Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature and Study

2.1 A brief history of campus journalism in the Philippines

Freedom of expression is one of the prerequisites in a democratic country; that is

why freedom of the press is vital for the Philippines to help Filipinos be informed of what

is happening inside and outside of the country.

The Philippine press, which is committed to the great heritage of libertarianism, is

one of the freest, liveliest, and strongest in Asia and in the world. Throughout the ages, it

has perpetuated a formidable tradition of service, which is the fortification of our sovereign

life. Its sustainable growth and development provided gratifying and fascinating footnotes

of our historical revolutions.

While traditional newspaper emerged in the late 1600s, it took students almost

three hundred (300) years to bring out their own publications. Generally speaking,

student-run newspapers emerged before journalism classes were offered or journalism

departments were founded. Like many other classes, the ones teaching journalism came

into existence by starting an extracurricular activity. Many schools had and still have

newspapers without offering a journalism program. (Mitchell, 1940, p. 313)

As stated by Valenzuela (1933) in his book entitled “The History of Journalism in

the Philippine Islands” and Lent (1964) in his book entitled “The Philippine Mass
Communication”, the historical backdrop of campus journalism in the Philippines began

when the University of Santo Tomas published El Liliputiense in 1890.

Even so, Manalo, Matienzo, and Monteloyola (1985) in their newspaper “Ang

Pamahayagan” asserted that the historical backdrop of campus journalism in the country

began when the University of the Philippines published The College Folio, presently The

Philippine Collegian, in 1910. They additionally included that The Torch of the Philippine

Normal University, The Guidon of the Ateneo de Manila University, and The Varsitarian

of the University of Santo Tomas were likewise published two years after the fact.

Whatever started things out, Carlos Romulo y Peña modified The Coconut, the

official student publication of Manila High School, presently the Araullo High School. It

was published in 1912 and it is currently viewed as the first and oldest secondary school

newspaper in the country.

In 1923, La Union High School in the Ilocos Region published The La Union Tab,

the first printed and periodically-issued secondary school newspaper in the country. From

that point forward, secondary school newspapers turned out in a steady progression.

Among these secondary school newspapers were The Pampangan, Pampanga

High School, 1925; The Leytean, Leyte High School, 1925; The Rizalian, Rizal High

School, 1926; The Coconut, Tayabas High School, 1927; The Volcano, Batangas High

School, 1927; The Toil, La Union Trade School, 1928; The Samarinian, Samar High

School, 1928; The Melting Pot, Tarlac High School, 1929; The Granary, Nueva Ecija High

School, 1929; The Torres Torch, Torres High School, 1930; and The Cagayan Student

Chronicle, Cagayan High School, 1931.

 In 1931, thirty (30) out of one hundred six (106) secondary schools in the country

had campus newspapers registered at the Bureau of Public Schools. In 1950, this number

increased to one hundred sixty-nine (169); by 1954, to two hundred fifty-three (253); by

1975, to five hundred (500); and by 1986, to more than nine hundred (900) newspapers

in both English and Filipino.

2.2 Campus Journalism Act of 1991 or Republic Act 7079

One of the most powerful laws that promotes the rights of the youth, yet also one

of the most disregarded laws in the country is the Republic Act 7079, also known as the

Campus Journalism Act of 1991. The law promotes and provides students an avenue to

practice truth, fairness, and balance in the field of journalism. Also, it helps safeguard the

democracy in the campus level.

Campus Journalism Act is a consolidation of Senate Bill 1103 and House Bill

22658 which was signed into law on July 5, 1991 during the term of President Corazon

C. Aquino. R.A. 7079 is an act providing for the development and promotion of campus

journalism and for their purposes.

2.2.1 Section 2 (Declaration of policy)

In the Section 2 (Declaration of policy) of the law, the act aims to uphold and protect

the freedom of the press even at campus level. Further, it promotes the development and

growth of campus journalism as means of strengthening ethical values, encouraging

critical and creative thinking, and developing moral character and personal discipline of

the Filipino youth. In addition, the state shall undertake various programs and projects
aimed at improving the journalistic skills of students concerned and promoting responsible

and free journalism. Thus, Division Schools Press Conference (DSPC), Regional Schools

Press Conference (RSPC), and National Schools Press Conference (NSPC) became a

journalism contest throughout the country.

