Table of contents

1. PRELIMINARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Properties of Open sets in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Properties of closed sets in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Charecterisation of open sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Neighborhood of a point in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2. METRIC SPACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
2.2. Unit circles in R2 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
2.2.1. Unit circle with respect to d1 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2. Unit circle with respect to d2 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3. Unit circle with respect to d1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3. Neighborhoods and Convergence . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1. Cauchy Sequences . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2. Open Sets and Continuity . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3. An Introduction to Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.0.2.1. Some Special Topologies on R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1. Bases and Sub-bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.1. Charecterisation of bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.2. Sub-base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1
 Chapter 1
PRELIMINARIES

The real number system can be described as a complete ordered eld,(R; +; :; <)

Definition 1.1. A neighborhood of a point x 2 R is any set V that can contain

an "-neighborhood V"(x) = (x ¡ "; x + ") of x for some " > 0.

Using the language of metricspace which we will discuss in the next chapter,a
neighborhood can be dened as follows

A set V is a neighborhood of a point P if there exist an open ball B(x0 ,R) with
centre x0 and radius r>0 such that B(x0; r) is contained in V.

Definition 1.2.
i. A subset AR is said to be open if for every x 2A, there exist some open
ball around x which is contained in A.That is ,there exist r>0 such that
B (x; r)  A
ii. A subset F R is said to be closed in R if the complement C(F)=RnF is
open in R

Properties of Open sets in R.

a) The empty set  and the entire set R are open.
b) The union of an arbitrary collection of open subsets in R is open.
c) The intersection of any nite collection of open sets in R is open:
Properties of closed sets in R.
a) The empty set  and the entire set R are closed.
b) The intersection of an arbitrary collection of closed subsets in R is closed.
c) The union of any nite collection of closed sets in R is closed.

Definition 1.3.
i. A point x 2R is said to be an interior point of AR in case there is a
neighborhood V of x such that V A:
ii. A point x 2R is said to be an boundary point of AR in case every neigh-
borhood V of x contains points in A and points in C(A).

Next, we will dene open sets using the notion of interior points.

3
4 PRELIMINARIES

Definition 1.4. A subset A of R is said to be open if ever point of A is an interior

point of A .

Let 'a' be an interior point in A. Then by defnition, there is some neighborhood

that contains only points in A. Let us assume that this neighborhood doesnot exist,
then for any neighborhood of 'a' we have, there are points which are not in A but
belong to the neighborhood. But this means that 'a' is a boundary point which
contradicts the assumption that 'a' is an interior point. Therefore, there must exist
a neighborhood of z0 that only contains points in S which make S open.Hence this
defnition of open set using the notion of interior points is clear.
Note that a set A and its complement C(A) have exactly the same boundary
points.For, a is a boundary point of A if and only if every neighborhood V (a)
contains points in A and points in C(A) which occurs i a is a boundary point of
C(A)
Charecterisation of open sets.

Theorem 1.5. A subset of R is open if and only if it is the union of countably

many disjoint open intervels in R

Consider the collection of all open sets and denote it by J.Then we can say that
a subset U  R is open in R if and only if U 2 J
Neighborhood of a point in C.

Definition 1.6. An "-neighborhood of the point z0 2 C is an open ball (here open

disc) with centre z0 and radius r > 0 such that B(z0; r) = fz 2 C: jz ¡ z0j < rg.

Similarly we can dene neighbourhood of a point in R2 from which we can

conclude that C is equivalent to R2.
 Chapter 2
METRIC SPACES

This chapter will introduce the the concept of metrics (a class of functions which
is regarded as generalization of the notion of distance) and metric spaces.Variety
of examples have been provided to understand the concept of metric spaces thor-
oughly.We will discuss the concepts of neighborhood of a point,open and closed
sets,convergence of sequences and continuity of functions defined on metric spaces.Our
purpose in this chapter is to have a basic knowledge of metric space, through eam-
ples and to reveal how the key ideas and techniques of real analysis can be put
into a more abstract and general framework.

2.1. Metric Spaces

A metric space is a non-empty set equipped with structure determined by a well-
dened notion of distance.We know that one can describe the distance between two
places in two dierent ways.
(i) How long will it take to travel from one place to other(in houres).
(ii) How far is one place from the other(in meters).
Here in this example, Time and Distance represent two dierent modes of
measurement of same quantity. Our objective in this chapter is to illustrate through
examples the dierent ways of measuring dierence (distance) between objects.
To begin with, let us observe the fundamental properties of straight line distance
measured between two points
p in R .We know that straight line distance between
2

points X and Y in R2 is (x1 ¡ y1)2 + (x2 ¡ y2)2

Properties of straight line distance

1. Measurement between distinct points is a positive real number.
2. Two points in a space are identical if and only if measurement between
them is zero.
3. Measurement is symmetric in nature i.e., distance measured along A to B is
same as it is measured along B to A.
4. Measurement between two points is less than or equal to the total distance
taken when we travel via some other point.

