FIGURE 10-1 (2) Axially loaded helical spring: (b) tree-body diagram showing that the wire is subjected to a di- rect shear and a torsional shear. 10-2 eke @ In this equation the subscript indicating maximum shear stress has been om unnecessary. The positive signs of Eq. (a) have been retained, and hence Eq. (i gives the shear stress at the inside fiber of the spring. Now we define the spring index For most springs, C will range from about 6 to 12. Equation (10-3) is quite get applies for both static and dynamic loads. The use of square or rectangular wire is not limitations make it necessary. Springs of special wire shapes are not made ia quantities, as are those of round wire; they have not had the benefit of refining ‘ment and hence may not be as strong as springs made from round wire, Whea: severely’ limited, the use of nested round-wire springs should always be coa They may have an economical advantage over the special-section spt strength advantage. THE CURVATURE EFFECT An effect very si spring. The curvature of the wire increases the stress on the inside of the10-3 Mechanical Springs 9415, decreases it only slightly on the outside. This curvature stress is so highly localized that it is important only when fatigue is present. For static Joading, this stress can be neglected, because it will be relieved by local yielding with the first application of a Toad. Unfortunately, it is necessary to find the curvature factor in a roundabout way. The reason for this is that the published equations include the effect of the direct shear stress too. Suppose K, in Eq. (10-3) is replaced by another K factor which corrects for both curvature and direct shear. Then this factor is given by either of the equations Rope sClgO.G1Si OPA nL Ca cter 05) 4C -4 rc} , ky At sy Bevgstvaser [acter 10-6) B 4-3 ¢ The first of these is called the Wahl factor, and the second, the Bergstrisser factor.* Since the results of these two equations differ by less than | percent, Eq. (10-6) is preferred. ‘The curvature correction factor can now be obtained by canceling out the effect of the direct shear. Thus, using Eq. (10-6) with Eq, (10-4), the tion factor is found to be 2c(4c — Sfrey tmcenhober BACH |) Canny meterrl) When fatigue failure is likely or when the spring material must be considered as a brittle material, K, is treated as a stress-concentration factor and used according to earlier recommendations. rvature correc— (10-7) DEFLECTION OF HELICAL SPRINGS The deflection-force relations are quite easily obtained using Castigliano’s theorem The total strain energy for a helical spring is composed of a torsi shear component. From Eqs. (3-30) and (3-31), cease 2GJ ° 2AG (a) Substituting T = FD/2, | = DN, J = md4/32, and A PSAEIDIN, SEZON. dG ag (b) ional component and a the strain energy is U = md7/4 results in U where = Ny = number of active coils. Then, using Castigliano's theorem au PN, AFDN & : ao * aC i *Cytil Sunninov, “Some Aspects of Desig of He Synthesis, Tokyo, 1984. Hmeasion Springs." Jnr. Symp. Denign ancl10-4 FIGURE 10-2 Types of ends used on extension Springs. (Courtesy of Associated Spring Corporation.) Design of Mechanical Elements Since C = Did, Eq. (c) can be rearranged to yield 8FD3N ( Ley 8FD°N EXTENSION SPRINGS Extension springs necessarily must have some means of transferring the load from support to the body of the spring. Although this can be done with a threaded plagg swivel hook, both of these add to the cost of the finished product, and so ove dl methods shown in Fig, 10-2 is usually employed. In designing a spring with ali end, the stress-concentration effect must be considered. a In Fig. 10-3 and is shown a much-used method of designing the et concentration due to the sharp bend makes it impossible to design the hook as the body. Tests as well as analysis show that the stress-concentration factor, approximately by which holds for be stress. Figure 10-3c and d shows an improved design due to a reduced coil d not to elimination of stress concentration. The reduced coil diameter results in stress because of the shorter moment arm, No stress-concentration factor is Jing stress and occurs when the hook is offset, and for log the axial component of the load When extension springs are made with coils in contact with one another, said to be close-wound. Spring manufacturers prefer some initial tension ia} wound springs in onder to hold the free length more accurately. Table 10-1 gi range of torsional siress due to the pre-tension as preferred by spring manual Oo@ oct Machine half bop open. Rosie hook Short twisted loop Full twisted loopFIGURE 10-3 for extension springs. design; stress at A is bined axial and bend- f(t) Side view of part a; Is mostly torsion at B. d design; stress at A is ined axial and bend- Bd) Side view of part ¢; a1 B ls mostly torsion. TABLE 10-4 # Range of Torsional to Initial Tension Helical Extension Springs, Mechanical Springs 417 The initial tension is created in the winding process by twisting the wire as it is wound onto the mandrel. When the spring is completed and removed from the mandrel, the initial tension is locked in because the spring cannot get any shorter. The direction of the stresses can be visualized by reference to Fig. 10-4 10-4a, block A simulates the effect of the stacked coils, and the free length In Fig, of the spring is the length Lo with no extemal force applied. In Fig, 10-45, an external force F STRESS RANGE INDEX c MPa kpsi 4 115-183 16.7-26.6 6 95-160 13.8-23.2 8 82-127 11,9-18.4 10 60-106 8.71-15.4 2 48-86 6.97-12.5 14 37-60 16 25-50 Source: Associated Spring-Barex Group. Design Handbook, Brisco, Conn., 1981, p. $0.Simulation of an ex with inital tension. (a) Jorce: spring compresses block A with Initial loroe F;, The tree length is Lo. (0) Spring extended a cis tance y by external force F. (c) Forcecdellection relation. 