Equipment Grounding

:Prepared by

KHGHOST
.INDEX

1.1Introduction
Electric shock exposure .1.2.1

Thermal capability .1.2.2

Over current Protection Operation .1.2.3

Fundamental Concepts.2
2.1 A Single Wire as a Grounding Conductor

2.2. Cabling of Conductors

2.3 Enclosing Metal Shell

2.4 Circuit Impedance Components

2.5 Electromagnetic Interference Suppression

2.6 Bonding of Metal Sleeves Enclosing a Grounding Conductor

2.7 Grounding Connections Associated with Steep Wave Front

Voltage Protection Equipment

Connection to Earth 2.8

3. Summary
4. References
:1.1Introduction

The term "equipment grounding" refers to the interconnection and grounding of

the nonelectrical metallic elements of a system. Examples of components of the
equipment-grounding system are metallic conduit, motor frames, equipment
enclosures, and a grounding conductor. Note that a grounding conductor is a
part of the equipment grounding system, as distinguished from a grounded
conductor, which is a part of the power distribution system. The basic objectives
of an equipment-grounding system are the following:

1) To reduce electric shock hazard to personnel.

2) To provide adequate current carrying capability, both in magnitude and

duration, to accept the ground-fault current permitted by the overcurrent
protection system without creating a fire or explosive hazard to building
or contents.

3) To provide a low impedance return path for ground-fault current necessary

for the timely operation of the overcurrent protection system.

1.2 basic objective is:

1.2.1. Electric shock exposure

Electric shock injuries result from contact with metallic components that are
unintentionally energized Effective equipment grounding practices can minimize
these personal injuries.
A breakdown of insulation can cause accidental contact between an energized
electrical conductor and the metal frame that encloses it. Such contact tends to
energize the frame to the voltage level of the conductor. Avoiding shock-hazard
voltage requires nullifying this tendency. The equipment-grounding system
should do this by forming a low impedance path to ground.
The impedance of the grounding conductor must be low enough to accept the
available line-to-ground-fault current without creating a hazardous impedance
(IZ) voltage drop. The available ground-fault current of the supply system will
have a direct bearing on the equipment-grounding conductor requirements

1.2.2. Thermal capability

The grounding conductor must also function to conduct the available ground-
fault current (magnitude and duration) without excessive temperature rise or
arcing. The use of a large cross-section grounding conductor is not enough. All
parts of the fault circuit, including the terminations and other parts, must be
capable of carrying the fault current without distress.
The installation must also provide a lower impedance fault return path than
other possible parallel paths that may have inadequate current-carrying
capacity.
Summaries of large-loss fires indicate that approximately one out of four fires in
manufacturing establishments originates in electrical systems .These reports
undoubtedly place some unjustified blame on electrical systems. Effective design,
installation, and maintenance of equipment-grounding systems is a vital element
in reducing these fire hazards.

Joints and connectors are critical components of the fault return path. Good
workmanship is essential to a safe system
and must be demanded. Supervision of installation, inspection, and proper
maintenance should assure that the
grounding system is not compromised.
One of the more critical connections is the locknut connection between metallic
raceway or cable and the sheet metal
enclosure. Particular assurance that this connection be made and maintained
clean and tight is imperative.

1.2.3. Over current Protection Operation

The equipment-ground system is an essential part of the overcurrent protection

system. The overcurrent protection system requires a low-impedance ground
return path in order to operate promptly and properly .The earth ground system
is rarely of low enough impedance and is not intended to provide an
adequate return path. The impedance of the grounding conductor must be low
enough that sufficient ground-fault current will flow to operate the overcurrent
protective device and clear the fault rapidly.
2.Fundamental Concepts:
2.1 A Single Wire as a Grounding Conductor

To help develop an understanding of the behavior pattern of a single wire as a

grounding conductor, see Fig below. (For an expanded treatment of single line-
to-ground fault behavior.)
The grounding conductor is considered to be bonded to the supply system
grounded conductor, to the building frame, and to the grounding electrode at the
source end of the circuit. For the purpose of examining the properties of the
grounding conductor alone, it will be considered to be installed in metallic
conduit and to remain free of any other contact with the building frame
throughout its length of 200 ft (61 m). Imagine the circuit to be of 350 A capacity,
employing 500 kcmil (253.35 mm2) phase conductors and a 4/0 (107.16 mm2)
grounding conductor (copper) at 25 °C. It is assumed that the line-to-ground
fault current at the outer terminal is 5500 A.
2.2. Cabling of Conductors

By cabling or lacing together all the conductors of one circuit, the spacing
between grounding and phase conductors can be reduced to the point of direct
contact of the insulation. With other conditions remaining as indicated in the
above fig, the 60 Hz reactances could be reduced to 0.0061 W for the grounding
conductor and to 0.0038 W for the phase conductor. While the grounding
conductor impedance shows little improvement because it is largely resistance
limited, the space magnetic field has been substantially reduced, with a
corresponding reduction in magnetic coupling to secondary loop circuits.