5
6 METRIC SPACES

The generalization of all these ideas under one notion so that the properties
remain intact is provided by real valued functions called metrics.

Definition 2.1. Metric and Metric Space

A metric on a set X is a real valued function d :X  X !R that satises the

following properties:
a) d (x; y)  0 for all x; y 2 X (positivity);
b) d (x; y) = 0 if and only if x = y (deniteness);
c) d (x; y) =d (y; x) for all x; y 2 X (symmetry);
d) d (x; y) 6 d(x; z) +d(z; y) for all x; y 2 X (triangle inequality);

A metric space (X,d) is a set together with a metric d on X:Thus a metric

space consist of a non-empty set equipped with a concept of distance(metric).

Trivially, an empty function is the only metric on the empty set. Also, owing to
second conditioncondition, the only metric on a singleton set is the zero function.

Example 2.2. Usual ( or Standard) metric or Euclidean metric on R

Let R be the set of all real numbers and d be a function dened as

d(x; y) = jx ¡ yj for x , y 2 R
Then we shall prove that d is a metric on R:First observe that properties (a),(b) and
(c) holds from the defnition of absolute value function.Property (d) follows from the
Triangle Inequality for absolute value because we have
d(x; y) = jx ¡ y j =j(x ¡ z)j + jz ¡ yj
6jx ¡ z j + jz ¡ y j = d(x; z) + d(z; y)
for all x; y; z 2 R:
Thus all the four axioms are satised. Hence d is a metric on R and the ordered
pair is a metric space.
x y

Example 2.3. The Euclidean metric on C (Extension of Euclidean metric on R)

Let C be the set of all complex number and d: C  C ! R be dened as

d(z; z 0) = jz ¡ z 0j for all z; z 0 2 C
2.1 Metric Spaces 7

Then d is a metric on C called the usual metric or Euclidean metric on C

z0

Example 2.4. The Euclidean plane R2

Let X=R2 be the set of all ordered paires of real numbers,the distance function
obtained from the Pythagorean Theorem d: R2  R2 ! R dened as
p
d(x; y) = jx1-y1j2 + jx2 ¡ y2j2 for all x=(x1; x2),y=(y1; y2) 2 R2

is an example of a metric in R2
For,
by defnition d(x; y)  0 for all x; y 2 R2

for any x=(x1; y1),y = (y1; y2) 2R2

p
d(x; y) = 0 () jx1-y1j2 + jx2 ¡ y2j2 = 0
() x1 ¡ y1 = 0 and x2 ¡ y2 = 0
() x1 = y1 and x2 = y2
() x = y

for all x=(x1; x2),y = (y1; y2) 2 R2

p
d(x; y) = jx1-y1j2 + jx2 ¡ y2j2
p
= jy1¡x1j2 + jy2 ¡ x2j2
= d(y; x)

property(d) follows from the well-known Minkowski's Inequality by putting p=2

and n=2.
This is same as the Euclidean metric dened on C:One can say that C and R2
are equivalent.

Note 2.5. Minkowski's inequality

8 METRIC SPACES

Let xi; yi 2 R for i = 1; 2; :::n and p  1 be any real number:Then

n
!1 n
!1 n
!1
X p X p X p
p p p
jxi ¡ yij  jxij + jyij
i=1 i=1 i=1

Example 2.6. Taxi cab metrics

Let X=R2 be the set of all ordered paires of real numbers and d1: R2  R2 ! R
be a function dened as
d1(x; y) = jx1-y1j + jx2 ¡ y2j for all x=(x1; x2),y=(y1; y2) 2 R2
We shall prove that d1 is a metric.
By defnition d1 is a non-negetive function
for any x=(x1; y1),y=(y1; y2) 2R2
d1(x; y) = 0 () jx1-y1j + jx2 ¡ y2j = 0
() x1-y1 = 0 and x2 ¡ y2 = 0
() x1 = y1 and x2 = y2
() y=x

for all x=(x1; x2),y=(y1; y2) 2 R2

d1(x; y) = jx1-y1j + jx2 ¡ y2j
= jy1¡x1j + jy2 ¡ x2j
= d1(y; x)

Proof of property(d) follows from Minkowski's inequality.

y
x

Example 2.7.
Let n 2 N and take
X = Rn = {x = (x1, ..., xn) = (xi) : xi 2 R for i = f1, ..., n}} .
Various metrics can be dened on this set in a natural way, one of the most
common is s n
X
dp = p jxi ¡ yij p ;16 p<1 (2.1)
i=1
2.1 Metric Spaces 9

One can see that the rst three properties are satised by this metric and Triangle
inequality follows from Minkowski's inequality.Clearly dp is a metric.
All the examples so far discussed are special cases of this general form.We will
get the Euclidean metric on Rn by putting p=2.