10-5 FIGURE 10-5 Types of ands far compression ‘springs: (@) doth ends plain; (©) dom ends squared (c) both ends squared and ground: {@) doth ends plain and ground: Rosigh of Mechanical Elements 4 : ‘ : | . Ew te © © hhas been applied, causing the spring to elongate through the distance y., Not Paticolaly that he stresses inthe sping are inthe same direction in Fig. 104i Figure 10-de shows the relation betwee tion. Here-we see that # must exceed ihe initial tension #) belore a defl experienced. ‘The free length L. of an extension spring is equal to the body length plus 2 Iigok dishiner anil re nmewsured nn the fasiele surtiirs a the hieaks. "Ti bly is given hy hie equation =diNa + 1) where A), 4s the number at jective evils COMPRESSION SPRINGS ‘The four types af ends generally used tor compression springs are illustr 10-5. A spring with plain ends has a noninterrupted helicoid; the ends are thes if ¢ long spring had been cur into sections. A spring with plain ends that are sgeg i-O- WHl-O- (a) Pisin-end, nahi hand (c) Savated and ground end vert rand (b) Squired or cloved end, (4) Plata end, ground, right hid fet handE TABLE 10-2 Bibs for Compression- Dimensions. (Ne prber of Active Coils) Mechanical Springs 419 TYPE OF SPRING ENDS SQUARED AND End coils, N, i) 1 2 2 Total coils, N, No Nott N, +2 Na +2 Solid length, L, d(N, + 1) aN, d(N, + 1) aN, Pitch, p (Lo — 4)ING Lo/(Na + 1) (Lo — 3d)/Ng (Lo - 2d/N, Source: Associted Spring-Barmes Group, Design Handbook. Bristol, Conn, 1981, p. 32 closed is obtained by deforming the ends fo a zero-degree helix angle. Springs should always be both squared and ground for important applications, because a better transfer of the load is obtained. Table 10-2 shows how the type of-end used affects the number of coils and the spring length.* Set removal or prese! is a process used the manufacture of compression springs to induce useful residual stresses. It is done by making the spring longer than needed and then compressing it to its solid height. This operation sets the spring to the required final free length and, since the torsional yield strength has been exceeded, induces residual stresses opposite in direction to those induced in service. Springs to be preset should be designed so that 10 to 30 percent of the initial free length is removed during the operation, “If the stress at the solid height is greater than 1.3 times the torsional yield strength, distortion may occur. If this stress is much less than |. times, it is difficult to control the resulting free length. Set removal increases the strength of the spring and so is especially useful when the spring is used for energy-storaze purposes, However, set removal should not be used when springs are subject to fatigue. STABILITY In Chap. 3 we leamed that a column will buckle when the load becomes too large. Similarly, compression coil springs will buckle when the deflection becomes too large ‘The critical deflection is given by the equation G )) yer = Les) 1 — ( -= Yer = Lo [ i a ‘where Yer is the deflection corresponding to the onset of instability. Samdnovt states that this equation is cited by Wahlt and verified experimentally by Haringx.$The (0-11) “For a thorough discussion and development of these relations, see Cyril SamSnov, "Computer-aided Design of Helical Compression Springs,"" ASME. paper no. 80-DET-69. 1980, Computer-Aided Design."* #4. M. Wahl, Mechanical Springs, 24 e4., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963. §}. A. Haringx, “On Highly Compressible Helical Springs and Rubber Rods and Their Application for \Vibration-Free Mountings,’" land Il, Philips Res. Rep., vol. 3, December 1948, pp. 401449, and vol, 4, February 1949, pp, 49-80.{d-Condition Constants a for npression Springs” elical C O-7; “ends of the spring are supported. Table 10-3 gives values of @ for usual end co Spring supported between flat parallel surfaces (Fixed ends) One end supported by flat surface perpendicular to spring axis (fixed); other end pivoted (hinged) 0, Both ends pivoted (hinged) 1 One end clamped; other end free “Ends supported by flat surfaces must be squid and ground. Quantity Aj in Eq. (10-11) is the effective slenderness ratio and is given equation Cie 2E-G) *(E - G) eter Equation (10-12) contains the end-condition constant a. This depends upon Note how closely these resemible the end conditions for columns. Absolute stability occurs when, in Eq. (10-11), the term C3/AZris less th This ineany that the coitinn for absolute stability is that 2a)" For steels, this turns out to be D La <2.63— a SPRING MATERIALS Springs are manufactured either by hot- or cold-working processes, dependiagh the size of the material, the spring index, and the properties desired. In general dened wire should not be used if Did <4 or ifd > 4 in. Winding of the springh residual stresses through bending, but these are normal to the direction of the! working stresses in a coil spring. Quite frequently in spring manufacture, relieved, after winding, by a mild thermal treatment. A great variety of spring materials are available to the designer, includ carbon steels, alloy steels, and corrosion-resisting steels, as well as nonferroull als such as phosphor bronze. spring brass. beryllium copper, and various nickd Descriptions of the most commonly used steels will be found in Table 10-4. 