2.2.2 Section 4

In the section 4 of the law, student publication was defined as the student body

through an editorial board and publication staff composed of students selected by fair and

competitive examinations. Once the publication is established, its editorial board shall

freely determine its editorial policies and manage the publication’s funds. Moreover, any

bona fide student enrolled for the current school year, who passed the qualifications and

standards of the editorial board and likewise maintained a satisfactory academic standing,

could be a student journalist.

2.2.3 Weaknesses of R.A. 7079

First, it legalizes the non-mandatory collection of publication fee, which is

considered as the lifeblood of most student publications. The law does not contain any

provision that would mandate the school administrations to collect student publication

funds. Instead, it only enumerates the sources where the student publication funds may

be taken.

Second, Section 7 of the law supposedly gives freedom and space for student

journalists to write without fear of any threat of suspension or expulsion. The qualification

made by the Supreme Court on the said provision by providing exemptions has rendered
the security on tenure provision practically useless. One notable exemption is material

disruption of class work or involving substantial disorder or invasion of the rights of others,

which is too broad that even a simple factual article may fall within its application.

Third, the law does not make it mandatory for schools and universities in the

Philippines to establish student publications. Neither does the said law require that those

student publications that remain closed until the present be re-opened for the benefit of

the students.

Fourth, the law does not contain a penalty clause leaving erring administrations

unscathed. School administrations are able to commit after offense yet suffer no

retribution due to the absence of a penalty provision,

Last, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports Order No. 94, Series of

1992, the implementing rules and regulations of the law, contains simply guidelines on

the implementation of its provisions with the additional rules on jurisdiction over cases

that may arise from violations of the said law. As the implementing rules and regulations

cannot lawfully narrow or restrict and expand, broaden, or enlarge the provisions of the

law. DECS Order No. 1994 naturally carries the weakness of Campus Journalism Act of

1991.

Based on the cases documented by the College Editors Guild of the Philippines

(CEGP) since 1992, student publications nationwide faced systematic assaults including

the following.

(1) Harassment of student writers and editors;

 (2) Meddling with editorial policies;

(3) Actual censorship of editorial content;

(4) Withholding of publication funds;

(5) Non-collection of publication fee;

(6) Padlocking of the publication office;

(7) Closure of student publication;

(8) Suspension and expulsion of student editors and writers; and

(9) Filing of label charges against student journalists

As of April 2013, CEGP has documented two hundred thirty (230) campus press

freedom violations nationwide from forty-two (42) respondent publications.

Given these flaws in the law, it is no surprise that the enactment of Campus

Journalism Act of 1991 resulted to even more campus press freedom violations that are

even more clever and devious in form.

During the fifteenth congress, Representative Teddy Casiño and Raymond

Palentino proposed the House Bill No. 4287 on February 28, 2011 which argued that

while CJA of 1991 has strong provisions, it is insufficient and lacking in material aspects

as to fully maintain the existence of the campus press.

In the sixteenth congress, Representative Terry Ridon filed the House Bill No.

1493, otherwise known as the Campus Press Freedom Act, an act upholding and

promoting campus journalism and campus press freedom repealing for the purpose of

R.A. 7079, entitled “An Act Providing for the Development and Promotion of Campus

Journalism and for their Purposes,” penalizing violations against campus freedom.
 The proposed “Campus Freedom Act” requires all basic and tertiary schools to

establish at least one student publication (Sec. 4, Student Publication). Also, it must

provide autonomy from administrative invention with regards to the handling of its funds,

the content of the articles-the editorial board chooses to publish, the selection of its

publication staff and members of the editorial board (Sec. 6, Independence).

2.3 Scope and Functions of Journalism, Campus Journalism

On the article published by Board Licensure Examination for Professional

Teachers (BLEPT), formerly the Licensure Examination for Teacher (LET), entitled

“Scope and Functions of Journalism, Campus Journalism,” there are three major

classifications of journalism: written journalism, oral journalism and visual journalism.

Newspapers and magazines fall under written journalism and are classified as

periodicals. Periodicals are publications released in regular intervals: bi-monthly, monthly,

weekly, or daily.

A newspaper, compared to the magazine, prints more news and has no special

cover. Newspapers are printed in paper called newsprint. News is printed all over the

newspaper having the hottest news and headlines in the front page.

A magazine, on the other hand, has a special cover and prints less news but more

human-interest stories and features. Magazines are printed in book paper and if ever a

magazine contains news, it is brief, summarized and can only be found inside pages.
 Periodicals, journals, books, graphic media and brochures are under print media.

