the third layer,
there are following two ways :
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23. Hexagonal close packing (HCP) AB-AB-AB .......... Type :
(i) In one way, the spheres of the third layer lie on spaces of second layer (B) in such a
way that they lie directly above those in the first layer (A). In other words we can say
that the layer becomes identical to the first layer. If this arrangement is continued
idefinitely in the same order this represented as A BA BA B .....
This type of arrangement represent hexagonal close packing (hcp) symmetry (or structure),
which means that the whole structure has only one 6-fold axis of symmetry i.e. the
crystal has same appearance on rotation through an angle of 60.
(ii) Every third layer sphere lies on top of first layer sphere. (ABABAB ..... packing)
(iii) Maximum possible spade is occupied by spheres.
(iv) Each sphere is touched by 12 other spheres in 3D
(6 is one layer, 3 in top layer and 3 in bottom.)
(v) The unit cell for hexagonal close packing is hexagonal unit cell.
(vi) For every atom forming hcp there are effectively two tetra voids and one octa void.
That why this generate ABAB ..... AB pattern. One type of void always remain on
unoccupied.
Unit cell : a = 2r = b;
(vii) Packing efficiency of HCP units
Relation between a, b, c and R :
a = b = 2R
y
←a →
a a ×
tan so y a
×y ×
a
a
a
Area ×
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Calculation of c :
|
C
|
h
a a a
cos x
×x
|
×
|
Applying pythogoras theorem : x2+h2 = a2
a
So h a x a a
h a
so
c h a
24. ABC – ABC arrangement (Cubic close packing (FCC)
In second way, the spheres of the third layer (C) lie on the second layer (B) in such a way
that they lie over the unoccupied spaces ‘C’ of the first layer(A). If this arrangement is
continuous in the same order this is represented as ABC ABC ABC..... This type of
arrangement represent cubic close packed (ccp) structure. This structure has 3-fold axes of
symmetry which pass though the diagonal of the cube. since in this system, there is a sphere
at the centre if each face of the unit cell and hence this structure is also known as
face-centred cubic (fcc) structure. It may be noted that in ccp (or fcc) structures each sphere
is surrounded by 12 spheres hence the coordination number of each sphere is 12. The spheres
occupy 74% of the total volume and 26% of is the empty space in both (hcp and ccp)
structure.
Ÿ IIIrd layer will be different from Ist layer as well as IInd layer.
Ÿ It is also known as cubical close packing (CCP), unit cell chosen is face centered unit
cell (FCC).
Relation between ‘a’ and ‘R’ :
a ≠R a R (Sphere are touching along the face diagonal)
Effective no. of atoms per unit cell (Z) = Z × ×
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Packing fraction
× R
PF × ×
× × R
Coordination number , (CN) = 12
Z×M
Density (d) =
NA . a3
INTERSTICES OR VOIDS OR HOLES IN CRYSTALS
It has been shown that the particles are closely packed in the crystals even than there is
some empty space left in between the spheres. This is known as interstices (or interstitial site
or hole empty space or voids). In three dimentional close packing (CCP & HCP) the
interstices are of two types : (i) tetrahedral interstices and (ii) octahedral interstices.
25. Tetrahedral Interstices :
We have seen that in hexagonal close packing (hcp) and cubic close packing (ccp) each
sphere of second layer touches with three spheres of first layer. Thus they, leave a small
space in between which is known as tetrahedral site or interstices. or The vacant space
between 4 touching spheres is called as tetrahedral void. Since a sphere touches three spheres
in the below layer and three spheres in the above layer hence there are two tetrahedral sites
associated with one sphere. It may by noted that a tetrahedral site does not mean that the site
is tetrahedral in geometry but it means that this site is surrounded by four spheres and the
centres of these four spheres lie at the apices of a regular tetrahedron.
Tetrahedral void
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In FCC, one corner and its three face centred atom of faces meeting at that corner form a
tetrahedral void.
In FCC, two tetrahedral voids are obtained along one cube diagonal. So in FCC 8 tetrahedral
voids are present.
In FCC total number of atoms = 4
In FCC total number of tetrahedral voids = 8
So, we can say that, in 3D close packing 2 tetrahedral voids are attached with one atom.