7TABLE 10-4 and Alloy Spring Steels NAVE OF Sitar A MATERIAL __SPEGIFICATIONS DESCRIPTION _ a Music wire, UNS GIOK50 This is the best, 10 Ml inest widely used O80-0.95C AISI 1085 of all spring muserials for siall springs. has ASTM A2¥-51 the highest tensile strength and ean with Oil-tempered wire, UNS G10650 0,60-0,70C AISI 1065 ASTM 229-41 Hard-drawn wire, UNS G10660 0.60-0,70C AISI 1066 ASTM A227-47 Chrome vanadium — UNS'G61500 AISI 6150 ASTM 231-41 Chrome sili UNS Go2si0 AISI 9254. stand higher stress s under repeated loud~ ing than any other spring material. Avail- able i dizaueters 0.12 he ¥ nani (0,005 to 0.125 in). Do not use above 120°C (250"F) (or al subzero temperatures This general-purpose spring steel is used for many types of coil springs where the cost of ‘musie wire is prohibitive and in sizes larger than available in music wire. Not for shock oF impact loading. Available in diameters 30 12 mm (0.125 to 0.5000 in), but larger and smaller sizes may be obtained Not for use above 180°C (350°F) or at sub- zero temperatures ‘This is the cheape: general-purpose spring steel and should be used only where life, se- curacy, and’ deflection are not too important Available in diameters 0.8 to 12 mm (0.031 {0 0.500 in). Not for use above 120°C (250°F) or at subzero temperatures This is the most popular alloy spring. ste for conditions involving higher stresses. thin an be used with the high-earbon steels san for use where fatigue resistanee and long, endurance are needed. Also good for shock and impact loads. Widely used for aircratt- euyine vile springs al fon tonperatanies to 220°C (129°1), Avaitible an annette or Dretempered sizes 0.8 10 12 mm (0.031 to 0.500 in) in diameter This alloy is excelent aerial for hiyshly Siressed springs that require Hong lite net sue subjected to shock loading. Rockwell hard nesses of C50 to C53 are quite common, and the material may be used up 4 250°C (475°F). Available from 0.8 to [2 mm (0.031 to 0.500 in) in diameter ‘Source: By permission rom HaroléC. R. Carl 74, 956, pp. 331-334, ection and sion of Spring Materials,—— Le TABLE 10-5 Constants for Computing Minimum Tensile Strengths of ‘Common Spring Steels FIGURE 10-6 Minimum tensile strengths: A hard phosphor bronze wire, E 15Mpsi, G = 6.3 psi; 8, ASTM ‘A313 siainiess steel wire (type 202), E = 28 Mpsi, G = 10 Mpsi MATERIAL Music wire” Oil-tempered wire® Hard-drawn wire® Chrome vanadium? Chrome silicon® “Surfs is smooth fee frm det, sd as «bight stro finish iva a alight heabtcating scale which mst be removed before plating. “Surface ix smoot and bight wi no visible marks, “niveraft- quality tempered wite; an abo be obaind amneled Batol, Coma, 1981, p. . sicels listed in the Appendix: should be used in designing hot-worked, hem springs. as well as Hal springs, leaf springs, and torsion bars Spring materials may be compared by an examination of their tensile « these vary so much with wire size that they cannot be specified until the wie Known, The material and its processing also, of course, have an effect on i nsile sirength versus wire diameter is sirength. IC turns out that the graph of ten Straight ive for some nalerials when plotted on Log, log paper, Weiting the equ this line as 7 A Sy furnishes « good means of estimating minimum tensile strengths when the in and the slope m of the line are known. Values of these constants have been wo from recent data and are given for strengths in units of kpsi and MPa in Tal [Equation (10-17) is valid only for the materials listed in Table 10-5. Figure ig 30 2530 4050 75 100 150 200 300 400 Wire diameter d ilsMechanical Springs 423 been prepared to use in obtaining the strength of stainless stee! wire (type 302) and of hard phosphor bronze wire. Note that phosphor bronze is very nearly a straight line on the semilog plot. Although the torsional yield strength is needed to design the spring and to analyze the performance, spring miterials customarily are tested only for tensile strength— perhaps because it is such an easy and economical test to make. A very rough estimate of the torsional yield strength can be obtained by assuming that the tensile yield strength is between 60 and 90 percent of the tensile strength. Then’ the distortion. energy theory can be employed to obtain the torsional yield strength. This approach results in the range 0.35Sw S Ssy S 0.525 y, (10-18) for steels. Instead of the torsional yield strength, Joerres* uses the maximum allowable tor- sional stress for static applications, This is the best and most reliable information available and, for springs, can he used instead of Sy». Joerres’ values are 0.455, . cold-drawn carbon steel 0.505, hardened and tempered carbon and low-alloy steel (10-19) 0.35S,,_ austenitic stainless steel and nonferrous alloys Saménovt discusses this problem and shows that Swy = ~ 0.565. (10-20) for high-tensile spring steels. He points out that this value of allowable stress is speci- fied by Draft Standard DIN 2089 of the German Federal Republic when Eq. (10-3) is used without the stress correction factor. EXAMPLE 10-1 A helical contpression spring is made of No. 16 (0.037-in) music wire, The outside BGs ff the spring Re ‘Ye in. The ends are squared and there are 124 total turns. (ae) Estimate the‘ torsional yiekl strength of the wine (6) Find the static load ‘correspon (©) What is the scale of the spring? . +. (d) Compute the deflection that would be caused by the load in part (b). a * ) Compute the solid length of the spring. to the yield strength. (J) What length should the spring be so that when it is compressed solid and then released there will be no permanent change in the free length? Robert E. Joerres, “Springs,” chap. igley and Charles R. Mischie (eus.), Standard Handbook of Machine Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986, p. 24.19. +'"Computer-Aided Design.”Design of Mechanical Elements (g) Given the length found in part (f), is buckling a possibility? (i) What is the piteh of the spring? (a) Using Eq. (10-17) and Table 10-5, we find A = 186 kpsi and m = 0.163 fore re 4 186 3 7 ) p= ae = 38 ksi - \e Su a Oa : FB ‘on, row Ly. 0), ep Anwer 1 = 0.455, = 0.45(318) = 143 ipsi (1) The mean spring diameter