EME4363 Electrical Machines

Lesson 4: Induction Motor

Induction machines – rotor voltage induced in rotor windings.
No need for physical wires or dc field current (like in
synchronous machine).

It can be motor or generator. But rarely used as generator due

to many disadvantages (eg: it always consumes reactive power,
low PF, not stand alone).

Induction motor (IM) construction

Induction motors have both a stator and rotor.

There are two types of rotor construction:

 Cage rotor – conducting bars shorted at the end by
shorting (or end) rings. Stator
Cage Rotor windings Casing

Conductor
shorting rings

Embedded rotor
Iron conductors
core
Fins to cool
the rotor
Shaft
Diagram of a cage rotor induction motor.

 Wound rotor – has a set of 3-phase windings, usually Y-

connected with the ends tied to slip rings. Rotor windings
are shorted by brushes riding on the slip rings.

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Slip rings

Typical wound rotor for induction motors.

Rotor
windings Stator
windings

Shaft

Brushes
Stator winding
connections to
power source

Cutaway diagram of a wound rotor induction motor.

Wound rotor type is more expensive – require more

maintenance due to wear associated with brushes and slip
rings.

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Basic induction motor concepts

The development of induced torque in an induction motor

When current flows in the 3-phase stator windings, a magnetic


field Bs is produced. The speed of magnetic field rotation is
given by:

where f e = system frequency in Hz

P = number of poles in machine

BS will pass over the rotor bars causing induced voltage in
them given by:
  
eind  v  B   l

Hence, rotor currents will flow which will lag behind eind due
to the rotor having an inductive element.

This rotor current will then create a rotor magnetic field BR .
The interaction between both magnetic fields will produce
torque:
 
Tind  kBR  BS
The induced torque will generate acceleration causing the rotor
to spin.

However, there is finite upper limit to motor speed.

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If rotor speed = synchronous speed


Rotor bars appear stationary relative to BS

Hence, eind = 0 , since v = 0

No rotor current present


Therefore, BR = 0

 
Since Tind  kBR  BS ,
Tind = 0

Rotor slows down due to friction

Conclusion: Induction motor can speed up to near

synchronous speed but never actually reach it.
 
In normal operation

Note: Both BS and BR rotates at synchronous speed nsync

while rotor rotates at slower speed.

BS = stator’s magnetic field

BR = rotor’s magnetic field

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The concept of rotor slip

Rotor bar induced voltage is dependent upon the relative speed

between the stator magnetic field and the rotor.

This can be easily termed as slip speed:

where nslip = slip speed of the machine

nsync = speed of magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of motor

From this we can define slip (relative speed expressed on a

percentage basis):

Slip can be expressed in terms of angular velocity, :

Notice:
 rotor rotates at synchronous speed, s = 0
 rotor is stationary, s = 1

The rotor mechanical speed can be obtained using:

Note: All normal motor speeds fall between s = 0 and s = 1.

The electrical frequency on the rotor

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An induction motor is like a rotating transformer, i.e.

Stator (primary) induces voltage in the rotor (secondary)

However, in induction motor:

secondary frequency ≠ primary frequency
fe = rotor frequency
When rotor is locked, nm = 0 r/min, fr = rotor frequency
s=1 fr = fe

At rotor rotates synchronous to field, nm = nsync,

s= 0 fr = 0

Hence, at other rotor speeds, i.e. 0 < nm < nsync,

By substituting for s,
nsync  nm
fr  fe
nsync
Alternatively, since nsync = 120fe/P,

This shows that the relative difference between synchronous

speed and rotor speed will determine the rotor frequency.

Example: A 208V, 10hp, 4-pole, 60Hz, Y-connected induction

motor has a full load slip of 5%.
(a) What is the synchronous speed of the motor?

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(b) What is the rotor speed of the motor at rated load?

= (1-0.05)*1800 = 1710r/min

(c) What is the rotor frequency of the motor at rated load?

Alternatively,

(d) What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated load?

The equivalent circuit of an induction motor (IM)

The operation of induction motor relies on

induction of rotor voltages and currents due to stator

circuit, i.e. transformer action.