26. Octahedral – Interstices :
Hexagonal close packing (hcp) and cubic close packing (ccp) also form another type of
interstices (or site) which is called octahedral site (or interstices). or The vacant space
between 6 touching spheres is called as octahedral void.
In the figure two layers of close packed spheres are shown. The spheres of first layer are
shown by full circles while that of second layer by dotted circles. Two triangles are drawn
by joining the centres of three touching spheres of both the layers.
In FCC, 6 face centres form a octahedral void at body centre.
The apices of these triangles point are in opposite directions. On super imposing these
triangles on one another a octahedral site is created. It may be noted that an octahedral site
does not mean that the hole is octahedral in shape but it means that this site is surrounded
by six nearest neighbour lattice points arranged octahedrally.
Octahedral
void
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27. Positions of Tetrahedral Voids in an fcc Unit Cell :
The centre of tetrahedral void is located on the centre of body diagonal of each small cube
of volume .
a
1 1
Total number of atoms per unit cell = ×6+8× =4
2 8
Total number of tetra void = 8
Effective number of tetra void per atom forming close pack=2.
If a fcc unit cell is divided into eight equal mini-cubes (edge=a/2) then centre of tetra voids
lies at the centres of each of there mini-cubes. In FCC center of tetra void is at
perpendicular distance of a/4 from nearest face.
28. Positions of Octahedral Voids in an fcc Unit Cell :
Position of octa void is at mid-point of each edge (total 12 edges in a cube) and at the
centre of cube. Each octa void located at mid point of edge contributes 1/4 to the unit cell.
The octa void situated at the centre contributes 1.
In FCC, total number of octahedral voids are
1
(1×1) + (12× ) = 1+3 =4
4
(Cube centre) (edge)
In FCC, number of atoms = 4
In FCC, number of octahedral voids = 4
So, we can say that, in any type of close packing one octahedral void is attached with one
atom.
29. Limiting Radius Ratios
An ionic crystal contains a large number of cations and anions. Generally cations are smaller
in size than anions. The cations are surrounded by anions and they touch each other. These
ions are arranged in space in such a way to produce maximum stability. The stability of the
ionic crystal may be described in terms of radius ratio i.e. the ratio of the radius of cation
(r) to that of anion (R) is (r/R). The range of (r/R) may be expressed as limiting radius ratio.
This value is important to determine the arrangement of the ion in different types of crystals.
Limiting radius ratio for various types of sites
Limiting radius Coordination Structural Arrangement Example
ratio = r/R Number of cation (Geometry of voids)
0.155 – 0.225 3 Plane Trigonal Boron Oxide
0.225 – 0.414 4 Tetrahedral ZnS, SiO2
0.414 – 0.732 4 Square planar – .
0.414 – 0.732 6 Octahedral NaCl, MgO2
0.732 – 1.000 8 Cubic CsCl
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Example A solid A+ B- has NaCl type close packed structure. If the anion has a radius of
250 pm, what should be the ideal radius for the cation ? Can a cation C+ having
a radius of 180 pm be slipped into the tetrahedral site of the crystal A+ B- ?
Give reason for tour answer.
Solution NaCl = FCC Closed packed structure
It does not lie in the range 0.225–0.414. Hence, C+ cannot be slipped into the
tetrahedral site.
30. STRUCTURE of NaCl :
The bigger Cl- forms cubic close packing and small Na+ occupy positions of all octahedral
r
voids. The radius ratio lie in the range 0.414 – 0.73.
r
(i) Each Na+ is surrounded by six Cl- is surrounded by six Na+ ion. [6:6 coordination]
(ii) Total no. of Na+ and Cl- in each limit cell is 4.
(iii) Number of formula units of NaCl per unit cell is equal to 4.
× MNaCl
(iv) The density of NaCl crystal is given by d
NA × a
NA = Avogadro‘s number ; a = Edge length
a
The edge length of NaCl unit cell is given by r r ⇒ r r (FCC & Octa
void)
31. Zinc Blende (Sphalerite) Structure :
Larger anions form ccp arrangement and smaller cations filling half of alternate tetrahedral
voids.
(i) C.N. of Zn2+ = 4 ; C.N. of S2- = 4 [4 : 4 coordination]
(ii) Formula units of 쿤 per unit cell = 4.
× MZnS
(iii) dZnS
NA × a
a
(iv) rZn rS
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32. Cesium Halide Structure :
(CsCl) Cl- at the corners of cube and Cs+ in the center.