Example 2.8.
There is another special case of equation (2.1) on the set X=R2 .What happens
when p tends to innity?
Let X=R2 be the set of all ordered paires of real numbers and d1: R2  R2 ! R
be a function dened as
d1(x,y) = max fjx1-x2j; jy1 ¡ y2jg

By denition , d1 is a non-negative function and hence property(a) holds.

for any x=(x1; y1),y=(y1; y2) 2R2

d1(x; y) = 0 () max fjx1-y1j; jx2 ¡ y2jg = 0

() jx1-y1j = 0 and j x2 ¡ y2j = 0
() x1 = y1 and x2 = y2
() x= y

for all x=(x1; x2),y=(y1; y2) 2 R2

d1(x; y) = max fjx1-y1j; jx2 ¡ y2jg

= max fjy1¡x1j; jy2 ¡ x2g
= d1(y; x)

To see triangle inequality,consider

jx1 ¡ y1j = j(x1 ¡ z1) + (z1 ¡ y1)j

6 jx1 ¡ z1j + jz1 ¡ y1j
6 max fjx1 ¡ z1j; jz1 ¡ y1jg + max fjz1 ¡ y1j; jz2 ¡ y2jg
= d(x; z) + d(z; y)

ie, jx1 ¡ y1j 6 d(x; z) + d(z; y) ¡!(A)

similarliy, jx2 ¡ y2j 6 d(x; z) + d(z; y) ¡!(B)
from (A) and (B) it follows that

max fjx1-y1j; jx2 ¡ y2jg 6 d(x; z) + d(z; y)

ie, d(x; y) 6 d(x; z) + d(z; y)

Clearly it holds triangle inequality and hence a metric on R2
10 METRIC SPACES

y
x

Example 2.9.
Let C[0; 1] denote the set of all continuous functions on the interval [0,1] to R.For
f ; g in C[0; 1],we dene
Z 1
d1(f ; g) = jf ¡ g j for f ; g 2 C[0; 1]
0

0 1

d1(f ; g) = max fjf (x) ¡ g(x)j: x 2 [0; 1]g

0 1

First note that since jf ¡ g j is a continuous, real-valued function on the

closed,bounded interval [0; 1], both d1(f ; g) and d1(f ; g) are well-dened real num-
bers.

Example 2.10. Discrete metric

Let X be a non-empty set and d:X  X !R be a function dened as


1 if x =
/y
d(x; y) =
0 if x = y
2.2 Unit circles in R2 11

Then d is a metric on X .
Clearly,d(x; y) > 0 for all x; y 2 X
By defnition of d , d(x; y) = 0 , x = y
Let x; y 2 X be any two points
if x = y then d(x; y) = 0 = d(y; x) and
if x =
/y then d(x; y) = 1 = d(y; x)
Thus in either case d(x; y) = d(y; x)
Let x; y; z 2 X be any three points
Case 1 : x = y
in this case d(x; y) = 0 and therefore
d(x; y) 6 d(x; z) + d(z; y) [By defnition of d; d(x; z) > 0 and d(z; y) > 0]

Case 2 :x =
/y

in this case,d(x; y) = 1
since x =
/ y, we have three possibilities
i. z = x; z =
/y ) d(x; z) = 0 and d(z; y) = 1
ii. z =
/ x; z = y ) d(x; z) = 1 and d(z; y) = 0
iii. z =
/ x; z =
/y ) d(x; z) = 1 and d(z; y) = 1
in each case we observe that d(x; z) + d(z; y) > 1

therefore, 1=d(x; y) 6 d(x; z) + d(z; y)

hence in both case 1 and case 2,triangle inequality is satised.Thus d is a metric.

Note 2.11.
Note that dierent metrics can be dened on same set.

2.2. Unit circles in R2

In the preceding chapter , we discussed open balls.This section will help us to inter-
pret open balls geometrically.We will be discussing unit cicles in R2 with respect to
dierent metrics such as d1; d2 and d1 dened on it which will help us to understand
shape of open balls and that the shapes dier as the metric dened on the same sets
dier.

Definition 2.12.
A unit circle in R2 can be dened as S 1 = fx=(x1; x2) 2 R2: d(x; 0)g
12 METRIC SPACES

2.2.1. Unit circle with respect to d1

If the metric dened on R2 is d1 as dened in example 1.6,then the defnition of unit
circle is
S 1 = fx=(x1; x2) 2 R2: jx1 + 0j + jx2 + 0j = jx1j + jx2j = 1g
Geometrically S 1 is

Y
1

-1 1 X
-1

Figure 2.1.

2.2.2. Unit circle with respect to d2

If the metric dened on R2 is d2 as dened in example 2.4,then the defnition of unit
circle is  p
S 1 = x=(x1; x2); y=(y1; y2) 2 R2: jx1 ¡ y1j2 + jx2 ¡ y2j2 = 1
Geometrically S 1 is

Y
1

-1 1
X
-1

Figure 2.2.