Hence, induction motor equivalent circuit similar to that of a

transformer. So to achieve the final equivalent circuit, let’s start
with…

The transformer model of an induction motor

The transformer per-phase equivalent circuit representing the

operation of an induction motor is:

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The transformer model or an induction motor with rotor and stator connected by an
ideal transformer of turns ratio aeff
 R1 = Stator resistance

 X 1 = Stator leakage reactance

 The flux in the IM is related to the integral of the

applied voltage, E1 .

The IM mmf -  curve

(magnetisation curve)
compared to similar
curve for a transformer
is shown on the right.

Slope of IM curve is
shallower than the
transformer.
due to the air gap in the induction motor.

Hence, there is a higher reluctance path which requires

a higher magnetising current for a given flux level.
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Therefore, (magnetizing reactance) XM in induction

motor is smaller than in ordinary transformer.

 The primary internal stator voltage E1 is coupled to the

secondary E R by an ideal transformer with an effective
turns ratio aeff.

For wound rotor motor,

 conductors per phase on stator 
aeff  k  
 conductors per phase on rotor 

This equation is not valid for cage rotor type (because of

no distinct rotor windings) but aeff exists in an IM.

 E R produces current flow in shorted rotor (or secondary)

circuit.

The primary impedances and magnetising current in IM

is very similar to corresponding components in a
transformer equivalent circuit.

Difference:

Effect of varying rotor frequency on rotor voltage E R and

rotor impedances RR and jX R .

The rotor circuit model

When voltage is applied to the stator windings,

voltage will be induced in the rotor circuit.

The amount of induced rotor voltage is dependent upon slip.

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In general, as the relative motion between the rotor and the

stator magnetic fields increases, the resulting rotor voltage
and rotor frequency increases.

Hence, when:

Rotor stationary or Largest relative

 motion between
locked or blocked rotor and BS .
(s = 1 ) largest E R and fr induced.

Rotor at near Smallest E R (0 V) and fr (0 Hz)

synchronous speed. are induced.
(s = 0)

Therefore, the magnitude of the induced voltage at any slip is:

ER  sE R 0

where ER0 = induced rotor voltage at locked-rotor conditions

The frequency of the induced voltage at any slip is:

f r  sf e

The rotor contains both resistance and reactance. However,

only the reactance will be affected by the frequency of the
rotor voltage and current. Hence,
X R   r LR  2f R LR
 2 sf e LR
 s 2f e LR 
 X R  sX RO

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where XR0 = blocked-rotor rotor reactance. LR=rotor inductance

Hence, the resulting rotor equivalent circuit is:

Rotor circuit model of an induction motor

The rotor current flowing is given by:

ER ER ER
IR   
RR  jX R RR  jsX RO RR
 jX RO
s

Therefore, the overall equivalent rotor impedance is:

RR
Z R ,eq   jX R 0
s

And the rotor equivalent circuit now becomes:

Rotor circuit model with all the frequency (slip) effects concentrated
in resistor RR

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In the above equivalent circuit:

 rotor voltage is a constant ER 0 V
 rotor impedance ZR,eq contains all effects of varying
rotor slip

Notice:
 at very low slips, RR /s >> XR0 (so the rotor resistance predominates

and the rotor current varies linearly with slip)

rotor current varies linearly with slip

 at high slips, XR0 >> RR /s

rotor current approaches steady state value as the
slip becomes very large

The final equivalent circuit

To obtain the final per-phase equivalent circuit for IM refer the rotor
part of the model over to the stator side.
i.e. the rotor circuit with the slip effects included in RR

Similar to the transformer, the rotor (secondary) circuit

voltages, currents and impedances can be referred to the
stator (primary) side using the effective turns ratio, aeff.

Hence, the transformed rotor voltage becomes:

E1  ER'  aeff ER 0
the rotor current becomes:
IR
I2 
aeff
and the rotor impedance becomes:

2  RR 
Z 2  aeff   jX R 0 
 s 
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Therefore, we can define:

R2  aeff
2
RR
X 2  aeff X R 0
2

Hence, the final induction motor per-phase equivalent circuit

(referred to the stator side):

Note:
RR, XR0 and aeff are very difficult to be determined directly for
cage rotors.