By distributing the total grounding conductor cross section among the interstices
of a three-conductor cable (one-third size conductor in each pocket), the effective
reactance of the grounding conductor can be further reduced, resulting in
a corresponding reduction in the space magnetic field strength.

2.3 Enclosing Metal Shell

By forming the metal of the grounding conductor into a tubular shape, within
which are run the circuit phase and neutral conductors, a marked improvement
in effectiveness is accomplished. The returning ground-fault current distributes
itself about the entire enclosing shell in such fashion as to result in a lower
round-trip voltage drop (see Fig below). The electrical behavior during a line-to-
ground fault is that of a coaxial line. Except for the effects of resistivity in the
shell, all electric and magnetic fields are contained inside the shell. The external
space magnetic field becomes zero . The customary metal conductor raceway fits
this preferred conductor geometry perfectly. It is important that these
tubular shaped sections be adequately joined and terminated so that significant
additional impedance is not introduced. The normal tubular metal raceway is
permitted to serve as the grounding conductor.

Practical varieties of metal conductor raceways and metal sheathing possess

substantial sheath resistance. The flow of ground-fault current will thus produce
a voltage gradient along the grounding conductor due to impedance voltage
drop. The magnitude of this voltage drop varies widely from one type of
grounding method to another . A variety of grounding conductor types were
examined, covering a range of phase-conductor sizes from AWG 12 (3.31 mm2)
to 500 kcmil (253.35 mm2). The results are presented in terms of voltage drop
along the exterior surface per 1000 A of ground-fault current per 100 ft (30.5 m)
of circuit length.
Rigid steel conduit is observed to offer superior performance, principally
because of the heavy wall thickness. The striking contrast between steel and
aluminum conduit is interesting and offers specific application advantages. The
high magnetic permeability of steel should and does account for a higher line- to-
ground fault impedance . It would at first seem that the voltage drop along the
raceway exterior would also be increased, yet the exact opposite is observed. The
effect of the magnetic material in the conduit wall is to confine the return current
largely to the internal shell of the conduit, penetrating to the exterior surface
only as magnetic saturation in the iron occurs for large fault currents. It should
be noted that the values listed in Table 4 for Greenfield (flexible metal conduit)
and BX without ground (AC cable) are excessive for the armor to be used as an
equipment-grounding conductor. Current standards require that BX
incorporate an internal bonding strip in contact with the metal armor over the
full length.

It is significant to note the sharp decrease in voltage drop when an internal

grounding conductor is added in parallel with the conduit. In addition, the line-
to-ground fault impedance will be reduced. Thus, the use of a metallic conduit
raceway as a grounding conductor, supplemented by an equipment-grounding
conductor within the conduit, achieves both minimum ground fault impedance
and minimum shock-hazard voltage.
2.4 Circuit Impedance Components

The general expression for the three phase line-to-ground-fault current in a

three phase system is (2) Both positive-sequence (Z1) and negative- sequence (Z2)
impedance are active only in the outgoing phase conductors since the currents of
these two sequences combine to zero at the fault location. The zero-sequence
currents I0, however, are in phase on all phase conductors. Three of the phase
conductor currents I0 must be returned collectively (3I0) over the grounding
conductor. Thus the transit of the zero-sequence current involves a voltage drop
of I0Z0 in transmitting the current out over the phase conductors and a voltage
drop of 3I0ZG in transmitting the current back over the grounding conductor. A
correct accounting of impedance for these two terms in the zero-sequence
network develops when I0 is taken out as one factor [I0 (Z0 + 3ZG)].
Test results [6], [9], [15], and [16] clearly display the fact that the round-trip
impedance (Z0 + 3ZG) is much greater than Z0, yet the fractional part of the
round-trip zero-sequence voltage drop, which appears along the raceway
exterior, is but a very small part of I0(Z0 + 3ZG). No easy way to separate Z0
from 3ZG is available, and in fact no purpose is served in separating them. It is
very important to recognize that both items are present and that the use of the
circuit Z0 alone would represent a gross error.
As can be seen from [15], the (Z0 + 3Z0)/Z1 ratio can be kept low, leading to a
low-impedance (ZG) ground return path.
This is obtained by using ground conductors or buses, or both, in conduit runs,
cables, busway and equipment.
It is often erroneously concluded that multiple connection of the ground return
path to building steel has only positive results. The benefits are:

1) no voltage hazard is present at the location where the building steel is

connected.

2) an alternate return path exists in the event that there is a break in the
intended return path.

However, the following potential disadvantage may exist:

1) Diversion of ground return current through building steel may cause sparking
at structural steel joints not intended to be electrically conductive.

2) Return current that is not near to the faulted phase conductor will increase
the reactance of the phase conductor and the return path.