is D = Yr — 0.037 = 0.400 in, and so the spring is CUA — 10.8. Then, from Li, Id), -@ > 2C+1 _ 2010.8) +1 2 = MUO. a6 eo 008) Now rang (10-3) nd sve for us SC Jor tie shear siess. This gives 8K.D ——_8(7,086)(0.400) (c) From Table 10-2, = 12.5 ~ 2= 10.5 tums. Using G = 11.5 Mpsi, the 1 ah 7 0°37 of the spring is found from Ea, (10-9): Fane OSE Te » ip amwer — (d) yy = Ftk = 6,804.01 = 1.70 in heer bent #1) 0037125 + 1) = 05018 (/) To avoid yielding, the spring can be no longer than the solid length deflection caused by a load just short of the amount required to initiate Sunvnving the results of parts (a) and (e) gives tis length as 1.70 + 0.50 2.20 in 0,5. Then, from By. (10-16), we find Aner L (g) Table 10-3 gives Db _ 2.630.800) 5) 285 ae 2.108 in Since y= 2.20 in, buckling will occur. ‘ete = 0.191 in Wale: n+ TW. +E so 37) (IS a0 z yeolie S SQ) Bucwhiyn mF Lyk 7-63 DO whe Euel-Comelibin count, Ey oer T* (03, da orS$o see w€2e)- 2-202 Ve — gusettdioy oH otene W) pitch, P= LeenaMechanical Springs 425 DESIGN OF HELICAL SPRINGS The design of a new spring involves the following considerations: * Space into which the spring must fit and operate * Values of working forces and deflections + Accuracy and reliability needed + Tolerances and permissible variations in specifications + Environmental conditions such as temperature and presence of a corrosive atmo- sphere * Cost and quantities needed ‘The designer uses these factors to selec ly suitable values for the wire size, the number of turns, the diameter and free length, the type of ends, and the spring rate needed to satisfy the working force-deflection requirements. Samiinov* states that, for compression springs, the prin © that the wire size be commercially available and that the stress at the solid length be no greater than the torsional yield strength. His goal, in a complete computer solution, is to fully utilize the material Charts and nomogruphs have been used by many to simplify the spring des problem. There are almost as‘many ways to create a spring-design program as there are programmers; and there is nothing unusual about the program presented here. It works. ‘The program, which is for the design of compression springs, can be used as at starting point for the creation of other programs. It consists of seven separate subroutines, all of which utilize the same memory locations, The subroutines, which should be used in the order in which they are presented, are: wlerial and sp 1 Enter and display (or print) the outside diameter. 2 Enter and display the total number of coils. Enter and display the number of dead coils. Compute and display the number of-active coils. : 3 Select a material and enter and display the exponent and coefficient 4 Enter and display the wire diameter. Compute and display the torsional yield strength, 5 Enter and display the maximum torsional stress desired when the spring is closed solid. Compute and display the solid height, the free length, and the force required to compress the spring solid. ‘ “Brief Survey of Spring Design Nomographs."” ASME paper no. 76: ind M, Massoud, “Design Nomographs of Compression Helical ww NOLCODET #8, 18H: NI Chin Sprang Design ana Application, Matin si, New Voth, 1M, 1D. Canam Newnns Fanginee sf J Bool i Newnesuierveth om, 188 KT, "Spey Desig of Heil Che sion Springs by Nomography Method," Journal of Engineering for Industry, February 197, pp. 373-374Design of Mechanical Elements 42 6 Compute and display the spring constant 7 Enter and display any desired operating force F. Compute and display the sponding values of the torsional stress and the spring deflection. may wish lo try a different wire size. ‘This can be done by entering the new wire subroutine 4 and proceeding from that point. XAMILE 102 Sulution FIGURE 10-7 Pan 1, pull nob; part 2, tapered retaining pin; part 3, hardened bushing with pross fl; pad 4, body of fixtue, pa 8, mndoxng pi part 6, workpiece holder. Space for he spring is Bin OD by 2 in ID ‘and 1 in tong, with the pin down as shown. The pull knob must bo raised 3 in to permit indexing Indexing is used in machine operations when a circular part being manufactured be divided into a certain number of segments. Figure 10-7 shows a portions indexing fixture used to successively position a part for the operation. When the} is pulled up, part 6, which holds the workpiece, is rotated to the next posit locked in place by releasing the index pin. In this example we wish to design the! to exert a force of about 3 Ib and to fit in the space defined in the figure are available in music wire. In one catalog there are 76 stock springs a an outside diameter of 0.480 in and designed to work in a4-in hole. These are m seven different wire sizes, ranging from 0.038 up to 0.063 i + to 2 in, depending upon the wire size. Since the pull knob must be raised 3 in for indexing and the space for the $a 17 in Jong when the pin is down, the solid length cannot be more than Bin Let us begin by selecting a spring having an outside diameter of 0.480 i, size of 0.051 in, a free length of 1} in, 114 total tums, and plain ends. 0.163 and A = 186 kpsi for music wire. ThenDesign of Mechanical Elements <2 Design of Mechanical Elements 6 Compute and display the spring constant 7 Enter and display any desired operating force F. Compute and display the co sponding. values of the torsional stress and the spring deflection. Separate subroutines are used in this program in order to avoid reentering all data when only a single parameter is to be changed. In this way it is easy to see effect af the single change, For example, having run through the program once may wish io try a different wire size, ‘This can be done by entering the new wite subroutine 4 and proceeding from that point 102 Snluion Since the fixture is