(i) C.N. of Cs+ = 8 ; C.N. of Cl- = 8 [8 : 8 coordination]
(ii) Formula units of CsCl per cube = 1
MCsCl
(iii) dCsCl
NA × a
a a
(iv) rCs rCs ⇒ r r (FCC & tetra void)
33. Fluorite Structure :
(CaF2) Ca2+ forming ccp arrangement and F- filling all tetrahedral voids.
(i) C.N. of F- = 4 ; C.N. of Cs = 8 [8 : 4 coordination]
(ii) Formula units of CaF2 per unit cell = 4
× MCaF
(iii) dCaF
NA × a
a
(iv) rCa rF
34. Imperfections In Solid
Any deviation from the perfectly ordered arrangement constitutes a defect or imperfection.
These defects sometimes called thermodynamic defect because the number of these defects
depends on the temperature. Crystals may also possess additional defect due to the presence
of impurities. Imperfection not only modify the properties of solids but also give rise to new
properties.
35. Stoichiometric Defects
Those compounds in which the number of positive and negative ions are exactly in the ratio
indicated by their chemical formula are called stoichiometric compounds. eg NaCl (1:1). These
solids show following types of defects :
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36. Schottky Defect :
This type of defect is created when same number of positive ion and negative ion are
missing from their respective positions leaving behind a pair of holes. Schottky defect is more
common in ionic compounds with high co-ordination number and where the size of positive
and negative ions are almost equal. The presence of large number of schottky defects in
crystal results in significant decrease in its density. Eg. NaCl, KCl, CsCl, KBr etc.
37. Interstitial Defect :
This type of defect is caused due to the presence of ions in the normally vacant interstitial
sites in the crystal.
38. Frenkel Defect :
This type of defect is created when an ion leaves its correct lattice site and occupies an
interstitial site. Frenkel defects are common in ionic compounds which have low co-ordination
number and in which there is large difference in size between positive and negative ions. Eg.
ZnS, AgCl, AgBr, Ag etc.
39. Non Stoichiometric Defect Frenkel Defect :
There are many compound in which the ratio of positive and negative ions present in the
compound differs from that required by ideal formula of the compound. Such compounds are
called Non stoichiometric compounds. eg. VOx (Where x can vary between 0.6 to 1.3.) In
these compounds balance of positive and negative charges is maintained by having extra
electrons or extra positive charge. So, these defects are of following types:
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40. Metal Excess Defects Due to Anion Vacancies
A compound may have excess metal ion if a negative ion is absent from its lattice site,
leaving a hole which is occupied by electron to maintain electrical neutrality. The holes
occupied by electrons are called F-centres and are responsible for the colour lf the compound.
Eg.
Ÿ The excess sodium in NaCl makes the crystal appears yellow.
Ÿ Excess potassium in KCl makes it voilet.
Ÿ Excess lithium in LiCl makes it Pink.
Ÿ Greater the number of F-centres greater is the intensity of colour. This type of defects are
found in crystal which are likely to possess schottky defects.
41. Metal Excess Defects Due to Interstitial Cations
It may occur if an extra positive ion is present in an interstitial site, Electrically neutrality is
maintained by the presence of an electron in the interstitial site. This type of defects are
exhibited by the crystals which are likely to exhibit “Frenkel defects”. Eg. Yellow colour of
ZnS.
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42. Metal Deficiency Due to Cation Vacancies
The non-stoichiometric compound may have metal deficiency due to the absence of a metal
ion from its lattice site. The charge is balanced by an adjacent ion having higher positive
charge. This type of defects are generally shown by compounds of transition metals.
Example Analysis shows that nickel oxide has the formula Ni0.98O. What fractions of the
nickel exist as Ni2+ and Ni3+?