However, it is possible to make measurements to directly give

the referred resistance R2 and referred reactance X2.
Power and torque in induction motors

Losses and power-flow diagram

The input power (electrical) of an induction motor:

Losses encountered on stator side:

 Stator copper loss PSCL, i.e. I2R loss in stator windings.
 Hysteresis and eddy current losses Pcore

Air gap power PAG  power remaining is transferred to the

rotor across the air gap

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Losses encountered on rotor side:

 Rotor copper loss PRCL, i.e. I2R loss in rotor windings.

What is left?
Power converted from electrical to mechanical form, Pconv.

Final losses:
 Friction and windage losses, PF&W
 Stray losses, Pmisc

The output power (mechanical) of the induction motor:

Hence, the power-flow diagram of the induction motor is

obtained:
Special note on Pcore:
 The core losses do not always appear after PSCL.
 Pcore comes partially from the stator circuit and partially
from the rotor circuit. Usually the rotor core losses are
very small compared to the stator core losses.
 Pcore are represented in the induction motor equivalent
circuit by the resistor RC (or the conductance GC).
 If RC is not given but Pcore = X watts is given, then often
add it together with PF&W at the end of the power flow
diagram.

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Note: Pcore , PF&W and Pmisc are sometimes lumped

together and called rotational losses Prot.

Power and torque in an induction motor

The power and torque equations governing the motor

operation can be derived from the equivalent circuit.

Input current to a motor phase is:

V
I1 
Z eq
where :

The three-phase stator copper losses:

The core losses:

Therefore, the air gap power can be found using:

Note: This is because the air gap power can only be consumed by the
resistor R2 /s.

The resistive rotor copper losses:

Note: The last term is due to the fact that power is unchanged when
referred across an ideal transformer.

The power converted from electrical to mechanical form (or

developed mechanical power) is given by:
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Pconv  Pin  PSCL  Pcore  PRCL

R2
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3I 22  3I 22 R2
s
1 1 s
 Pconv  3I 22 R2 (  1)  3I 22 R2 ( )
s s
the rotor copper losses are equal to the air-gap power times the
slip

Hence,
 as the slip reducesthe rotor losses reduce
 When rotor stationary, s = 1:air gap power is entirely
consumed by rotor

Therefore, another expression for power converted is:

Pconv  PAG  PRCL  (1  s) PAG

If the friction and windage losses and stray losses are known,
the output power is:

As for the induced torque Tind (or developed torque) in the

machine is:

Note: Tind is the torque generated by the electrical-to-mechanical

power conversion.

An alternative expression for Tind:

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Separating the rotor copper losses and power converted in

an induction motor’s equivalent circuit

Power crossing the air gap, PAG

Rotor copper Converted mechanical

losses, PRCL power, Pconv

It is possible to indicate this separately on the motor equivalent

circuit.

𝐑𝟐
PAG is consumed by the resistor:
𝑺

PRCL is consumed by the resistor: R2

Therefore, Pconv = PAG - PRCL must be consumed in a resistor of

value:

Hence, the induction motor per-phase equivalent circuit can

be modified to be:

The per-phase equivalent circuit with rotor losses and Pcore separated.
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Having looked at the principles of operation and equivalent

circuit of the induction motor, an examination of the torque-
speed relationship will be carried out.

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

Induced torque from a physical standpoint

No load condition
On the left is a figure of the
magnetic fields in an induction
motor at no load
 rotor speed very nearly at
synchronous speed

Currents in the stator will


produce a stator field BS .

The induced rotor currents


will also produce field BR .

The net magnetic field, Bnet is produced by the combination of
these two fields, whereby:

 Bnet is produced by magnetising current I M

 I M and hence Bnet directly proportional to E1

(refer to the induction motor equivalent circuit)

If E1 is constant  net magnetic field in the motor, Bnet is also

constant

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In reality, E1 varies as load changes due to the voltage drops

across the stator impedances R1 and X1.

However, these voltage drops are relatively small  so E1 is

approximately constant with changes in load

At no load:
 nm (mechanical shaft speed of motor) is near nsync (speed
of magnetic fields) rotor’s slip s is very small

(relative motion between rotor and Bnet is small)

 the rotor induced voltage E R very small (since eind  vrel)

 Hence, small I R will flow in the rotor and will almost be

in phase with E R .
(Due to rotor frequency fr  s  XR  fr ) reactance of
rotor is nearly 0

 Small I R produces Br at an angle slightly greater than

90 behind Bnet .

