Chapter 4

Boolean Algebra and Digital Logic

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 4.1 Introduction

• Computers, as we know them today, are

implementations of Boole’s Laws of Thought
(George Boole (philosopher and mathematician) ).
– John Atanasoff and Claude Shannon were among the first
to see this connection.
• In the middle of the twentieth century, computers
were commonly known as “thinking machines” and
“electronic brains.”
– Many people were fearful of them.

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for

the manipulation of variables that can have
one of two values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,”
1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by
performing operations on Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and
NOT.

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean operator can be

completely described using a
truth table.
• The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are
shown at the right.
• The AND operator is also known
as a Boolean product. The OR
operator is the Boolean sum.

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
• The NOT operation is most
often designated by an
overbar. It is sometimes
indicated by a prime mark
( ‘ ) or an “elbow” ().

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean function has:

• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.
• It produces an output that is also a member of
the set {0,1}.

So binary numbering system is fundamental in digital

systems.

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

• To make evaluation of the
Boolean function easier,
the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to
hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.
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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• As with common
arithmetic, Boolean
operations have rules of
precedence.
• The NOT operator has
highest priority, followed
by AND and then OR.
• This is how we chose the
(shaded) function
subparts in our table.

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• Digital computers contain circuits that implement

Boolean functions.
• The simpler that we can make a Boolean function,
the smaller the circuit that will result.
– Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less
power, and run faster than complex circuits.
• With this in mind, we always want to reduce our
Boolean functions to their simplest form.

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• Most Boolean identities have an AND (product)

form as well as an OR (sum) form. We give our
identities using both forms

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• Second group of Boolean identities should be

familiar from study of algebra:

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• Simplify the function:

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• Sometimes it is more economical to build a circuit using the

complement of a function (and complementing its result) than it
is to implement the function directly.
• DeMorgan’s law states:
• Replace each variable by its complement and change all ANDs
to ORs and all ORs to ANDs

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• There are two canonical forms for Boolean

expressions: sum-of-products and product-of-sums.
– Recall the Boolean product is the AND operation and the
Boolean sum is the OR operation.
• In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are
ORed together.
– For example:
• In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are
ANDed together:
– For example:

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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• It is easy to convert a function

to sum-of-products form using
its truth table.
• We are interested in the values
of the variables that make the
function true (=1).
• Using the truth table, we list
the values of the variables that
result in a true function value.
• Each group of variables is then
ORed together.
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 4.2 Boolean Algebra

• The sum-of-products form

for our function is:

Simplify further

Prove different laws using truth table

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Simplify
P  A. ( B  C)  A(C  B)
 A

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Simplify
P  A. ( B  C)  A(C  B)
 A

A.B + A.C+ A.C + A.B distributive

A.(B + B) + A.(C + C) re-distribute
A.1 + A.1 complementary
A+A
A idempotent

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Karnaugh Map (K map)
• Method for minimizing logic
• Is used to represent the values of a function for different input values
• The rows and columns of the K-map correspond to the possible values of the
function's input
• Each cell in the K-map represents a minterm (i.e. a three variables function
has: x’y’z’, x’y’z, x’yz’, x’yz, xy’z’, xy’z, xyz’ and xyz)

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 x y z O
Karnaugh Map (K map) 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

(xy’ + yz)’

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LOGIC GATES

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 4.3 Logic Gates

• Boolean functions are implemented in digital

computer circuits as digital logic gates.
• A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
– In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital
designers think of them as a single unit.
– Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a
particular purpose.

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 4.3 Logic Gates

• The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.

• They correspond directly to their respective Boolean

operations, as you can see by their truth tables.
• These are also known as primary gates
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 4.3 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR

are two very
important gates.
Their symbols and
truth tables are
shown at the right.

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 4.3 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR are

known as universal
gates because they
are inexpensive to
manufacture and any
Boolean function can
be constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.

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 4.3 Logic Gates

• Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR

(XOR) gate.
• The output of the XOR operation is true only when
the values of the inputs differ.

Note the special symbol 

for the XOR operation.

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XNOR A B P
0 0 1
XNOR P = A  B A
P 0 1 0
B 1 0 0
1 1 1

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Design example:
Sound the buzzer when either car door is open and the driver is seated
on the seat. The output should be 1 when either OR right door is open
AND the driver is seated.
O= (L+R). S (Boolean Eqn.)

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Design example:
Sound the buzzer when either car door is open and the driver is seated
on the seat. The output should be 1 when either OR right door is open
AND the driver is seated.
O= (L+R). S (Boolean Eqn.)

R
O
S

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 Exercise
Complete the truth table for this circuit and name the equivalent
primitive function/gate.
A B A+B A.B A.B P

0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0 0

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COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS

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 4.4 Digital Components

• The main thing to remember is that combinations

of gates implement Boolean functions.
• The circuit below implements the Boolean
function:

Simplification of Boolean expressions to

create simpler circuits.
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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• Consider a circuit that implements the Boolean

function:

• This circuit is an example of a combinational logic

circuit.
• Combinational logic circuits produce a specified
output (almost) at the instant when input values
are applied.

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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• Combinational logic circuits

give us many useful devices.
• One of the simplest is the
half adder, which finds the
sum of two bits.
• We can gain some insight as
to the construction of a half
adder by looking at its truth
table, shown at the right.

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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• As we see, the sum can be

found using the XOR
operation and the carry
using the AND operation.

S= X.Y’+ X’Y
C= X.Y

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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• We can change our half

adder into to a full adder
by including gates for
processing the carry bit.
• The truth table for a full
adder is shown at the
right.

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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• Here’s our completed full adder.

S=A’BC’+A’B’C+ABC+AB’C’

C= AB+BC+AC
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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• Decoders are another important type of

combinational circuit.

• Address decoders with n inputs can select any of 2n

locations.

This is a block
diagram for a
decoder.

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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• This is what a 2-to-4 decoder looks like on the

inside.

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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• A multiplexer does just the

opposite of a decoder.
• It selects a single output
from several inputs.
• The particular input chosen
for output is determined by
the value of the multiplexer’s
control lines.
This is a block
• To be able to select among n
diagram for a
inputs, log2n control lines are multiplexer.
needed.
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 4.5 Combinational Circuits

• This is what a 4-to-1 multiplexer looks like on the

inside.

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EXERCISE

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• Design a circuit which which will give an
output 1 when 2 or more buttons are
pressed.
Combinational circuit design steps.
1. Problem definition
2. Truth table
3. K map
4. Boolean equation
5. Logic circuit

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1. A circuit which will give an output 1 when 2 or more buttons are
pressed.
A B C O
2. Truth Table
0 0 0 0
3. K Map 0 0 1 0

AB 0 1 0 0
00 01 11 10
C 0 1 1 1
0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
4. Boolean equation 1 1 1 1
O= A.B+ B.C+ A.C A
5. Logic Circuit
B O

C 45
Karnaugh Map reduction method

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 Exercise

1. Design a logical expression with A, B and

C inputs with an output that they are true
only when B is true ( true=1)

2. Output (o)= a'b'c' + a'bc' + abc' + abc

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 Draw K Map

(B) 48
(A)
(B)

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