Solution Let Ni2+ be x so that Ni3+ will be 0.98–x. Total charge on the compound must be
zero so that
+ 2x + 3(0.98 – x) – 2 = 0
2x + 2.94 – 3x – 2 = 0
–x = – 0.94
or x = 0.94
of Ni ×
% of Ni3+ = 4%
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NEET Pattern
Exercise (1)
Q1. A metal crystallizes with a face-centered cubic lattice. The edge of the unit cell is 408 pm. The
diameter of the metal atom is
(a) 144 pm
(b) 204 pm
(c) 288 pm
(d) 408 pm
Q2. Percentage of free space in a body centred cubic unit cell is
(a) 28%
(b) 30%
(c) 32%
(d) 34%
Q3. If a is the length of the side of a cube, the distance between the body centered atom and one
corner atom in the cube will be
a
(a) (c) a
a
(b) (d) a
Q4. Structure of a mixed oxide is cubic close packed (ccp). The cubic unit cell of mixed oxide is
composed of oxide ions. One fourth of the tetrahedral voids are occupied by divalent metal A and
the octahedral voids are occupied by a monovalent metal B. The formula of the oxide is
(a) ABO2
(b) A2BO2
(c) A2B3O4
(d) AB2O2
Q5. The number of octahedral void(s) per atom present in a cubic close-packed structure is
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 1
(d) 3
Q6. Lithium metal crystallizes in a body centred cubic crystal. If the length of the side of the unit cell
of lithium is 351 pm, the atomic radius of the lithium will nearly be
(a) 152 pm
(b) 75 pm
(c) 300 pm
(d) 240 pm
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Q7. AB crystallizes in a body centred cubic lattice with edge length ‘a’ equal to 387 pm. The distance
between two oppositively charged ions in the lattice is
(a) 335 pm
(b) 250 pm
(c) 200 pm
(d) 300 pm
Q8. If ‘a’ stands for the edge length of the cubic systems : simple cubic, body centred cubic and face
centred cubic, then the ratio of radii of the spheres in these systems will be respectively
(a) a
a
a
(b) a a a
(c) a
a a
(d) a a a
Q9. A given metal crystallizes out with a cubic structure having edge length of 361 pm. If there are
four metal atoms in one unit cell, what is the radius of one atom?
(a) 108 pm
(b) 40 pm
(c) 127 pm
(d) 80 pm
Q10. The packing efficiency of two-dimensional square unit cell shown below is
(a) 39.27%
(b) 68.02%
(c) 74.05%
(d) 78.54%
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Answer & Solution
ANSWER
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
(c) (c) (d) (d) (c)
Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
(a) (a) (b) (c) (d)
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Class 12 | Biology
03 Reproduction in Organisms
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01. Introduction
A vast number of plant and animal species have existed on the earth for several thousand of
years. The process in living organisms that ensures this continuity is Reproduction. Reproduction
is one of the most characteristic feature of living organisms. Life will not exist on the earth if
plants and animals do not reproduce to make offsprings.
02. Life span
Life span can be defined as the period from birth to the natural death of an organism. It can
vary from as short as few days to as long as a number of years.
Maximum Life Span : Maximum life span is the maximum number of years survived or the
greatest age reached by any member of a species. The average life span refers to the average
number of years survived or age reached by the members of a population. The maximum life
span of a domestic dog is about 20 years and that of a laboratory mouse is 4.5 years. The
maximum life span of humans has been estimated to be about 121 years. This rests on the fact
that a man in Japan, Shirechiyo lzymi, reached the age of 120 years and 237 days in 1986. He
died after developing pneumonia. Average life span and life expectancy of humans have grown
dramatically. In general the rate of mortality of humans has gone down and the life span has
increased. It is 56 in India whereas in the United State, it is 78.
03. Reproduction
Reproduction is the means of self perpetuation of a race in which new, young, similar looking
individuals are formed by the grown up or adult individuals. The adults which give rise to young
ones are called parents.
Functions of Reproduction :
(i) It replaces the individuals dying due to senescence or ageing.
(ii) Individuals removed from population due to predation or disease are replaced through
reproduction.
(iii) It introduces variations essential for adaptability and struggle for existence.
Basic Features of Reproduction :
(i) Replication of DNA.
(ii) Division of cells. It may or may not involve meiosis.
(iii) Growth due to synthesis of more protoplasm.
(iv) Formation of reproductive units.
(v) Elaboration and development of reproductive units to form new young individuals.
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04. Types of Reproduction
Broadly speaking, there are two types of reproduction, asexual and sexual. Asexual
reproduction does not involve gamete formation and fusion. It is uniparental. On the other
hand, sexual reproduction consists of formation and fusion of gametes of opposite sexes. It is
mostly biparental with two types o parents of different sexes but can be single/uniparental
also, as in case of bisexual or hermaphrodite animals.