Radio falls under oral journalism and while television, movies and documentaries are

under oral-visual journalism.

Radio and television are examples of broadcast media while movies and

documentaries are examples of film media.

2.3.1 Functions of Campus Papers

A campus paper may be mimeographed, printed published, or released by an

organization or school whose name or logo appears in the masthead or in the editorial

box. The campus paper, like any other media, has functions. First, it serves as an aid to

students whereas:

 It provides opportunity for interesting writing;

 It gives students the opportunity to learn how to read the newspapers;

 It acts as stimulus to better work;

 It develops students’ power of observation and discrimination concerning

relative merits of news articles;

 It serves as outlet and motivation for journalistic writing;

 It offers training in organizations, business methods, commercial arts,

salesmanship, bookkeeping and business management; and

 It develops qualities of cooperation, tact, accuracy, tolerance, responsibility and

leadership.

On the other hand, it serves as an aid to school and community by way of:
 Informing the community of the work of the school;

 Publishing school news;

 Creating and expressing school opinions;

 Making known the achievements of the school;

 Helping unify the school;

 Encouraging and stimulating worthwhile activities;

 Developing right standard of conduct;

 Providing an outlet for students’ suggestions for the betterment of the school;

 Developing better interschool relationship;

 Developing school spirit; and

 Developing cooperation between the parents and the school.

In addition, the campus paper also has these following functions:

(1) Information function. This is the news assignment of the campus paper: to

inform. Since information dissemination is the main purpose of the campus paper,

this is the task most likely performed by any campus paper. It gives the readers

information concerning the things around the community and within the school.

(2) Opinion function. Through the editorials and editorial columns, the editor has the

chance to post his opinion regarding current events inside the school and the

community. The main purpose for this is to persuade the reader toward a certain

point of view.
(3) Education function. Tabooed topics such as sex, sex education, family planning

and the like are extensively and intensively discussed by writers of campus papers.

This is one of the most important functions of the campus paper, to educate.

(4) Watchdog function. The school paper serves as an eye for the readers to see

what is happening in the school and to guard the right of the young ones.

(5) Laboratory function. It benefits as the teaching tool for promising journalists.

Beginners pattern their new experience from the existing and past papers.

(6) Documentation function. Important school events and worthwhile student

accomplishments and achievements are recorded in the campus paper for

posterity’s sake. Most present-day stories are researched from old newspapers.

(7) Entertainment function. The school paper, like an interesting book, keeps the

reader company especially when he is alone. Most human-interest stories are

encouraging to read.

(8) Developmental function. In a developing country like the Philippines, scholastic

and commercial journalism has been given greater and moral significance. The

sources of new journalists are the school. Journalists in campus publications are

most likely to be the journalists of the future. The young journalist whose news

deals with club activities, school elections and campus activities will eventually

become a better one whose news deal with activities of the nation, national

elections and national concerns. The developmental function of the campus paper

does not only have implications on the young one himself but also on the school

as a whole. School administrators and staff may reflect their performance on the

school paper and see what improvements should be taken action.

2.4 Campus journalists as “torch bearers”

According to Cicero (2018), duty is a moral commitment to something or someone,

whereas responsibility is a condition of being responsible. Duties come from four sources:

human beings, one's particular place, one's character and one's own moral expectations.

As a student journalist, first, they should know their rights and the rights of each

individual. They should be sure there are no complaint with legal issues. They should

ensure there is no intrusion on matters of confidentiality and privacy.

Second, it is the duty of a journalist to make sure that the information presented is

in a fair, balanced, and truthful manner so that it cannot mislead the audience.

Third, a journalist has a professional responsibility to present an accurate portrayal

of events as they occur. This is usually accomplished through excellent and

comprehensive research. A professional journalist will present only facts leaving out their

own opinions.

Last, journalists are bound to a code of ethics. An ethical standard will provide the

audience with meaningful information but they must also need to know when information

is too sensitive to be reported.

2.5 Campus Journalism: A platform to produce young, responsible citizens

On the report of Clavite (2018), a guest speaker at the College Press Conference

(COPRE) and Awards hosted by the Philippine Information Agency (PIA) – Region 6 in

Iloilo City. The COPRE is an annual event and has been consistently running for more
than forty (40) years now. The event covers campus journalism training and competition

which had produced, in its long list of alumni, several brilliant writers, professionals, and

media practitioners.