 Therefore, the induced torque will be small due to small


BR (just enough to overcome the motor’s rotational
losses) since:
 
Tind  kBR  Bnet

and the magnitude is given by Tind  kBR Bnet sin  .

Note: Even though I R is small, I S must be quite large to


supply most of Bnet . Hence, large no load currents
in IM’s compared to other types of machines.

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On load condition
On the left is a figure of the
magnetic fields in a loaded
induction motor

 As the load increases  slip

s increases and the rotor speed
decreases.
 A stronger rotor induced
voltage E R is produced. Hence,
I R flowing will be larger.

 Hence, BR also increases.

 However, the angle of I R and BR changes since:
larger slip  rise in fr increase in XR.
 Therefore, I R lags further behind E R .
 The torque angle  has also increases.


The increase in BR tends to increase the torque whereas the
increase in  tends to decrease torque.

But the first effect (increase in BR ) is larger. Hence, the overall
torque increases to supply the motor’s increased load.

As load is further increased ( increases): ‘ ’ term

decreases (the value is going towards the 0 cross over point for

a sine wave) at a much greater rate than the increment of BR .

At this point, any further increase will reduce torque and

hence will stop the motor. This effect is known as pullout
torque.

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Modelling the torque-speed characteristics of an induction

motor

We know that, Tind  kBR Bnet sin  .

Each term can be considered separately to derive the overall

torque behaviour:

a) BR  I R (provided the rotor core is unsaturated). Hence,

BR increases with I R which in turn increases with slip
(decrease in speed).

b) Bnet  E1 and will remain approximately constant.
c) The angle  increases with slip. Hence, ‘sin ’ term
decreases. From the on load condition,
where R = pf angle of the rotor
Therefore,

sin   sin  R  90  cos R = power factor of rotor

Rotor power factor angle can be calculated since:

XR sX
 R  tan 1  tan 1 R 0
RR RR
Hence, the rotor power factor:

The torque-speed characteristic can be constructed from the

graphical manipulation of the three properties (a)-(c).

The characteristic curve can be divided into three regions:

1. Low-slip region ( s  linearly, nm  linearly) :
 XR negligible  PFR  1
 I R increases linearly with s

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Contains the entire normal operating range of an

induction motor.

2. Moderate-slip region:
 XR same order of magnitude as RR  PFR droops
 I R doesn’t increase as rapidly as in low-slip region
Peak torque (pullout torque) occurs in this region.

3. High-slip region:
 Increase in I R completely overshadowed by decrease
in PFR.
 Tind decreases with increase in load
Note:
 Typical pullout torque  200% to 250% of Trated.
 The starting torque 150% of the Trated.

Hence induction motor may be started at full load.

Plot of rotor current versus speed for an plot of net magnetic field versus speed
induction motor for the motor.

plot of rotor power factor versus speed for the resulting torque-speed characteristic
the motor

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The derivation of the induction motor induced-torque

equation

A general expression for induced torque can be derived from the

equivalent circuit of the motor as well as the power flow
diagram.

It is known that,
Pconv PAG
Tind  or Tind 
m sync

The latter is more useful since sync is always constant.

Hence, to find an expression for Tind, we must derive an
expression for PAG.

Referring to the per-phase equivalent circuit of the motor:

R2
PAG ,1  I 22
s
R2
Therefore, the total air gap power: PAG  3I 2
2

Hence, if I2 can be determined, then PAG and Tind is known.

This can be easily achieved by constructing a Thevenin

equivalent circuit to the left of the impedances X2 and R2/s.
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Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear circuit that can be

separated by two terminals from the rest of the system can be
replaced by a single voltage source in series with an equivalent
impedance.