not a high-production item, a stock spring will be selected, are available in music wire. In one catalog there are 76 stock springs available an outside diameter of 0.480 in and designed to work in a $-in hole. These are: seven different wire sizes, ranging from 0.038 up to 0.063 in, and in free length $10 2 in, depending upon the wire size. Since the pull knob must be raised } in for indexing and the space for the sp 17 in tong when the pin is down, the solid length cannot be more than‘# ind Let us begin by selecting a spring having an outside diameter of 0.48 size of 0.051 in, a free length of 14 in, 114 total tums, and plain ends 0.163 and A = 186 kpsi for musie wire, Thea EN FIGURE 10-7 AN ax chaperones aN ftanig pir pr, hardoed iN ete MERC 3} part 6, workpiece holder. Space for he spring is 3 in OD by J in ID ‘and 12 in long, with the pin down as shown. The pull knob must be 304 2 in 10 permit indexing,Mechanical Springs 427 pA stm LAC ae gee ont Eq. (10-19), Sry = 0.455, = 0.45(302) = 136 kpsi From Table 10-2, N, = 11.5 turns for plain ends. Also, D = D, — d = 0.480 - 0.051 = 0.429 in. Then, from Fq. (10-9), the spring rate is dG _ (0.051)"11.5)(10") = 10.7 Ibvin 8D°N, —_8(0.429)°(11.5) ‘ Also, from Table 10-2, the solid length is L, = d(N, + 1) = 0.051(11.5 + 1) = 0,6375 in The spring force when the pin is down is Frin = ky = 10.7(1.75 = 1.375) = 4.01 Ib When the spring is pulled up, the spring force is Frmax = K(Lg ~ L,) = 10.7(1.75 — 0.6375) = 11.9 Ib Using C = Did = 0.42910.05 the solid length is LED esi ioca 8(11.9)(0.429) = 8.41 and K, = (2C + 1)2C = 1.059, the stress at 8 2K = 1 Bet 740.051) 104 kpsi But this spring is too strong and the solid length is too long; therefore we must go to a smaller wire size, After several trials, a spring is found which yields Fig = 2.34 1b, Fig, = 7.40 Ib, and Tmax = 94.6 kpsi. Buckling does not occur. The specifications and other result, for this spring are found to be: Material, music wire Ends, plain Wire diameter d = 0,045 in Outside diameter D, = 0.480 in Mean diameter D = 0.435 in Total number of coils N, = 11.5 Free length Lo = 1.75 in Solid length L, = 0.5625 in Spring index C = 9.67 Spring rate k = 6.23 Ibvin Torsional yield strength S,, = 139 kpsi10-9 TABLE 10-6 Tolerances and Coetticients of Variation Cy for Selected Sizes of Spring Steel Wire Design of Mechanical Elements STOCHASTIC CONSIDERATIONS In this scction we shall consider the wire diameter d, the coil diameter D, Heft Jength Lo, the shear modulus G, and, for extension springs, the pre-tension Ff random variables. When these variates have been specified, together with the of active turns N,, they encode the designer’s target of a spring rate or a force sponding to a specified end deflection. This section will assist our understanding. ability to achieve the designer's target. cawing it through a die, the wire d limits of the springmake If, say, @ kilometer of wire is sized by dr slowly increases as a result of die wear. If no effort is made to identify the lo is spooled and cut, then the wire di the spooled wire in the draw as the wire changes: from predictable to stochastic The cont diameter is toleranced and hence is flects the springmaker's ability to wind to a chosen diameter over a mandrel. The free length is also a random variable; it is random because it depends up also because itclepends upon the winding operation t av randoms variable; this tolerang two variates D and d and with the pretwisting this may require It is well known that commercial tolerances are natural tolerances and re increase the spring cost, sometimes quite dramatically. Tables 10-6, 10-7, and 108} the commercial tolerances ior wire diameter and free length, ‘Tables 10-9 and 10 the standard deviations of the outside coil diameter; these values were deduced listings of commercial tolerances. SIZE,in___ TOLERANCE, in ics 0.020 0.0004 0.0067 0.50 +0.010 0.024 0.0004 0.0056 0.55 £0,010 0.028 0.0004 0.0048, 0.60 +0.010 0.035 0.0006 0.0057 0.70 £0.010 0.042 0.0006 0.0048 0.80 +0.015 0.048. 0.0006 0.0042 0.90 £0,015 0.055 0.0006 0.0036 10 +0.015 0.063 0.0006 0.0032 12 +0.015 0.072 0.0006 0.0028 14 ++0,0015 0.081 0.0008 0.0033 16 0.0015 0.092 . £0.0008 0.0029 2.0 £0,020 0.105 0.0008 0.0025 25 ++0.020 0.112 0.0008, 0.0024 3.0 0.020 0,125 0.0012 0.0032 35 +0.030 0.135 +0,0012 0.0030 40 ++0.030 OLLI 0.0012 0.0027 50 0.030 0.102 0.0012 0.0025 6.0 0.030 0.177 0.0012 0.0023 8.0 +£0.050 0.192 0.0012 0.0021 10.0 ++0.070 0.207 “0.0012 0.0019 20 0.070 0 £0,0012 0.0018 14.0 +0.070 0.250 0.0020 0.0027 16.0 £0.070Mechanical Springs 429 A ‘SPRING INDEX C = Dig TABLE 10-7 vit No. cons £ es bt : = Length Tolerances Ny/La, mm (1/in) 6 [Squared and Ground a . “0.02 (¢ 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 WIS. 0.016 0.016 Sore ne ot Us O11, 9013 001s 9016 e017 018 0.019 P (infin) 0.08 (2) 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.019 0.020 0,022 poe 0.20 (4) 0.016 0.018 0.021 0.023 0,024 0.026 0.027 0.30 (9) 0.019 0,022 0.024 0.026 0.028 —0.0300.032 0.50 (12) 0.021 0.024 0.027 0.030 .022_—0.034 0.036 0.60 (16) 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.80 (20) 0.023 0.027 0.031 0.034 0.036 0.038 0.040 Hoe ine 40,500 ih, re eng Fess tha 12.7 re wot ot ily shea Gr 12.7 nan (0.500 dn. Far springs havin Source: Associated Spring-Barnes Group, Design Handbook, Urinal, Conn, 1981, p. 2. TABLE 10-8 “FREE LENGTH INSIDE HOOKS” TOLERANCE, ath Tolerances for mmiin) Tm i” nsion Springs with Up to 12.7 (0.500) 0.51 (0.020) Initial Tension Gyer 12.7 10 25.4 (0.500 to 1.00) 0.76 (0.030) ‘Over 25.4 to 50.8 (1.00 to 2.00) 1.0 (0,080) Over 50.8 to 102 (2,00 to 4,00) 1.5 (0.060) Over 102 to 203 (4.00 to 8,00) 2.4 (0.093) ‘Over 203 10 406 (8.00 to 16.0) 4.0 (0.156) Over 406 to 610 (16.0 to 24.0) 5.5 (0.218) Gare Miku SRE Source: Associated Spring-Barnes Group, Design Handboot, Bristol, Conn, 1981, p. 53 he ae _—____"" SPRING INDEX ©. H, Standard Deviations d.mm 4 é a to 12 14 16 ers of the Outside Diameter of Helical 05 0.0167 0.0227 0.0307 0.0433 0.0533 0.0600 0.0740 ssion and Extension 0.6 0.0167 0.0270 0.0507 0.0610 0.0683 0.0850 Springs Lo 0.0195 0.0.40 0.0668 C0810 102 0.119 La 0.0277 0.0460 0.0037 0.0877 0.106 0.132 w 149 2.0 0.0347 0.0613 0.0853 0.113 0.140 0.164.182 4.0 0.0627 0.0943 0.135 0.184 0.223. 