Given that journalism is one of the most crucial professions in any society, campus

journalism is one of the most significant endeavors in the country. It is where students get

a taste of what it is like to write for their school, their neighborhoods, their dreams and

their hopes. It is, hopefully, what sparks the want to serve the public through these

acquired skills.

Journalists enable people to be aware of what happens around them, understand

what these events mean, and help them make informed decisions. They also serve as

watchdogs of the government, keeping us honest and interpreting what we do for every

Filipino. For this, they are aptly dubbed the “fourth estate.”

Handling this role is surely a tremendous task, one that every campus journalist

must understand from day one, despite the pressure it might put on them. The

competitions must not remain as mere contests of skill and honor, but rather a catalyst

for the younger generation to appreciate what journalism is and make the media better in

the future.

According to Goto (2015), a campus publication adviser for twenty (20) years and

proponent of the special program in journalism, campus journalism is an essential tool in

developing the country. Together with his editorial staffs, they learned to think out of the

box and to dance with the cadence of change. Their eyes become as sharp as the eagles

at night. They have seen what the community needs and what they can cater to the
community. They also realized that they need to adapt to the medium in which they can

reach their audience more. The ability of campus journalism in nation-building is in its

charisma to compel people to action and be part of building the Filipino dream.

On the statement of Luna (2017), 2004 Outstanding Filipino Youth Leader and

CEO of Network of Campus Journalists in the Philippines, the given opportunities to

campus journalists enable them to reach the grassroots and localize actions. They

become more aware of the real problems and lead to formulation of solutions. They also

start to gain more confidence because they are more involved. Eventually, they come up

with realistic plans and make use of their strengths and skills for their communities.

Therefore, the young journalists become functional and productive citizens.

On the report of Dilim (2019), school press conference dubbed as the “Olympics

of Campus Journalists,” underscores the importance of campus journalism as a platform

for students to uphold the freedom of the press at the campus level and to promote the

development of student values such as creativity, critical thinking, discipline, and ethical

values. A product of journalism, Marc Teomar Bautista, said his passion and interest in

journalism started when he was in high school. He was likewise influence by his mother

who was also a school paper adviser. He joined Division Schools Press Conference

(DSPC) from first to fourth year in high school. When asked on how campus journalism

helped him, he shared that it served as a training ground to where he is now at present.

Bautista is a graduate of Communication with Latin honor at the University of the

Philippines Baguio campus, and now works as a segment producer of the popular news

magazine show “Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho” which airs every Sunday at GMA Network.

He also pointed out that campus journalism made him realized how powerful media is,
they are the source of truth and they expose reality. Moreover, the main responsibility of

journalists is to be ethical and objective in every story they will create.

An education supervisor of the DepEd La Union, Belen C. Aquino, shared that the

annual DSPC is one of the much-awaited competitions both the students and their

advisers look forward to every year. Aquino was a long-time school paper adviser and

was once a school paper writer for sixteen (16) years. Thus, she witnessed how campus

journalism has helped in honing proactive and responsible young citizens.

2.6 Reasons why campus journalism is important

Aside from the fact that campus journalism gives student journalists the opportunity

to practice their craft and share their thoughts and insights about certain issues, there are

other reasons why it is important.

The Campus Journalism Act of 1991 entitled “An Act Providing for the

Development and Promotion of Campus Journalism and for other Purposes” was created

for several reasons:

 To uphold the freedom of the press at the campus level.

 To promote the development and growth of campus journalism as a means of

strengthening ethical values, encouraging critical and creative thinking, and

developing moral character and personal discipline of the Filipino youth.

The act is also intended to help students improve technical skills in journalism,

understand and practice the responsibilities of a journalist, learn how to be responsible,

and promote social awareness. It is also a good venue for advocating educational

development, as well as for voicing out students’ rights and promoting their welfare.

Despite the fact that this has long been put into law, there are still some educational

institutions that do not follow it. There are several institutions that do not have school

publications or school papers. While they may have their own reasons, these institutions

should remember that their priority is the welfare and education of the students.

Therefore, anything that can help advance students’ learning should be a major part of

the school curriculum.

For those who do not yet understand the value of campus journalism, here are

three important reasons why it should be implemented in your school or educational

institution.

(1) Campus journalism succor’s student become more aware of what is happening

around them. They learn how to become responsive and proactive citizens at a

young age. Additionally, it helps and trains students to become responsible.