I. Asexual Reproduction
It is the mode of reproduction in which new individuals develop directly from specialised or
unspecialised parts of a single parent without involving fusion of gametes or sex cells.
Asexual reproduction occurs in both single celled and multicelled individuals. The parent
individual splits, buds or fragments to form identical daughter cells or individuals, e.g.,
Amoeba, Paramoecium, Euglena (acellular protists), Sycon, Hydra, Tubularia, Planaria, Ascidia
(metazoans). Asexual reproduction is also called agamogenesis or agamogeny. In this mode of
reproduction, somatic cells undergo mitosis during the formation of a new individual.
Therefore, it is also called somatogenic reproduction. Young ones resulting from asexual
reproduction are exactly identical with the parent except in size and are called clones. Each
individual of a clone is referred to as a ramet.
Asexual reproduction occurs by fission, budding and fragmentation.
(A) Fission : It is a mode of asexual reproduction in which the body of a mature individual
divides into two or more similar and equal sized daughter individuals. Fission can be
binary fission or multiple fission.
(a) Binary Fission : It is the division of the body of an individual into two equal halves,
each of which functions as an independent daughter individual. In unicellular
organisms, binary fission is accompanied by mitotic division of nucleus followed by
cytokinesis. In metazoans. The organisms which undergo binary fission seldom die of
senescence or old age because as soon as they mature, they divide into two
daughters. They are, therefore, nearly immortal. Depending on the plane of division,
binary fission is of the following types:
(i) Simple Binary Fission (Irregular Binary Fission) : Division can occur through
any plane e.g., Amoeba.
(ii) Longitudinal Binary Fission : The plane of fission passes along the longitudinal
axis of the organism, e.g., Euglena, Vorticella.
(iii) Oblique Binary Fission : The plane of binary fission lies at an angle to the
transverse axis e.g., Ceratium, Gonyaulax.
(iv) Transverse Binary Fission : The plane of binary fission runs along the
transverse axis of the individual, e.g., Paramoecium, diatoms, bacteria. In
Paramoecium, transverse binary fission is preceeded by a mitotic division of
meganucleus and mitotic division of micronucleus. In it, binary fission produces
two dissimilar daughters, one proter (anterior) and the other opisthe (posterior).
Both develop the deficient components and become similar.
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(b) Multiple Fission : The nucleus divides several times by amitosis to produce many
nuclei, without involving any cytokinesis. Later, each nucleus gathers a small amount
of cytoplasm around it and the mother individual splits into many tiny daughter cells
(e.g., Amoeba, Plasmodium, Monocystis, etc). In course of time, each of these
daughter cells starts a free life and transforms into an adult individual. This kind of
fission is called multiple fission.
Cyst formation : In response to unfavourable living conditions, an Amoeba withdrawn
its pseudopodia and secretes a three-layered hard covering or cyst around itself. This
phenomenon is termed as encystation. During favourable conditions, the encysted
Amoeba divides by multiple fission and produces many minute amoubae or
pseudopodiospores; the cyst wall bursts out and the spores are liberated in the
surrounding medium to grow up into many Amoebae. This phenomenon is known as
sporulation. Acellular protists like sporozoans (e.g., Monocystis, Plasmodium, etc.)
typically exhibit sporulation in their life cycles.
(B) Budding : In budding, new individuals are formed by mitosis. Initially, a small outgrowth
of the parent’s body develops into a miniature individual. It then separates from the
mother to lead a free life (e.g., Hydra). This type of budding is known as exogenous
budding. Sometimes, the buds do not get separated from the mother individual and form
a colony. For example, in Obelia, the colony consists of a number of individuals jor
zooids that perform different functions. In all fresh water sponges (e.g., Spongilla) and
some marine sponges (e.g., Sycon), the parent individual releases a specialized mass of
cells enclosed in a common opaque envelope, called the gemmule. On germination, each
gemmule gives rise to offspring and the archeocytes present in it give rise to various
cells of the body of sponge as they are totipotent. Gemmules are thought to be internal
buds.
(C) Fragmentation : The body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can
produce an offspring (e.g., Hydra, some marine worms, sea-stars).
Advantages of Asexual Reproduction :
(a) It is uniparental.
(b) It is a rapid mode of reproduction.
(c) The young ones are exact replicas of their parent.