0.264 0305 6.0 0.0887 0.122 0.171 0.229 «0.289 3430398 8.0 GRR MONS) ROR 76.8 iaazsucllaany = tia; 10.0. 0.143 0.1820, 38040433 US14 0.620 Table 10-6 gives the tolerances for wire diam been determined and tabulate as a stochastic variable, is d= 1.2(1, 0.0042) mm Tables 10-7 and 10-8 are used to obtain the tolerance on free length, Suppose a Faee cesion spring has 14 active coils, a nominal free length of 14 in, and a spring index of C = 8. We enter Table 10-7 with Nq/Lo = 14/1.5 = 9,33 and.C = 8. Using n Cy has 1 wire, just described.TABLE 10-10 Standard Deviations in Inches of the Outside Coil Diameter of Helical Compression and Extension Springs EXAMPLE 10-3 Design of Mechanical Elements WIRE DIAMETER din 0.020 0.000 667 0.000 873 0.001 21 0.001 75 0.028 0.000 667 0.001 14 0,001 61 0,002 14 0.002 61 0.003 08 0.0084 0.042 0.000 813 0.001 48 0.002 15 0.002 77 0.003 43 0.004 27 0.008 0.063 0.001 16 0.001 99 0,002 81 0.003 80 0.004 63 0.005 63 0.00 0.081 0.001 42 0,002 42 0.003 47 0.004 57 0.005 57 0.006 60 0.0 0.105 0.001 840.092 840.004 100,005 60 0.006 60 0.007 87 0.008 0.129 0.002.150.0038 190.004 60 0,006 33 0,007 47 0.008 83 0.0% 0.162 0.002 56 0.003 83 0.005 47 0.007 40 0.008 97 0.0106 0.018 0.192 0.002 93 0.004 27 0.006 03 0,008 10 0.009 97 0.011 8 0.250 0.003 67 0.005 00 0.007 00 linear interpolation, we have x y 8 0.024 9.33 2 2 0.027 and find Yz = Tily ~ 0.025, ‘Thus the tolerance is T = *0.025Ly = +0.025(1.$) = +0.0375 in ‘The standard deviation is 6, = 0.0375/3 = 0.0125 in. Also, C,= 0,0125/1.5 = 0.0083, and so the free-length variable is Lp = 1.50(1, 0.0083) in An extension spring is to be manufactured to the following specifications: Material: ASTM A227 hard-drawn wire Wire diameter: 0.9 mm Number of active coils: 13.2 Outside coil diameter: 6.3 nm Pre-tension: moderate Ends: full loop (Fig. 10-34) Assume that Co = 0.008 and find the following: (a) Spring index and mean of the mean spring diameter D (6) Free length (c) Preload (d) Spring rateSolution Answer Answer Answer Answer Mechonical Springs 431 (e) Force required to deflect the spring 7 mm (f) Deflection of the spring caused by a force of 25 N (a) The spring index C can be taken as deterministic except when it is used to replace Did in Eq. (10-3) or (10-9). Using D, as the outside coil diameter, the spring index is found to be D. c d 0.9 0.9 From Table 10-6, find d = 0.9(1, 0.0056) = (0.9, 0.0050) mm. Using Table 10-9 with linear interpolation gives &>, = 0.033 75 mm. Therefore D, ‘Then the mean of the mean spring diameter is D=D,-d Here D = 6.3 - 0.9 = 5.4 mm, and Gp = (bo + 63)'? = ((0.033 75)? + (0.005 36)?]'? = 0.0342 mm Therefore D = (5.4, 0.0342) = 5.4(1, 0.006 33) mm. (6.3, 0.033 75) = 6.3(1, 0.005 36) mm (b) The free length is tite body length plus 2 times the hook distance measured on the insides of the hooks. Thus, for Fig. 10-3a, it is given by the equation Lo = Ly + 2D; = d(Nq + 1) + 2D; (10-21) Substituting D, = 6.3 — 2(0.9) = 4.5 mm gives Lo = 0,913.2 + 1) + 24.5) = 21.78 mm Table 10-8 gives the tolerance as 0.76 mm. Thus 6, = 0.76/3 = 0.253 mm. ‘Therefore the free-length’ variate is Lo = (21.78, 0.253) = 21.79(1, 0.0116) mm (©) Using the midrange for the preload stress in Table 10-1 gives 7; = 127 MPa. The Preload, or pre-tension, corresponding to this stress is found using Eqs, (10-3) and (10-4), Thus 26) +1 26) p= TAO. 1 8K.D ~ 8(1.083)(5.4) K, = 1.083, 6.22/N ‘The commercial tolerance on preload is +10 percent, as indicated in Sec. 10-4, ‘Therefore the standard deviation isAnswer Answer Answer Answer Design of Mechanical Elements 4 aand so the preload variate is oe F, = (6.22, 0.207) = 6.22(1, 0.033) N f (i) Equation (10.9), for spring nite, is written in the form iy ie ac 4 ~ 8°, Substituting values in the form x ACL, Cy) paves _ 10.9(1, 0.0056)}*{79.3(1, 0.008)] [oo 00) 8[5.4(1, 0.006 33)]°(13.2) o-3)° 4. we find the coctlicient of variation of the spring rate oi Using Table 4 Cx = {(4(0.0056)]? + (0.008)? + [3(0.006 33)}*}"* = 0.0304 The mean is found to be k = 3129 N/m. Therefore 3129(1, 0.0304) = (3129, 95.2) N/m. k be about 9 percent. (e) The force required to deflect this spring is given by the stochastic F=F,+ky provided y is deterministit. Using y = 7 mm gives F = (6.22, 0.207) + 7(3129, 95.2)(107°) Using Table 4-4 again, we obtain the standard deviation as ry (0.207)? + 17(95.2910-) PF} = 0,698 N ‘The mean is F = 6.22 § 7291074) = 28.1 N and so the variate is F = (28.1, 0.698) = 28.1(1, 0.025) = N (/) Extension springs are olten designed into machines and calibrated by bull justments to provide a fixed or deterministic force. Under these condita ic and is given by the relation ; deflection is stocha For F = 25 N, this equation gives __ 25 = (6.22, 0.207) a 103 ~ 129, 95.2) 1?oO 3 Mechanical Springs 433 Using Table 4-4, this becomes ( 7 18.78(1, 0.011) (18.78, 0.207) (93) - ( Dos (3129, 95.2) 3129(1, 0.0304) Thus F = 6.00 mm and y Cy = (0.011)? + (0.0304)?]"