3) Fault voltage will be applied to the building structure and, if not uniformly
distributed due to high impedance joints, may result in hazardous touch
potentials
2.5 Electromagnetic Interference Suppression

In developing the fundamental behavior patterns of the various forms of

grounding conductors, the ability to suppress the magnitude of the electric and
magnetic fields in the space external to the electric power channel by proper
design methods was noted. This knowledge can be employed to make the
grounding conductor serve to significantly reduce the electrical noise contributed
to the space surrounding the electrical run. As might be expected from results so
far defined, the enclosing metal raceway is superior to discrete conductors.
Tubular steel raceways are very effective in suppressing strong fields. High
conductance may be needed to achieve very low noise levels.
The rapidly increasing use of low energy level digital data transmission circuits
in combination with a fast growing noise level on power circuit conductors due to
time modulation current choppers, usually SCRs (silicon controlled rectifiers),
for accomplishing heating appliance control, light-circuit dimming, motor-speed
control, etc., emphasizes the importance of this electromagnetic interference
suppression function.

2.6 Bonding of Metal Sleeves Enclosing a Grounding Conductor

The behavior pattern of an independent grounding conductor (such as the run to

the grounding electrode at the service or the grounding conductor connecting a
surge arrestor to an earthing terminal) is very different from that of a power
circuit grounding conductor.

The function in this case is to conduct the one-way current to a grounding

(earthing) electrode. The return path of this current is remote from the
grounding conductor. In the case of lightning current, the return path may be so
remote as to be obscure.
 There will be an inductive voltage drop along the conductor length due to a
changing current (L·di/dt or XL·Iac). The larger the conductor diameter, the
lower will be the conductor inductance (or reactance). If the member enclosing
the conductor is magnetic, the magnetic field encircling the conductor is
increased, which correspondingly increases the inductive voltage drop. If the
enclosure is plastic conduit, there will not be a magnetic effect.

An inductance is commonly made by wrapping a number of turns of conductor

wire around a magnetic (iron) core. An equally effective method is to “wrap” a
magnetic (iron) cylinder around a conductor. Such a cylinder is a steel conduit,
although even aluminum has an effect from eddy current generated in the
conduit. It has been found that enclosing a single grounding conductor in steel
conduit increases its impedance by a factor of up to 40.

In some cases, installation conditions are such as to warrant the application of a

metal enclosure over a section of this type of grounding conductor. In all cases
where this is done, the conductor and the enclosing protective metal shell should
be bonded together at both ends of every integral section of enclosure for the
following reasons:

1) To avoid increased voltage drop if the enclosure is made of magnetic material.

2) To take advantage of the lower voltage drop associated with larger conductor
diameter .

3) To permit the steel conduit to carry the major portion of the ground seeking
current.

2.7 Grounding Connections Associated with Steep Wave Front

Voltage Protection Equipment

The application of surge arresters to transformers (see Fig 34) and surge
protective capacitors and arrestors to rotating machines (see Fig 35) illustrate
this application of a grounding conductor. The function of the grounding
conductor is to provide a conducting path over which the surge current can be
diverted around the apparatus being protected, without developing a dangerous
voltage magnitude.
In the presence of a changing current (di/dt) there will be an inductive voltage
drop developed along the grounding conductor itself, which is additive to the
protective device voltage. The amount of this added voltage will be proportion to
the conductor length and the spacing from the protected apparatus and of course
to the magnitude of di/dt. Actual values of di/dt range over wide limits, but a
value of 10 kA/ms is representative. With such a rate of rise of current, even 1
mH tall of inductance can be significant.
2.8 Connection to Earth

The well-established usage of the terms ground and earth in our technical
literature leads to many misconceptions, since they seemingly are almost alike,
yet in fact are not. The electrical system of an aircraft in flight will have a
ground bus, grounding conductors, etc. To suggest that ground and earth can be
used interchangeably is obviously in error here. To an electrician working on the
tenth floor of a modern steel-structured building, the referenced ground is the
building frame, attached metal equipment, and the family of electrical system
grounding conductors present at the working area. What might be the potential
of earth is of negligible importance to this worker on the tenth floor.

If the worker is transported to the building basement in which the concrete floor
slab rests on soil, or to the yard area of an outdoor open-frame substation, earth
does become the proper reference ground to which electric shock voltage
exposure should be referenced.
3. Summary:

Electrical systems and equipment are grounded to achieve a greater level of

safety from electrical hazards to persons and property.

The problems presented to the equipment-grounding system designer vary quite

widely with the different classes of use. The basic objectives remain the same
throughout. The equipment-grounding system must cope with the current flow
(magnitude and duration) that is imposed on it by extraordinary events which
occur during the course of ordinary power-system operation.

This duty is most commonly the result of an insulation failure between an

energized conductor and the conductive metallic structure that supports or
encloses it. However, the duty may result from an outside injection of current,
such as a lightning discharge or a falling overhead high-voltage conductor.

The equipment-grounding system is expected to carry this imposed current

without thermal distress and without creating dangerous electric-shock-voltage
exposure to persons in the area.
4. Reference :

i. IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial

Power Systems (Approved December 9, 1991 by American National Standards
Institute)

ii. www.Wikipedia.com

iii.http://www.epanorama.net