(d) Asexual reproduction is simpler than sexual reproduction.
Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction :
(a) As there is rapid multiplication, a large number of young ones are formed which causes
overcrowding.
(b) There is no mixing of genetic material, so no new combination or variation takes place.
(c) There is no crossing over, hence hew linkages are not formed.
(d) It has no role in evolution.
(e) Adaptability to changes in environment is low due to absence of new variations.
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05. Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves formation and fusion of gametes to form the zygote which
develops to form a new organism.
Characteristics :
(a) Two fusing gametes can be produced by same individual or different individuals.
(b) Offsprings produced are not identical to parents.
(c) It involves meiosis and syngamy (fusion or gametes).
(d) It is a slow, elaborate or complex process, so multiplication is not so rapid.
06. Phases in Life Cycle
(a) Juvenile phase
(b) Reproductive phase
(c) Senescent phase
(a) Juvenile phase/Pre-reproductive phase : During this phase organism will show growth so
that it can attain certain maturity to perform the sexual reproduction. This phase is known
as vegetative phase in plants. It is of variable durations in different organisms.
(b) Reproductive phase : Reproductive organs develop and mature during this phase. In the
higher plants (Angiosperms). end of juvenile phase or onset of reproductive phase is
easily marked. In the higher plants during this phase, there is formation of reproductive
structures i.e., flowers.
(c) Senescent phase : It is a post-reproductive phase. It involves structural and functional
deterioration of body by accumulation of waste metabolites which ultimately leads to
death.
07. Events in Sexual Reproduction
After attainment of maturity, all sexually reproducing organisms exhibit events and processes
that have remarkable fundamental similarity, even though the structures associated with sexual
reproduction are indeed very different. These sequential events may be grouped into three
distinct stages, namely, the pre-fertilization, fertilization and the post-fertilization events.
A. Pre-fertilization Events
These are events in sexual reproduction which occur prior to the process of fertilization.
The two main pre-fertilization events are gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
(a) Gametogenesis : It refers to the process of formation of gametes – male and female.
Categories of Gametes :
(i) Isogametes : When the fusing gametes are morphologically similar they are
known as isogametes or homogametes. They are produced in some algae and
fungi.
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Ÿ Algae : Cladophora, Chlamydomonas debaryana, Ulothrix
Ÿ Fungi : Synchytrium, Rhizopus
(ii) Heterogametes : When the fusing gametes are morphologically distinct types, they
are known as heterogametes. It is the feature of majority of sexually reproducing
organisms. e.g.
(a) Algae : Fucus, Volvox, Chara
(b) All Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
In such organisms, male gamete is called antherozoid or sperm and the
female gamete is called egg or ovum
Cell Division During Gamete Formation : Gametes are always haploid i.e., they possess only
one set of chromosomes or genome though the parent body producing gametes may be either
haploid or diploid. As gametes are always haploid so surely in haploid parent, gametes are
produced by mitotic division.
In plants belonging to group pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms and animals the
parental body is diploid. Here reductional division occurs before or at the time of gamete
formation. The cells which undergo meiosis ar called meiocyte. If meiocyte is indulged in
gamete formation, then it is called gamete mother cell.
In haploid organisms, gametes are produced through mitosis but you must not think that
meiosis never occurs in life cycle of haploid organisms. This could be made clear from what
you have learnt in previous classes. In these organisms like haploid algae and some fungi,
meiosis occurs in zygote or zygospore which is called zygotic meiosis.
08. Sexuality in Organisms :
Lower Organisms : In most of the lower sexually reproducing organisms, two fusing gametes
are morphologically similar. If these gametes belong to the same parent then such organisms
are called homothallic, e.g., fungi (Mucor mucedo). When these gametes belong to different
parents then these organisms are called heterothallic.
Higher Organisms : In higher plants there are well-developed sex organs and there is clear
distinction between male and female sex organs. Angiosperms possess flowers as reproductive
structures. The male sex organ is called stamen and female sex organ is carpel or pistil. If
male and female sex organs occur in the same flower then these plants are called bisexual,
e.g., China rose. If flowers possess only stamen or carpel then these plants are called
unisexual. When male flower (staminate) and female flower (pistillate) are present on same
plant body such plants are monoecious, e.g., cucurbits, coconut and maize. However, if they
are present on separate plant body then these plants are known as dioecious, e.g., date palm
and papaya.