Student journalists are taught and trained to practice fairness, balance, and

truthfulness.

(2) Campus journalism provides students a voice. Student journalists can act as the

messengers of the student body. They can talk about issues, policies, and events

that are essential to both the student and the school administration. School

publications serve as a venue for students so their message can reach the proper

school authorities. Likewise, it is a way of bringing together and uniting the

 students, the faculty, and the administration. Also, campus journalism helps

students to practice their freedom of expression.

(3) Campus journalism helps students improve their skills in communication arts. The

student journalists are each given regular tasks – editing, writing, proofreading,

and headline writing, among others. As such, they are trained in various fields.

Aside from communication arts, these student journalists are also trained to

manage the school paper which is something that they can put to good use after they

graduate. The young journalists also learn to delegate and to value teamwork. In fact,

campus journalism actually trains them to become well-rounded individuals and members

of society.

Schools that have not yet adopted or followed The Campus Journalism Act of 1991

should rethink their plans and start working on organizing a campus journalism program.

The benefits are aplenty for both the students and the institution.

2. 7 Terrorizing the campus journalist

As specified by Olea (2003) in Bulatlat (vol. 3, no. 14), “Terrorizing the Campus

Journalist,” for fear that press freedom groups forget it, violations of freedom of

expression and of information are taking place not only in the mainstream media. During

the Marcos dictatorship, campus-based journalists, who were similarly threatened,

carried on the fight for press freedom through thick and thin. Attacks on the campus press

are often more violent and also subtle, and yet do not earn the attention that similar cases

of repression in the mainstream press draw.

 International press freedom watchdogs, the Paris-based Reporters Sans

Frontieres and the Washington-based Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) have

proclaimed the Philippines as one of the horrible places in the world for journalists.

Indeed, since this has been the case since the Marcos dictatorship muzzled the press.

To illustrate, last April 2003, a radio broadcaster was gunned down. More recently,

two (2) Cagayan de Oro reporters were arrested and detained for libel. But even the

Philippine campus press is not spared from similar assaults, there have been clear

indications that government authorities are behind these attacks.

2.7.1 The first campus journalist to be killed in the Philippines

Under the regimen of President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, a student journalist has

been killed, two abducted and another arrested.

Like Edgar Damalerio’s case, justice has yet to be served for the murder of

Benjaline Hernandez. On April 5, 2002, Hernandez was killed by elements of the Citizens

Armed Force Geographical Unit (CAFGU) led by a sergeant of the Army's 7th Airborne

Battalion while conducting a research on the impacts of peace process among the

peasants in Arakan Valley, North Cotabato in Southern Philippines.

When killed, Hernandez was only twenty-two (22) and he was also the vice

president for Mindanao of the College Editors Guild of the Philippines (CEGP) and deputy

secretary general for Southern Mindanao of the human rights alliance Karapatan.

Military authorities claimed the incident was a legitimate encounter with the New

People’s Army (NPA). However, reports by the Commission on Human Rights (CHR)
showed Hernandez was immediately executed. Also, the National Bureau of

Investigation (NBI) said the victim was negative of gunpowder, showing that she was

unarmed at the time of the killing contrary to military claims she was an NPA member.

Until now, the perpetrators are on the loose.

2.7.2 Abduction of campus journalists

On November 1, 2002, CEGP incumbent vice president for Visayas Lloyd Wilson

Sato was abducted by unidentified men. Sato testified that he was grilled for six (6) hours

by what appeared to be military intelligence men. He was also called a “terrorist” and was

warned against speaking before rallies outside the military detachment in Cebu. Before

being freed, his arm was slashed with a Swiss knife.

Eleven (11) days later in Central Luzon, Ma. Cecilia San Luis was arrested on

assertion that she is a member of NPA. San Luis, former CEGP chair for the region, was

writing an article regarding the peasants’ struggle for land reform in San Ildelfonso,

Bulacan.

On April 21, 2003, Virgilio Catoy II, editor of Southern Tagalog Exposure, was

abducted along with slain human rights leaders Eden Marcellana and Eddie Gumanoy in

Naujan, Oriental Mindoro. Catoy was beaten, hogtied and made to plead for his life.

Col. Jovito Palparan Jr., alleged mastermind of the abduction and killings, was waiting for

confirmation of his promotion to brigadier general before the incident happened.