2.2.3. Unit circle with respect to d1

If the metric dened on R2 is d1 as dened in example 2.8,then the defnition of unit
circle is
S 1 = fx=(x1; x2) 2 R2: max fjx1 ¡ 0j; jx2 ¡ 0jg = max fjx1j; jx2jg = 1g
2.3 Neighborhoods and Convergence 13

Geometrically S 1 is

Y
1

-1 1
X

-1

Figure 2.3.

Note 2.13.
It is clear from the above discussion that the unit circles in R2 is not always
circular,but varies depending on the metric dened on the set.

2.3. Neighborhoods and Convergence

Now that we have generalised the notion of distance,we can easily dene the notions
of neighborhoods, convergence and continuity in metric spaces. The basic notion
needed for the introduction of limit concepts is that of neighbourhood,and this is
dened in metric space as follows

Definition 2.14. Let (X,d) be a metric space.Then for " > 0, the "-neighborhood
of a point x0 in X is the set
V"(x0) = fx 2 X: d(x0; x ) < "g:

A neighborhood of x0 is any set U thet contains an "-neighborhood of x0 for

some " > 0:X

Any notion dened in terms of neighborhoods can now be dened and discussed
in the context of metric spaces by modifying the language appropriately.We rst
consider the convergence of sequences.

A sequence in a metric space (X ; d) is a function A: N ! X with domain

N and range in S,and the usual notations for sequence are used;we write A = (an),but
now an 2 X for all n 2 N.When we replace the absolute value by a metric in the def-
nition of sequential convergence,we get the notion of convergence in a metric space.
14 METRIC SPACES

Definition 2.15. Let (an) be a sequence in the metric space (XS,d).The sequence
(an) is said to converge to a in X if for any " > 0 there exist K 2N such that an 2
V"(a) for all n>K.

Note that since an 2 V"(a) if and only if d(an; a) < ",a sequence (an) converges
to a if and only if for any " > 0 there exist K such that d(an; a) < " for all n>K.In
other words,a sequence (an) in (X ; d) converges to a if and only if the sequence of
real numbers (d(an; a)) converges to 0.

Example 2.16. Consider R2 with the metric d1.If Pn = (xn; yn) 2 R2 for each n2
N,then we claim that the sequence (Pn) converges to P = (x; y) with respect to this
metric if and only if the sequence of real numbers (xn)and (yn) converges to x and y
respectively.

First we note that the inequality jxn ¡ xj 6 d(Pn; P ) implies that if (Pn) con-
verges to P with respect to the metric d,then the sequence (xn) converges to x; the
convergence of (yn) follows in a similar way.The converse follows from the inequality
d(Pn; P ) 6 jxn ¡ xj + jyn ¡ yj; which is readily veried:

Example 2.17. Let d1 be the metric on C[0; 1].Then a sequence (fn) in C[0; 1]
converges to f with respect to this metric if and only if (fn) converges to f uniformly
on the set [0; 1].

2.3.1. Cauchy Sequences

The notion of Cauchy sequence is a signicant concept in the metric space.The

defnition is formulated as expected,with the metric replacing the absolute value.

Definition 2.18. Let (X,d) be a metric space.A sequence (an) is said to be a

Cauchy sequence if for each " > 0, there exist H 2N such that d(an; am) < " for all n;
m > H:

The Cauchy convergence theorem for sequences in R states that a sequence in

R is a Cauchy sequence if and only if it converges to a point of R.This theorem is
not true for metric spaces in general,as the examples that follow will reveal.Those
metric spaces for which Cauchy sequences are covergent have special importance.
2.3 Neighborhoods and Convergence 15

Definition 2.19. A metric space (X,d) is said to be complete if each Cauchy

sequence in X converges to a point of X.

We can state the Completeness Property of R in terms of the order prop-

erties by requiring that every nonempty subset of R that is bounded above has a
supremum in R.The convergence of Cauchy sequences is deduced as a theorem. In
fact, it is possible to reverse the roles of these fundamental properties of R: the
Completeness Property of R can be stated in terms of Cauchy sequences and the
Supremum Property can then be deduced as a theorem. Since many metric spaces
do not have an appropriate order structure, a concept of completeness must be
described in terms of the metric, and Cauchy sequences provide the natural vehicle
for this.

Example 2.20.
The metric space (Q; d) of rational numbers with the metric dened by the
absolute value function is not complete. p
For example, if (xn) is a sequence of rational numbers that converges to 2 ,then
it is Cauchy in Q but it does not converge to a point of Q:Therefore(Q; d) is not a
complete metric space.