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09. Gamete Transfer :
After the formation of male and female gametes, compatible gametes must be physically
brought together to facilitate fusion (fertilisation or syngamy). In few fungi and algae, both
types of gametes are motile. But in majority of organisms male gamete is motile and the
female gamete is non-motile. So there is a need of a medium through which the male
gametes move.
In seed plants both male and female gametes are non-motile. Here pollen grains are the
carrier of male gametes and ovule has the egg. As the male gamete is non-motile so it
cannot swim through water medium to reach female gamete rather pollen tube serve this
purpose.
For this pollen grain produced in anther (♂ part) are transferred to the stigma of female
organ i.e., carpel through the process of pollination. Pollination is of two type i.e., self
pollination and cross pollination. Self pollination is the transfer of the pollen grains from
anther of a flower to the stigma of same flower or different flower of the same plant. Cross
pollination is transfer of the pollen grain from anther of one flower to the stigma of different
flower of other plant.
10. Fertilization
The most vital event of sexual reproduction is the fusion of gametes. This process is called
syngamy or fertilization which results in the formation of a diploid zygote.
(a) External fertilization : Syngamy occurs outside the body of organism in external medium
(water). It is shown by majority of aquatic organisms like most of algae, fishes as well
as amphibians.
(b) Internal fertilization : Syngamy occurs inside the body of organisms. It is present in
majority of plants like bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. It occurs
in few algae like spirogyra. In all these organisms egg is formed inside the female body
where syngamy occurs.
11. Post-Fertilization Events
Events in sexual reproduction after the formation of zygote are called post-fertilization events.
Zygote : It is the first cell of the new generation in all sexually reproducing organisms.
Zygote is always diploid. It is formed in the external aquatic medium in those organisms
which perform external fertilization. Zygote is produced inside the body in cases where
fertilization in internal.
In many algae and fungi, the zygote secretes a thick wall that is resistant to desiccation and
damage, which help organisms to tide over unfavourable conditions. During unfavourable
conditions it undergoes a period of rest until a swing back to sustainability occurs.
Embryogenesis : Embryogenesis is the process of development of embryo from zygote.
Embryo is a multicellular stage in the life cycle of a plant or animal prior to formation of
an independent individual.
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In embryogenesis, the zygote undergoes repeated cell divisions through mitosis. Cell
differentiation occurs at specific locations resulting in production of different tissues, organs
and organ systems. Development of different external and internal structures is called
morphogenesis. Embryo formation is present in all plant groups, except algae. In flowering
plants, zygote develops into embryo. The food for development of embryo comes from a
special tissue known as endosperm. Ultimately, the fertilized ovule matures into a seed. Inside
the mature seed is the progenitor of the next generation, the embryo. A number of seeds
develop in an ovary depending upon the number of ovules. Meanwhile, wall of the ovary
also proliferates. It produces pericarp or fruit wall. The pericarp can be dry or fleshy. The
ripened ovary with pericarp and seeds is called fruit.
Differences between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
i. New individuals are formed from a i. Commonly two parents are involved
single parent. in the formation of new individuals
through sexual reproduction.
ii. Asexual reproduction does not require ii. Formation of sex organs is a
the production of sex organs. pre-requisite for sexual reproduction.
iii. It does not involve meiosis. All iii. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis
divisions are mitotic. at one or the other stage. In higher
plants, it occurs at the time of spore
formation or sporogenesis.
iv. Asexual reproduction does not iv. It involves fusion of gametes.
involve fusion of cells or gametes.
v. New individual develops from one v. New individual develops from zygote
cell or a part of one parent. i.e., fusion product of two gametes.
vi. New individuals are genetically vi. Offspring or new individuals are
similar to the parents. genetically different from either of
the two parents.
vii. It does not introduce variability. vii. It introduces variability and is, hence
Hence, asexual reproduction has no of evolutionary importance.
evolutionary importance.
viii. It is quick method of multiplication. viii. Sexual reproduction is a slower
method of multiplication.
ix. It is simple process. ix. It is elaborate or complex process.