2.7.3 “Terrorist” tag

 All over the country, school campuses remain under close watch by the military,

reminiscent of martial law twenty (20) years ago. Military authorities, using their student

intelligence network, often members of the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC),

conducted surveillance on both militant students and faculty. Writers from the Philippine

Collegian (UP Diliman), Manila Collegian (UP Manila), Catalyst (PUP) and Tandem

(University of Northern Philippines-Vigan) have confirmed military surveillance inside their

campuses. Catalyst’s office was ransacked once, a former intelligence agent himself

admitted.

The CEGP, as it continues to uphold its militant tradition and campus press

advocacy, has recently been tagged as a “terrorist,” giving courage to military and police

authorities as well as school administrators to take reprisal measures against this group

of editors whose ranks include the cream of the crop in college. No less than National

Security Adviser Roilo Golez slandered the CEGP recently by accusing it as a front

organization of the Communist Party of the Philippines. This accusation appears to be no

different from the articles written in the NAD Courier, publication of the anti-communist

and pro-American National Alliance for Democracy, calling other groups including CEGP

as “terrorist.”

Threats to campus press freedom and other democratic rights of students do not

only come from the military. Just like in previous years, student journalists are menaced

by school administrators against publishing critical commentaries and articles opposing

certain policies.
 Currently facing libel charges filed by school authorities are the editors of Budyong,

student publication of the Bicol University’s Institute of Communications and Cultural

Studies in Legaspi City, for exposing the anomalies of two professors in the university.

Editors of The Kingfisher, student publication of Southern Luzon Polytechnic

College, were prevented from graduating for coming out with a lampoon issue.

Last April 2003, Atenews, student publication of Ateneo de Davao University, has

been ordered to cease all its operations. School authorities say the student paper cannot

exist without a moderator. In the first place, it is the administration that has set strict

policies on the selection and approval of the paper’s moderator.

Meanwhile, The Bedan, student publication of San Beda College, may not see

print next semester as the school officials imposed non-mandatory payment of publication

fee.

Still closed are the student papers of The National of the National University, Pintig

ng Diwa of Philippine School for Business Administration-Quezon City, and Paulinian of

Saint Paul College-Quezon City.

If cases of plundering the publication’s funds, censorship, meddling by advisers,

suspension or expulsion of student writers and other forms of harassment are included,

the list of cases of repression against the campus press could go on.

A leader of CEGP recalled former President Ferdinand Marcos as calling the

campus press the “mosquito press.” Seen from today’s situation, the campus press,

continues to inflict irritation on the powers-that-be, so uncomfortable they counterattack

and threaten with dispensation. Indeed, the struggle for genuine press freedom remains

to be an uphill fight.

2.8 What the Ampatuan Massacre verdict means to a campus journalist

On the statement of Diwa Donato, she will always remember the week when the

news broke about the Ampatuan slaughter in 2009. She was a basic understudy while in

transit to Ilagan, Isabela for a challenge for grounds columnists.

At the point when they arrived at the downtown area, various outsiders were

hanging tight for transport rides. They're most likely simply leaving the city, which was not

irregular. However, their counselor called attention to that they're likely leaving the nation

as well, dreading the condition of the nation at the time.

At ten (10) years of age, she was at that point reluctant to proceed with her dream

about seeking after news-casting. This case showed her the cost of truth at an early age.

She was informed that journalism is a risky calling since it involves penances, regardless

of whether it implies taking a chance with your life. As brave as it sounds, she figured it

shouldn't be that way.

In each talk she went to for campus journalism under the incomparable Professor

Ben Domingo Jr, she would consistently make reference to the two (2) most noticeably

terrible occasions for press opportunity in the nation: Marcos' Martial Law and the

Ampatuan slaughter.

In the wake of proclaiming Martial Law, Ferdinand Marcos' guidance was to

assume responsibility for all papers, radio, and broadcasting companies. He quieted open
analysis and controlled data. There were likewise detainments and vanishings of writers.

What pursued were their demises.

Further, the Ampatuan slaughter, viewed as maybe the most noticeably awful

political slaughter and political race related brutality throughout the entire existence of the

Philippines, executing fifty-eight (58) individuals, including thirty-two (32) columnists is

additionally viewed as the single deadliest assault against the media on the world. The

two occasions assaulting columnists, pulverizing majority rule government and

established in exemption. A long time passed and no equity.