Therefore, the per-phase equivalent circuit reduces to the

following Thevenin equivalent circuit:

Calculation via Thevenin equivalent method:

1) Derive the Thevenin voltage (potential divider rule): open-

circuit the terminals after the Rc and Xm branch. Hence,

jX M
VTH  V
R1  jX 1  jX M
Hence, the magnitude is:

Since XM >> X1 and XM>> R1, the magnitude of the

Thevenin voltage is quite accurately approximated by:

2) Find the Thevenin impedance: take out the source and

replace by a short circuit. Hence,
jX M R1  jX 1 
ZTH  RTH  jX TH 
R1  j  X 1  X M 
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Again, since XM >> X1 and XM>> R1,


3) Therefore, the current I 2 flowing in the Thevenin equivalent
circuit of the induction motor is given by:
VTH
I2  (7.43)
RTH  R2 s  jX TH  jX 2

And the current magnitude will be:

VTH
I2  I2  (7.44)
RTH  R2 s    X TH  X 2 
2 2

Hence, the air gap power is:

R2 3VTH2 R2 s
PAG  3I2

2
s RTH  R2 s 2   X TH  X 2 2
Finally, the induced torque expression is:
PAG
Tind 
sync

A plot of the induction motor torque as a function of speed

(and slip) above and below the normal operating range is shown:

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Comments on the induction motor torque-speed curve

1) At synchronous speed, Tind = 0.

2) The curve is linear between no load and full load.
3) The maximum torque is known as pullout torque or breakdown
torque. It is approximately 2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque of
the motor.
4) The starting torque is slightly larger than its full-load torque. So,
IM will start carrying any load it can supply at full power.
5) Torque for a given slip varies as square of the applied voltage. This
is useful as one form of IM speed control.
6) If rotor is driven faster than synchronous speed, Tind direction
reverses and machine becomes a generator.

7) If motor is turning backward relative to the direction of magnetic

fields (achieved by reversing the magnetic field rotation
direction), Tind will stop the machine very rapidly
(braking) and try to rotate in the other direction. Can be
achieved by switching two stator phases, i.e. plugging.

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The power converted to mechanical form in an induction motor

is:
Pconv  Tindm

Hence, a characteristic to show the variation of converted power

with speed (i.e. load) can be obtained.

Note that:
 Peak power supplied by the induction motor occurs at
different speed to maximum torque.
 No power is converted when rotor speed = 0.

Maximum (Pullout) torque in an induction motor

Maximum Tind occurs when PAG is maximum.

PAG is maximum when power consumed by resistor R2 /s is

maximum.
According to the maximum power transfer theorem:
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Maximum power transfer is achieved when the magnitude of

the load impedance is equal to the source impedance.

Hence, referring to the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the

induction motor:

Source impedance =

Load impedance =

Hence, maximum power transfer occurs when:

Solving equation (7.47) for slip, we see that the slip at pullout
torque is given by:

Hence, the resulting equation for the maximum or pullout

torque is:
3VTH2
Tmax 

2sync RTH  RTH   X TH  X 2 
2 2

From this we see that:
 Torque is related to the square of supplied voltage.
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 Torque is inversely proportional to stator impedances and

rotor reactance.
 smax is directly proportional to R2.
 Tmax is independent of R2.

As increase R2 (i.e. increase smax):

 pullout speed of motor decreases
 maximum torque remains constant
 starting torque increases

This is an advantage
of a wound rotor
induction motor.
The effect of varying
rotor resistance on the
torque speed
characteristic of a
wound rotor induction
motor.

Variations in induction motor torque-speed characteristics

(extra knowledge)

Based on the properties of the induction motor torque-speed

characteristics, machine designers are faced with a dilemma –
high stating torque or high efficiency?

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Design Option 1: Design Option 2:

High R2 (or RR) Low R2 (or RR)

 High starting torque  Low starting torque,

high starting current
 Slip high at normal  Slip low at normal
operating conditions operating conditions
 Decreased efficiency  High efficiency
Pconv = (1-s) PAG Pconv = (1-s) PAG
 s , Pconv,   s , Pconv, 

Solution 1:
Use a wound rotor induction motor with:
 extra resistance added to rotor during starting
 then removed for better efficiency during normal
operations

But wound rotor motors are:

 more expensive
 need more maintenance
 more complex automatic control circuit

Better solution:
Utilise leakage reactance in induction motor design to achieve
the desired torque-speed curve shown below.