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NEET Pattern
Exercise (1)
1. Which one of the following shows isogamy with non-flagellate gametes?
(a) Sargassum
(b) Ectocarpus
(c) Ulothrix
(d) Spirogyra
2. Select the wrong statement.
(a) Isogametes are similar in structure, function and behaviour
(b) Anisogametes differ either in structure, function and behaviour
(c) In oomycetes female gamete is smaller and motile, while male gamete is larger and
non-motile
(d) Chlamydomonas exhibits both isogamy and anisogamy and Fucus shows oogamy
3. Product of sexual reproduction generally generates
(a) longer viability of seeds
(b) prolonged dormancy
(c) new genetic combination leading to variation
(d) large biomass
4. Which one of the following is correctly matched?
(a) Onion - Bulb
(b) Ginger - Sucker
(c) Chlamydomonas - Conidia
(d) Yeast - Zoospores
5. The ‘Eyes’ of the potato tuber are
(a) flower buds
(b) shoot buds
(c) axillary buds
(d) root buds
6. Why is vivipary an undesirable character for annual crop plants?
(a) It reduces the vigour of the plant
(b) It adversely affects the fertility of the plant
(c) The seeds exhibit long dormancy
(d) the seeds cannot be stored under normal conditions for the next season
7. During regeneration modification of an organ to other organ is known as
(a) morphogenesis
(b) cpimorphosis
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(c) morphallcixis
(d) acretopmaruy growth
8. The process of series of changes from larva to adult after embryonic development is called
(a) regeneration
(b) metamorphosis
(c) growth
(d) ageing
9. A population of genetically identical individuals, obtained from asexual reproduction is
(a) callus
(b) clone
(c) deme
(d) aggregate
10. New banana plants develop from
(a) rhizome
(b) sucker
(c) stolon
(d) seed
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Answer & Solution
1. (d)
Isogamy with non-flagellated of gametes is seen is Spirogyra can reproduce both by sexual and
asexual (vegetative) means.
They reproduce sexually by conjugation in which two non-flagellated morphologically similar but
physiologically different gemetes (isogamous) fuse together. One filament acts as male like
gamete and passes through the conjugation tube of another filament which acts as female like
gamete.
2. (c)
Oomycetes include water moulds, white rusts and downy mildews. In these female gamete is
larger and non-motile, wherease, male gamete is smaller and motile. whereas, male gamete is
algae like Uiothrix, Chalmydomonas, Spirogyra etc., which are similar in structure, function and
behaviour. Anisogametes are found in Chlamydomonas in which one gamete is larger and
non-motile and the other one is motile egg with motile sperm. The gametes, differ both
morphologically as well as physiologically It occurs in chalamydomonas, Fucus, Chara, volvox
etc.
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3. (c)
Sexual reproduction leads to new genetic combination leading to variation in new products.
Longer viability of seeds prolonged dormancy and large biomass are not related to sexual
reproduction.
4. (a)
The correctly matched pair to onion-bulb. Onion is a simple tunicated layered bulb while ginger
is a straggling rhizome having uniparous cyme reproduces by budding and Chlamydomonas by
zoospores,
5. (c)
Tuber is oval or spherical swollen underground modified stem lacking adventitious roots. It
possesses a number of spirally arranged depression called eyes. Each eye represents node and
consists of 1-3 axillary bus in the axils of small scally leaves.
6. (d)
Vivipary is the condition when seeds germinate on the plant, It an undesirable character for
annual crop plants because germinated seeds cannot be stored under normal condition for the
next season.
7. (b)
Epimorphosis is the replacement of a lost organ of the body by proliferating new cells from the
surface of the wound or injured part. Morphogenesis (Gr. morhe = form and genesis = origin) is
the growth, shaping and arrangement of body parts according to genetically predefined patterns.
The extent direction and rate of morphogenesis depend on genetic controls and environmental
factors.
8. (b)
Matamorphosis (meta = change, morphe = form) is a process by which an animal undergoes a
comparatively rapid change from larval to adult form Regeneration is regrowth of the part of
body which has been removed due to the injury or other causes Growth is an increase in dry
mass of an organism. Ageing is progressive deteriortion in activity of cell tissues organs, etc.
9. (b)
Clone refers to the population of genetically identical individuals obtained from asexual
reproduction or produced vegetatively from single organism. An individual member of a clone is
called ramete.
10.(b)
New banana plants develop through sucker. Sucker is the sub-aerial modification of stem which
originates from the basal and underground portion of main stem. It also occurs in mint,
Chrysanthemum, etc
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