Presently, Judge Jocelyn Solis Reyes had served the decision of the Ampatuan

slaughter case on December 19, 2019 finishing the just about ten (10) year preliminary

that crossed three (3) organizations. We should consider the exercises of the case and

notice the examples appeared in the previous not many years:

(1) Our moderate and poor equity framework has a ton to enhance, and the choice

of the Quezon City Regional Trial Court isn't yet last until the Supreme Court

rules it in this way, however the decision gives us and the groups of the

unfortunate casualties’ trust in equity.

(2) There is an Ampatuan who stays free, cleared, and in force, and he can get

reappointed regardless of various instances of debasement.

(3) The mass killings were executed by the police with orders from government

officials, and both empowering agents ought not be excluded from the law.

(4) This case doesn't legitimize all instances of press infringement.

 The Philippine media is in danger again like never before, given nonstop

disinformation, provocation, and dangers of blocking establishment restorations and

denial of enlistment by the present organization.

Donato had been expounding on the Ampatuan slaughter since her days in school.

In any case, here, she composes again as though she were ten (10) years of age. What

she knew around then was she needed to be protected on the off chance that she turned

into a writer.

The Philippines stays to be among the deadliest nations for writers in Southeast

Asia. This ought not be the future that anticipates youthful columnists. We were not just

instructed how to compose, yet to go to bat for what we compose. It is our entitlement to

be sheltered in communicating our conclusions and reactions.

The battle of expert reporting will consistently be the battle of grounds news

coverage. We commend the Ampatuan slaughter decision, trust in equity, and keep on

tending to the battles of press opportunity.

For now, democracy and press freedom won. But we do not fight to win, we fight

to be free. There is more to be done.

2.9 Suppression of freedom

Malinot (2019) explained in her news article “Campus journalists urge CHED to

act on reported suppression of press freedom” that the student publications in the country

experiences press freedom violations over the years that includes harassment and/or

killings of student writers and editors; meddling with editorial policies; actual censorship
of editorial content; withholding and looting of publication funds; non-collection or non-

mandatory collection of publication fee; administrative intervention; suspension and

expulsion of student editors and writers; and filing of libel charges against campus

journalists. The vanguards of light and truth in various campuses are being the next

targets of control by the government and school administrations. Incidents of intimidations

among student journalists are happening amid the presence of R.A. 7079 otherwise

known as the Campus Journalism Act of 1991. It was signed into law on July 5, 1991

that aims to “uphold and protect press freedom even at the campus level.”

Notwithstanding, CEGP noted that the “legislation proved” that in the twenty-seven (27)

years of its existence, the seriously flawed law has done nothing but to put campus press

freedom in jeopardy.

2.10 Censorship in Campus Journalism and its Causes

One of the most common issues that campus journalists face in their field is

censorship. Censorship is defined as “The practice of limiting access to information,

ideas, or books in order to prevent knowledge or freedom of thought.” (YourDictionary,

n.d.) In other words, it is the restriction of publishing certain information in order to either

avoid controversies and consequences or attract more readers. It has two types:

censorship inflicted by the campus administration or other people of power to the campus

journalists, and censorship inflicted by the campus journalist to oneself, also known as

self-censorship.

Lang (2010) emphasized in her dissertation conducted in the United States of

America, entitled “College Newspapers – Watchdogs or Lapdogs?” that libel is being

used as a leverage against campus journalists in order for them to not publish numerous

things, especially controversial ones. She also stated that censorship is an issue that

occur mostly with publications that are dependent to their administrators, like schools.

Administrators of the school have concerned that controversial topics might be covered;

thus, problems of censorship might occur. Therefore, censorship occurs as the

administration fears libelous and controversial content. (p. 48)

According to the Southern Poverty Law Center (2009c), as cited by Lang

(2010), newspaper thefts are done, since it is an effective yet heinous way to censor

journalists. Lang also emphasized that “Each year, thousands of issues are stolen or

even burnt to prevent publication of information or opinions with which people disagree.”