? = 0.0323 so that 6.00(1, 0.0323) = (6.00, 0.194) mm FIGURE 10-8 failure in an over- . Fracture is along of maximum principal with pure shear. CRITICAL FREQUENCY OF HELICAL SPRINGS Ha wave is created by a disturbance at one end of a swimming pool, this wave will travel down the length of the pool, be reflected back at the far end, and continue in this back-and-forth motion until it is finally damped out. The:same effect occurs in helical Springs, and it is ealled spring surge. If one end of a compression spring is held against 2 flat surface and the other end is disturbed, a compression wave is created that travels hack and forth from one end to the other exactly like the swimming-pool wave Spring manufacturers have taken slow-motion movies of automotive valve-spring Surge. These pictures show a very violent surging, with the spring actually jumping out of contact with the end plates. Figure 10-8 is a photograph of such a failure When helical springs are used in applications requiring a rapid reciprocating mo:force; otherwise, resonance may occur, resulting in damaging stresses, since thei nal damping of spring materials is quite low. The governing equation for a spring pluced between two flat and parallel pla equation au W au ar where k = spring rate g = acceleration due to gravity 1 = length of spring between plates W = weight of spring y = coordinate along length of spring u = motion of any particle at distance y # ‘The solutions to this equation are obtained using well-known methods. Here ¥ interested only in the natural frequencies; in radians per second, these are kg mm) w where the fundamental frequency is found for m = 1, the second harmonic for and so on. We are usually interested in the frequency in cycles per seconds: w =2nf, we have, for the fundamental frequency, 3 where the spring has one end against a flat plate and the other end free. They out that By. (10-23) applies when one end is against a Mat p driven with a sine-wave motion, ‘The weight of the active part of a helical spring is ae af a ag te econ eee ee where p is the weight (not mass) per unit volume. *J.C. Wolford and G. M. Smith, “'Surge of Helical Springs," Mech. Eng. News, vol. 13, aah 1976, pp. 4-9. "EXAMPLE 10-4 Solution Design of Mechanical Elements have no effect on the endurance limits (infinite life only) of spring steels in sizes 4 in (10 mm). We have already observed that endurance limits tend to level out ati tensile strengths (Fig. 7-7), but the reason for this is not clear. Zimmerli suggests may be cause the original surfaces are alike or because plastic flow during makes them the same Interpreted in terms of the nomenclature of this book, Zimmerli’s results 45.0 kpsi (310 MPa) for unpeened springs 67.5 kpsi (465 MPa) for pecned springs rected, as indicated, for surface finish, size, and loading, but not for temper miscellaneous effects. In constructing the Goodman diagram or the S-N diagram, the torsional rupture is needed. Here we shall continue to employ Eq. (7-43), which is Ssy = 0.675 and ground, ‘The spring is to be maximum load of 35 Ib during use. Dew4 Ja jhe (a) Find the factor of safety guarding against a fatigue failure. ()) Hind the critical operating frequency (a) The mean diameter is D 0,5625 ~ 0.092 = 0.4705 in, Then the spring C = Did = 0.4705/0.092 4 <1, Equations (10-4) and (10-6) give cee a er TOTR 2c 26.11) 4C +2 _ 45.11) +2 Kn= ——— = 1. an soma aa Bee Using Eqs. (10-26) and (10-27) next, we find 35-5 = 15 Ib 3545 Fn = 5 = 20 tb The alternating shear-stress component is found from Eq. (10-28) to ies RRO mens) OATON) ; Ta = Kua = 1287 os (10-2) = 29.7 ks Equation (10-29) gives the mean shear-stress component as BF wD . e 1,99.8020200.4705) 0.0937 (10) = 33.8 ksiMechanical Springs 437 From Table 10-5, we find A= 186 kpsi and m= 0.163 for music wire, Then, using Eq. (10-17), we obta Su aa = 74 kpsi a (0.092) 16" With Eq. (10-30), we find next that Soy = 0.67S yy = 0.67(274) = 184 kpsi ‘The spring is unpeened, and so the endurance limit is S,. = 45.0 kpsi. If we em- ploy the Goodman criterion, then, for shear, Eq. (7-39) is written q, ii SueS, Ja 4 Im = — SS 10-31 Sp as gy ee Ot US ape ma cl From this equatior. we find the factor of safety guarding against a fatigue failure to be uy 45(184) 29.7(184) + 33.845) Answer = 1.19 (b) Using Eq. (10-9), we find the spring rate to be pea E_ _ (0.092)4(11.5)(10%) 8D'N, _8(0.4705)(21)_—~ 47: F Hbvin Using p = 0.282 lb/in? and Eq. (10-25), we find the weight of the active part of the spring to be wPDN yp = 7°0.092)7(0.4705)(21)(0.282) 4 frequency is found from Fg. (10-23) 1 be =+|4 =) | s 2t 0.0582 Thus if the operational frequency is much more than 279/20 = 14 Hy, the spring may need to be redesigned. w= = 0.0582 Ib 79 Hz 4 O- 41 2 HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS. The torsion springs illustrated in Fig. 10-9 are used in door hinges und automobile Starters and, in fact, for any application where torque is required. They are wound in the same manner as extension or compression springs but have the ends shaped to transmit torque. ‘A torsion spring is subjected to the action of a bending moment M = Fr, producing anormal stress in the wire. Note that this is in contrast to compression or an extension helical spring. in which the load produces a torsional stress in the wire. This means thrFIGURE 10-9 springs. (Courtesy of As- lated Spring Corporation.) Design of Mechanical Elements » Olt Short hook ends | OF Hinge ends Special ends Straight offse Ml FY Hi Double tonion equal or even exceed the yield strength of the wire. ‘The bending stress can be obtained by using curved-bcam theory as expli Sec, 2-20. It is convenient to write the expression in the form Me mee Zeal as a strength-reduction factor. The value of K depends upon the shape of the upon whether or not the stress is desired on the inner fiber of the coil or on th fiber, Wahl has analytically: determined the following values for K for rou ee ach 4c(C - 1) * BCC +1) where C is the spring index and the subscripts i and o refer to the inner and oute respectively. In view of the fact that K., is always less than unity, we shall use‘ to determine stresses. When