Example 2.21.
The space C[0; 1] with the metric d1 is complete.
To prove this, suppose that (fn) is a Cauchy sequence in C[0, 1] with respect to
the metric d1.Then, given "> 0, there exists H such that
jfn(x) ¡ fm(x)j < " (2.2)
for all x 2 [0; 1] and all n,m>H. Thus for each x, the sequence (fn(x)) is Cauchy
in R,and therefore converges in R. We dene f to be the pointwise limit of the
sequence;that is,f (x) = lim (fn(x)) for each x 2 [0; 1].It follows from (1.2) that for
each x 2 [0; 1] and each n > H ; we have jfn(x) ¡ f (x)j 6 ":Consequently the sequence
(fn) converges uniformly to f on[0; 1]:Since the uniform limit of continuous functions
is also continuous,the function f is in C[0; 1]. Therefore the metric space (C[0; 1]; d1)
is complete.

Example 2.22.
If d1 is the metric on C[0; 1], then the metric space (C[0; 1]; d1) is nit complete.
To prove this statement, it suces to exhibit a Cauchy sequence that does not
have a limit in the space.We dene the sequence (fn) for n > 3 as follows:
8
<1 for 0 6 x 6 1/2;
fn(x) = 1 + n/2 ¡ nx for 1/2 < x 6 1/2 + 1/n
:
0 for 1/2 + 1/n < x 6 1
16 METRIC SPACES

Note that the sequence (fn) converges pointwise to the discontinuous function f (x) =
1 for 06x 6 1 / 2 and f (x) = 0 for 1/2<x 6 1.Hence f 2 / C[0; 1]; in fact, there is
no function g 2 C[0, 1] such that d1(fn; g) ! 0.

2.3.2. Open Sets and Continuity

With the notion of neighborhood dened, the denitions of open set and closed
set read the same as for sets in R:

Definition 2.23. Let (X ; d) be a metric space. A subset S of X is said to be an

open set in X if for every point x 2 X there is a neighborhood U of x such that U S.
A subset R of X is said to be a closed set in X if the complement X\S is an open
set in S.

We now can examine the concept of continuity for functions that map one metric
space (X1; d1) into another metric space (X2; d2). Note that we modify the property
of continuity for functions on R by replacing neighborhoods in R by neighborhoods
in the metric spaces.

Definition 2.24. Let (X1; d1) and (X2; d2) be metrie spaces, and let f : X1 ! X2 be
a function from X1 to X2. The function is said to be continuous at the point c in
X1 if for every "-neighborhood V"(f (c)) of f (c) there exists a -neighborhood V(c)
of c such that if x 2 V(c), then f (x) 2 V"(f (c)).

The "- formulation of continuity can be stated as follows: f : X1 ! X2 is contin-

uous at c and only if for each " > 0 there exists  > 0 such that d1(x; c) <  implies
that d2(f (x); f (c)) < ".

We conclude this chapter by stating the Global Continuity Theorem.

Theorem 2.25. Global Continuity Theorem: If (X1; d1) and (X2; d2) be metrie
spaces, then a function f : X1 ! X2 is continuous on X if and only if f ¡1(G) is open
in X1 whenever G is open in X2.
 Chapter 3
An Introduction to Topology

The concept of topological space grew out of the study of the real line and
euclidean space and the study of continuous functions on these spaces.In this chapter
we dene what a topological space is and some examples.

In the previous chapter we dened the concept of open sets,neighborhood and

continuity which was formulated in terms of the metrics on the space involved.It
often happens, however, that it is convenient-even essential-to be able to speak
of continuous mappings in situations where no useful metrics are dened, readily
denable, or capable of being dened. In order to deal eectively with circumstances
of this kind, it is necessary for us to liberate our concept of continuity from its
dependence on metric spaces.

Theorem 2.25 shows that the continuity of a mapping of one metric space into
another can be expressed solely in terms of open sets, without any direct reference
to metrics. This suggests the possibility of discarding metrics altogether and of
replacing them as the source of our theory by open sets. With this in mind, our
attention is drawn to Theorem 3.1 which gives the main internal properties of the
class of open sets in a metric space. These two theorems provide the leading hint on
which we base our generalization of metric spaces to topological spacesa topological
space being simply a non-empty set in which there is given a class of subsets, called
open sets, with the properties expressed in Theorem 3.1.

Of course, there do exist a few concepts which cannot be expressed in terms of

open sets, for example, completeness and uniform continuity of a function.But still
quite a few concepts can be expressed using open sets only(that is, without direct
reference to the metric).What is more, most of the theorems involving such concepts
can be proved using a few properties of open sets and without directly involving the
metric. Of course to prove that open sets have these properties does require the use
of the metric. But once they are established, they can be used in so many theorems
without recourse to the metric directly.