Torque-speed
characteristics curve
combining high-
resistance effects at
low speeds (high slip)
with low resistance
effects at high speed
Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor(low slip).
design
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Leakage reactance, X2 (referred rotor leakage reactance) is due

to leakage reactance is the reactance due to the rotor’s flux lines
that do not couple with stator windings  rotor flux lines that
do not couple with stator windings

If rotor bar (or part of a bar) is:

 far away from stator more rotor flux leakage  value of
X2 is high
 nearer to stator less rotor flux leakage  value of X2 is
low

Generally, the farther away the rotor bar is from the stator, the
greater its X2, since a smaller percentage of the bar’s flux will
reach the stator

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EME4343 Electrical Machines & Motors – Introduction to Machinery Principles

Typical rotor designs:

Class A Class D

National
Electrical
Manufacturers
Association
(NEMA) design

Quite large cross section, Small cross section,

Rotor bars
placed near surface placed near surface
R2 or RR Small high
X2
low
low
Pullout torque occurs Far from nsync (high
Near nsync (low slip)
at slip)
At least the rated torque
for larger motors & is Very high starting torque
Starting torque 200% or more of rated for (275%) or more of rated
smaller motor torque

Starting current High Low

Efficiency High Low

 driving fans
Extremely high-inertia
Typical applications  pumps
 other machine tools
type loads

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September 4, 2019
 EEE4323 Electrical Machines – Introduction to Machinery Principles
EME4343 Electrical Machines & Motors – Introduction to Machinery Principles

NEMA Class A = typical induction motor design

NEMA Class D = like wound rotor induction motor with

extra resistance added to rotor.

How can a variable rotor resistance be produced to combine

the high starting torque and low starting current of Class D
with the low normal operating slip and high efficiency of Class
A?

Deep-bar and double-cage rotor designs

The basic concept is illustrated below:

 current flowing in upper

portion of the barflux
leakage is low, leakage
reactance is low

 current flowing in lower

portion of the barflux
leakage is high, leakage
reactance is high

Since all parts of the rotor bar are parallel electrically, the
bar essentially represents

 a series of parallel R-L circuits

Resulting equivalent circuit of the rotor bar as a

function of depth in the rotor.

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EME4343 Electrical Machines & Motors – Introduction to Machinery Principles

NEMA design Class B (deep-bar rotor)

Description:
Wide cross-
sectional bars in deep slots.

Upper part of a deep rotor bar: the current flowing is tightly

coupled to the stator, and hence the leakage inductance is
small in this region.
Deeper in the bar: the leakage inductance is higher.

At low slips:
 low rotor frequency
 X lower in all parallel paths (compared to R)
 impedance of all parts of bar approx. equal to R
 equal current flows through all parts of bar

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 EEE4323 Electrical Machines – Introduction to Machinery Principles
EME4343 Electrical Machines & Motors – Introduction to Machinery Principles

 RR small (due to large effective cross-sectional area),

hence good efficiency and higher normal operation
speed.

At high slips (starting conditions):

 higher rotor frequency
 X higher in all parallel paths (compared to R)
 current flow concentrated at upper-part of bar (low-
reactance part)
 RR high (due to lower effective cross-sectional area),
hence high starting torque and lower starting current
(compared to Class A).

Application: similar to class A.

NEMA design Class C (double-cage rotor)

Description:
Large, low resistance set
of bars buried deeply in
the rotor AND small,
high resistance set of
bars at rotor surface.

It is similar to the deep-bar rotor, except that the difference

between low-slip and high-slip operation is even more
exaggerated.

At high slips (starting conditions):

 only small bars are effective
 RR high, hence high starting torque

At low slips (normal operating speeds):

 both bars are effective
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September 4, 2019
 EEE4323 Electrical Machines – Introduction to Machinery Principles
EME4343 Electrical Machines & Motors – Introduction to Machinery Principles

 RR almost as low as in deep-bar rotor

 Good efficiency

Application: for high starting torque load such as loaded

pumps, compressors and conveyors.

NEMA design Class E and F (soft-start induction motors)

 very low starting currents
 used for low-starting torque loads
 has been obsolete

Typical torque-speed curves for different rotor designs

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