the bending moment M = Fr and the section mg Ue = md/32 are substituted in Eq. (a), we obtain 32Fr ca Keay which gives the bending stress for a rou wite torsion spring.Mechanical Springs 439 Deflection The strain energy in bending is, from Eq. (3-32), (b) 'r, and integration must be accomplished over the length of the wire. The force F will deflect through the distance r@, where 6 is the total jar deflection of the spring. Applying Castigliano’s theorem, oN 2,2 TDN Fp? dy ; ro= de | a(4)-[ © oF i, aF\ 2ET El , Substituting / = md/64 for round wire and solving Eq. (c) for 0 gives 64FrDN OS aeaaa (10-34) where 0 is the angular deflection of the spring in radians. The spring rate is therefore ri le th @ 64DN (10-35) ‘The spring ‘Tate may also be expressed as the torque required to wind up the spring one turn. This is obtained by multiplying Eq. (10-35) by 27. Thus aE ‘ nee 10.2DN. (10-36) ‘These deflection equations have ‘curvature of the wire, Actual tests slightly. Thus the equation been developed without taking into account the show that the constant 10.2 should be increased (10-37) Corresponding corrections may be made to Eqs. (10-34) and nee around bar or pin. When a load is applied up. causing a decrease in the inside diameter. inside disun iDesign of Mechanical Elements 4 Ms Allowable tensile stresses for torsion springs can be estimated using Eq, (104 Using the distortion-energy theory, we divide the factor in each part of Eq, (10-19) the quantity 0.577. This results in 0.785,, cold-drawn carbon steel 0.875,, hardened and tempered carbon and om = low-alloy steel 0.615,, austenitic stainless steel and nonferrous alloys The endurance limit for torsion springs can be found in a similar manner by a the value of S,. in Sec. 10-11. The result is S Se kkk. Si 78.0 kpsi (937 MPa) Note that we have, in effect, substituted k. = 1 for &. = 0.577, which is the im load factor in the result of Sec. 10-11. Of course, this result is for unpeened sprin has not been corrected for temperature or miscellaneous effects. ©XAMPLE 10-5 A stock torsion spring is shown in Fig. 10-10. It is made of 0.072-in music wi ‘| has 44 total turns (a) Vind the masimuns operating torque and the corresponding angular rot (b) What is the inside coil diameter when subject to the torque found in (©) Find the maximum operating torque and the angular rotation if failure is, occur in an infinite number of cycles of operation. : Snlution (a) For music wire, we find from Table 10-5 that A = 186 kpsi and m = 0.163.1 fore, from Eq. (10-17), 186. (0.072)0' = 286 kpsi a Using Eq. (10-39), we estimate the yield strength as ‘i ae Sy = 0.788, = 0.78(286) = 223 kpsi ame i F a FIGURE 10-10 2Anvwer 10-13 FIGURE 10-141 Load-detloction curves for Bello- ville springs. (Courtesy of Associ ated Spring Corporation.) Design of Mechanical Elements or ie 786) 15 UF me 5 + 1 Solving for the torque gives (Fr)mmax = 4.03 Ib in Vhis iy the estimated spring torque comesponding to an infinite lite, 1 sponding maximum deflection is 4.03 0 (3607) 43,1° a7 BELLEVILLE SPRINGS The inset of Fig. 10-11 shows a coned-disk spring, commonly called Be spring. Although the mathematical treatment is beyond the purposes of this book should at least be familiar with the remarkable characteris Aside from the obvious advantage that a Belleville spring occupies only a space, variation in the A/t ratio will produce a wide variety of load-deflections shapes, as illustrated in Fig. 10-11. For example, using an h/t ratio of 2.83 600, 7 _ponor er fabs, aaa) so 400) 2 300 z = 200 100 0 To: aos ais ox O32 Detection, inDesign of Mechanical Elements conical spring too. Probably the principal advantage of this ype hat the solid height is only a single wire di olute spring is a fp is that it an he wound s¢ cat varicly of springs, such as clock springs, p Hlat stock ws used for at springs, torsion springs, cantilever springs, and hair springs; frequently it is shaped to create certain spring actions for fuse clips. relay springs, spring w snap rings, and retainers. In designing many springs of flat stock or strip material, it is often economia of value to proportion the material so as to obtain a constant stress throughost spring material. A uniform-section cantilever spring has a stress M Fx Mic Ihe w= which is proportional to the distance x if //c is a constant, But there is no reason why need be a constant. For example, one might design such a spring as that shown ia 10-13b, in which the thickness h is constant but the width b is permitted to vary. Sad for a rectangular section, 7c = bh7/6, we have, from Eq. (a), okt Fe 6 or Since b is linearly related to X, the width by at the base of the spring is ort aa by = But the deflection of this triangular flat spring is more difficult to obtain, becauad second moment of area is now a variable. Probably the quickest salution cou obtained by using singularity functions or the method of numerical integrati ‘The methods of stress and deflection analysis illustrated in previous sections chapter have served to illustrate that springs may be analyzed and designed byt the fundamentals discussed in the earlier chapters of this book. This is also most Of the miscellaneous springs mentioned in this section, and you ifficully in reading and understanding the literature of such Make # mechanical drawing using wo views. or a good freehand sketch, of w helical sion spring closed to ily solid length and having a wire diameter of £ in, an outside d 4 in, and one active coil. The spring ix to have plain ends. ‘The same as Prob. 10-1, except that the ends are plain and ground. A helical compression spring is wound using 0.105-in-diameter music wire. The spr oytside diameter of 1.225 in with plain ground ends, and 12 total coils. "An asterisk indicates a design-type problem,