Theorem 3.1. Let (X ; d) be a metric space. Then

a) the empty set  and the entire set X are open
b) the union of any family of open sets is open

17
18 An Introduction to Topology

c) the intersection of any nite number of open sets is open

One can also consider the property that, given distinct points x; y 2 X there exist
open sets U,V such that x 2 U ; y 2 V and U \ V = 

Theorem 3.2. Let J be the collection of all open sets in a metric space X. Then J
has the folloeing properties:
a)  2 J and X 2 J
b) J is closed under arbitrary unions.
c) J is closed under nite intersections.

One can also consider the property that,Given distinct points x,y in X, there
exist U,V2J such that x 2 U ; y 2 V and U \ V =  .

Now we come to the key step. Since many interesting concepts in the theory of
metric spaces can be dened in terms of open sets (without involving the metric
directly) and since many non-trivial theorems can be deduced from the four prop-
erties of open sets given in Theorem(2.1), it is natural to look for an abstraction of
metric spaces exactly the same way as metric spaces themselves are an abstraction
of euclidean spaces.This is precisely the genesis of topological spaces.

So, inorder to dene topological space we take a set X, a certain family J of

its subsets and require that J satisfy some (or all) of the properties listed in The-
orem(2.2).It turns out that property(d) is a bit too restrictive in as much as there
are many naturally occuring instances wherein (a); (b) and (c) hold .So the ocial
defnition of a topological space is as follows.

Definition 3.3. A topological space is a pair (X ; J) where X is a set and J is

a family of subsets of X satisfying:
1.  2 J and X 2 J,
2. J is closed under arbitrary unions,
3. J is closed under nite intersections.

The family J is said to be a topology on the set X. Members of J are said to

be open in X or open subsets of X. A sequence (xn) in a topological space (X ; J)is
said to converge to a point y of X if for every open set U containing y, there exist
a positive integer N such that for every integer n > N ; xn 2 U .

Example 3.4.
An Introduction to Topology 19

The foremost examples of topological spaces come from metric spaces.The-

orem(2.2) shows how each metric space gives rise to a topology on the underlying
set. A topological space is said to be metrisable if its topology can be obtained
from a suitable metric on the underlying set.It may happen that two distinct met-
rics on a set yield the same topology

Example 3.5.
J = f; X g is a topology on X. This topology is called indiscrete topology on
X and (X ; J) is called indiscrete topological space.

Example 3.6.
J = P(X); (P(X)=power set of X ) is a topology on X and is called discrete
topology on X and (X ; J) is called discrete topological space.

Remark 3.7. Remark: If X is a singleton set, then discrete and indiscrete topologies
on X coincide, otherwise they are dierent.

Example 3.8. Let X=fa; b; cg then

i. J1 = f; fag; fb; cg; X g a b c

ii. J2 = f; fag; fbg; fa; bg; X g a b c

iii. J3 = f; fag; fbg; X g a b c

J1 and J2 are topologies on X but J3 is not a topology on X.

.

Example 3.9. Let X be an infinite set. Define J =fg [ fA  X j X ¡ A is finitegthen

J is topology on X.

i.  2 J (by denition of J)
As X ¡ X = , a nite set,X 2 J

ii. Let A; B 2 J.
If either A =  or B = , then A \ B 2 J .
20 An Introduction to Topology

Assume that A =/  and B =

/ .Then X ¡ A is nite and X ¡ B is nite.
Hence X ¡ (A \ B) = (X ¡ A) [ (X ¡ B) is nite set:Therefore A \ B 2 J.
Thus A; B 2 J ) A \ B 2 J

iii. Let A 2 J, for each  2  (where  is any indexing set).If each A = ,then
[
A =  2 J:
2

If 90 2  such that A0 =

/ ,then
[ [
A0  A ) X ¡ A0  X ¡ A.x
2 2

S
S As X ¡ A0 is a nite set, its subset X ¡ 2
A is nite and hence
A 2 J:
2 

From (i), (ii) and (iii) J is a topology on X. This topology is called co-nite
topology on X and the topological space is called co-nite topological space

Remark 3.10. If X is nite set, then co-nite topology on X coincides with the
discrete topology on X.

Example 3.11. Let X be any uncountable set. Dene J = fg [ fA  X jX ¡

A is countableg. Then J is a topology on X.

i.  2 J (by denition).
As X ¡ X = and  is countable (Since  is nite) we get X 2 J.

ii. Let A; B 2 J. If either A =  or B =  we get A \ B 2 J .

Let A =
/  and B = / :
Then by denition of J, X ¡ A and X ¡ B both are countable sets and
hence X ¡ (A \ B) = (X ¡ A) [ (X ¡ B) is countable. This shows that A \ B 2
J . Thus A; B 2 J implies A \ B 2 J.

iii. Let A 2 J for all  2  (where  is any indexing set).If each A = ,then
[ [
A =  ) A 2 J:
2 2

Let A0 =
/  for some 0 2 .Then,
An Introduction to Topology 21

[ [
A0  A ) X ¡ A0  X ¡ A
2 2

[
) X¡ A is a subset of a countable set X ¡ A0(Since A0 2 J and A0 =
/
2


[
) X¡ A is a countable set.(Since subset of a countable set is countable:)
2

[
) A 2 J
2

S
Thus in either case, A 2 J; for all  2  ) 2
A 2 J

From (i), (ii) and (iii) J is a topology on X. This topology is called co-countable
topology on X and the topological space is called co-nite topological space.

Remark 3.12. If X is countable set, then co-countable topology on X coincides

with the discrete topology on X.

Example 3.13. Let A  X.Dene J = fg [ fB  X j A  B g:Then J is topology

on X.

i.  2 J (by denition of J).As A  X,X 2 J.

ii. Let B; C 2 J.If B =  or C = ; then B \ C will give B \ C 2 J.

Let B =/  and C = / ; then A  B \ C will imply B \ C 2 J

iii. Let B 2 J for all  2  (where  is any indexing set).If each B = ,then
[ [
B =  and in this case B 2 J:
2 2

Assume that B0 =

/  for some 0 2 .Then, A  B0 and

[ [
B0  B ) A  B:
2 2

[
Therefore B 2 J:
2
22 An Introduction to Topology

From (i), (ii) and (iii) J is a topology on X

Remark 3.14.
1. If A =  then J is discrete topology on X.
2. If A = X then J is indiscrete topology on X.
3. If A = fpg; then J=fg [ fB  X j p2B gis called p-inclusive topology on
X.

Example 3.15. Let p2X.Dene J = fX g [ fA  X jp 2

/ Ag:Then J is topology on
X.
i. p 2
/  implies  2 J. By denition X 2 J.

ii. Let A; B 2 J. If A = X and B = X ; then A \ B = X:In this case A \ B 2

J.Assume that either A =
/ X or B = / A or p 2
/ X:Then p 2 / B and hence p 2
/ A\B
which proves A \ B 2 J

iii. Let A 2 J for all  2  (where  is any indexing set).If for some  2 ,
A = X,then
[ [
A = X ) A 2 J:
2 2

Assume that A =
/ X for each  2 .Then p 2
/ A for each  2  will imply,
[ [
p2
/ A and hence A 2 J:
2 2

From (i), (ii) and (iii) J is a topology on X. This topology is called p-exclusive
topology on X.

3.0.2.1. Some Special Topologies on R

Apart from the topologies given in the above examples there exist some special
topologies on R . We list some of them in the following examples

Example 3.16. Let Ju = fg [ fA  R j 8a 2 A 9r > 0 such that (a ¡ r; a + r) 

Ag:Then Ju is topology on R.

i.  2 Ju (by defnition) and R 2 Ju as for any a 2 R; (a ¡ 1; a + 1)  R:

An Introduction to Topology 23

ii. Let A; B 2 Ju. If A =  or B = ; then A \ B 2 Ju: Let A = /  and B =

/ ;
then x 2 A \ B ) x 2 A and x 2 B ) 9 r1 > 0 such that (x ¡ r1; x + r1)  A
and 9 r2 > 0 such that (x ¡ r2; x + r2)  B.
Dene r = min(r1; r2). Then r > 0 and (x ¡ r1; x + r1)  A \ B. But this
shows that A \ B 2 Ju. Thus in either case A; B 2 Ju ) A \ B 2 Ju.

iii. A 2 Ju for all  2  (where  is any indexing set).

[ [
If A = ; then obviously; A 2 Ju:
2 2

[ [
Assume that / . Let x 2
A = A, then x 2 A0 for some 0 2 .
2 2

As A0 2Ju 9 r > 0 such that (x ¡ r; x + r)  A0

[ [
But then (x ¡ r; x + r)  A.But this shows that A 2 Ju
2 2

[
Thus in either case A 2 Ju ,8  2  ) A 2 Ju
2

From (i), (ii) and (iii) Ju is a topology on R. This topology is called usual
topology on R.

Remark 3.17.
1. The usual topology on R is also called standard topology or Euclidean
topology.
2. Any open interval in R is a member of Ju.Consider the open interval (a; b)
and x 2 (a; b). Take r = min(x ¡ a; b ¡ x). Then (x ¡ r; x + r)  (a; b). This
shows that (a; b) 2 Ju.

Example 3.18. Let Jr = fg [ fA  R j 8 p 2 A 9 a; b 2 R such that p 2 [a; b)  A}.

Then Jr is a topology on R.

i.  2 Jr (by denition). R 2 Jr as for any p 2 R 9 a; b 2 R such that p 2 [p;

p + 1)  R.
24 An Introduction to Topology

ii. Let A; B 2 Jr: If A \ B = , then A \ B 2 Jr. If A \ B =

/  then for x 2 A \ B
there exist half open intervals H1 and H2 in R such that x 2 H1  A and
x 2 H2  B. But then H1 \ H2 will be an half open interval in R with
x 2 H1 \ H2  A \ B.This shows that A \ B 2 Jr: Thus A; B 2 Jr ) A \ B 2 Jr:

iii. Let A 2 Jr 8  2 , where  is any indexing set.

[ [
If A = ; then obviously; A 2 Jr:
2 2

[ [
Let /  and let x 2
A = A,: Then x 2 A0 for some 0 2 .
2 2

[
As A0 2Jr 9 [a; b) such that, x 2 x 2 [a; b)  A0  A
2

[
But this shows that A 2 Jr
2

[
Thus in either case A 2 Jr ,8  2  ) A 2 Jr
2

From (i), (ii) and (iii) Jr is a topology on R. This topology is called lower limit
topology or right half open topology on R.

Example 3.19. Let Jl = fg [ fA  R j 8 p 2 A 9 a; b 2 R such that p 2 (a; b]  A}.

Then Jl is a topology on R.This topology is called upper limit topology or left
half open topology on R.

Example 3.20. For each a 2 R dene La = fx 2 R j x < ag.Dene J = fg [ fRg [

fLa j a 2 Rg. Then Jr is a topology on R.[Note that La = (¡1; a)].

i.  2 J and R 2 J (by defnition)

ii. Let A; B 2 J.

Case (1): A =  or B =  in this case A \ B =  2 J.

Case (2): A = R or B = R in this case A \ B = A or A \ B = B.Hence

A \ B =  2 J.

Case (3): A = La and B = Lb.Then a; b 2 R.Dene c = min (a; b).Hence

A \ B = La \ Lb = Lc 2 J:Thus in all cases A; B 2 J ) A \ B 2 J.
3.1 Bases and Sub-bases 25

iii. Let A 2 J 8  2 , where  is any indexing set.

[ [
Case(1): A = ,8  2 . Then A =  ) A 2 J:
2 2

[ [
Case(2): A = R for some  2 . Then A = R ) A 2 J:
2 2

Case(3): A = L, 8  2 . Then   R:

[ [ [ [
A = A = R; if  = R or A = L = Lu if   R:
2 2R 2 2

And u = f j  2 g:
[
Thus in all cases A 2 J:
2

From (i), (ii) and (iii) Ju is a topology on R. This topology is called left ray
topology on R.Similarly we can dene right ray topology on R as J = fg [
fRg [ fRa j a 2 Rg where Ra = fx 2 R j x < ag.

Definition 3.21. Let X be a set and let J1 and J2 are topologies on X. Then J2 is
said to be ner than J1 , J1  J2 .

Note 3.22. Union of topologies need not be a topology .

3.1. Bases and Sub-bases

Definition 3.23. Let (X ; J) be a topological space and let B  J is a base for J if
members of J can be can be expressed as a union of members of B or equivalently
for each x 2 G there exists B 2 B such that x 2 B  G.

The members of the base B are called basic open sets.

Example 3.24.
1. Let (X ; J) be a discrete topological space, B = ffxg j x 2 X g is base for J.
26 An Introduction to Topology

2. Let X = fa; b; c; dg and J = f; fag; fbg; fa; bg; fc; dg; fa; c; dg; fb; c; dg; X g.
Then B = ffag; fbg; fc; dgg is a base for J.
3. For the topological space (R; Ju), B = f(a; b) j a; b 2 Rg is a base for Ju.

3.1.1. Charecterisation of bases

Theorem 3.25. Let J1 and J2 be two topologies on a set X having bases B1 and B2
respectively. Then J1  J2 if and only if every member of B1 can be expressed as a
union of some members of B2.

Proof.

Only if part

Let J1  J2 . As B1  J1 we get B1  J2. As B2 is base for topology J2, each member

of B1 being member of J2, can be expressed as union of some members of B2.

If part.

By the given condition, each member of B1 can be expressed as union of some

members of B2. As B1 is a base for J1, each member of J1 is expressed as union of
some members of B1 and hence each member J1 of is expressed as union of some
members of B2. As B2  J2 we get each member of J1 is a member of J2 also. Hence
J1  J2 i.e. J1  J2. 

Note that not every family of subsets of X will form a base for some topology
on X.

3.1.2. Sub-base
Definition 3.26. A family S of subsets of X is said to be a sub-base for the
topology J on X if the family of all nite intersections of members of J is base for J.

Example 3.27.
i. Every base for topology J is obviously a sub-base for J.
ii. fA  R j A = (a; 1) or A = ( ¡ 1; b) for a; b 2 R} is a sub-base for the usual
topology Ju on R.
 Bibliography

1. An Introduction to Real Analysis - (Third edition)

by Robert G Bartle and Donald R Sherbert
2. Introduction to General Topology
by K.D.Joshi
3. Schaum's Outline of General Topology
textbook by Lipschutz

27