(p. 49) Even if this occurs as often as many people would think, only a few are doing legal

actions against being a victim of the rampant newspaper theft. Many cases of newspaper

theft have occurred across the United States of America, such as the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2009, the University of Texas El Paso in 2008, and at the

University of Tampa in 2008, among others. (p. 50)

Lang (2010) emphasized that students tend to avoid covering sensitive issues in

order to avoid punishment, and this is called “self-censorship.” Some don’t even seek

controversial issues anymore; this leads to the student journalist seeking the path with

least resistance. These journalists already know what has to be published, like successful

school programs, and what to avoid speaking about, like school controversies. This

results into a school paper that contains only good and positive news that uplifts the

institution. (p. 51)

 According to Nelson (1974) as cited by Lang (2010), “Self-censorship might be

the most pervasive form of censorship”, as students already know the topics that they can

treat and those that they must avoid even before consulting the administrators, thus

inflicting self-censorship. These journalists will consult the authorities and will ask them if

they would like a certain story or topic to be published in the newspaper. If they answered

“no”, the story wouldn’t be printed, no questions asked and without any further objections.

(p. 52)

In this dissertation, a combination of different methods was chosen. Some of these

methods are ten (10) qualitative interviews with editors-in-chief of college-dailies, which

were accompanied by a quantitative content analysis of the ten (10) newspapers studied.

Lang (2010) ensured that the data gathered from the interviews were supported by the

results of the analysis of each newspaper.

Bickham (2008) in her dissertation conducted in the United States of America

entitled “Toward a Free Collegiate Press: An Analysis of Influences that Can Lead to

Censorship at College Newspapers”, it emphasizes that the uncertainty of the student

newspaper’s purpose allows input and suggestions from academic affairs administrators

and faculty advisers. Without formal and written guidelines of the purpose of the school

paper, advising boundaries may sometimes be blurred; thus, causing censorship or self-

censorship. (p. 40)

Bickham (2008) also emphasized that “students at public institutions have a

constitutional right of expression, and this right extends to student publications.” But even

if this rule has been made clear, she stated that there are still three (3) most common
ways that administrators attempt to censor student publications: “by cutting funding,

reorganizing the governing committees of student publications, and hiring faculty advisers

that would make decisions that aligned with the administration.” (p.31)

The study addressed three (3) sets of hypotheses and three (3) sets of research

questions, which examines the collegiate student newspaper content at the individual,

organizational, and societal levels. The respondents of the study are editors, faculty

advisers, and academic affairs administrators from one hundred nine (109) institutions

recognized by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass

Communication, which are mostly public institutions.

With this in mind, Bickham (2008) discussed that student journalists must have

the primary control over the student newspaper. In this way, it would help eliminate

student journalists’ desire to self-censor based on the desires and interests of other

parties, like the administrators and other organizations. Conversely, Bickham (2008)

emphasized that campus journalist must also strive to keep their own influences and

interests away from their work through proper content selection and objectivity.

Censorship is one of the major hindrances of freedom of expression, as stated in

the aforementioned dissertations. Campus journalists that are under censorship clearly

do not have the power to do what they have to do in the field – provide the truth without

filter. With these types of restrictions that may sometimes put their name and safety at

risk, campus journalists do not have a choice but to follow orders and produce limited

content. For these dependent student publications, censorship is occurring quite often.

2.11 Seares: Is campus press less free than ‘pro’ media?

 The Campus Journalism Act (Republic Act 7079) announced that it is the

arrangement of the state "to maintain and secure the opportunity of the press even in the

grounds level." Note "even." What is more, the equivalent 1991 law characterizes

"understudy distribution" as one "autonomously distributed by, and (which) addresses the

issues and interests of, the understudies." However, grounds press opportunity is not as

free as, and cannot be more liberated than, opportunity of expert media. In spite of

distinction in setting, every has constraints and confinements.

R.A. 7079 or the CJA bombs in its objectives since (1) production of in any event

one understudy distribution by a school is not compulsory, (2) financing for the understudy

paper depends to a great extent on school proprietors, and (3) no powerful standards

ensure autonomy of grounds columnists. Some news coverage instructors, for example,

UP Diliman's Danilo Arao, even think the law propagates attacks on grounds press

opportunity.

A school may close down the understudy paper by retaining cash or fixing its

discharge. Just the school have authority and hardware to raise or gather assets for the

paper's tasks. On the off chance that the publication board is antagonistic, the school just

stop cuts the progression of assets.

A College Editors Guild of the Philippines (CEGP) investigation of eight-hundred

(800) asserted infringement of the law purportedly shows that three hundred twenty-two

(322) of them included cash: a convoluted procedure, as in the UP Collegian in 2006, or

cutting off expenses, as in the Polytechnic University of the Philippines one after another

or another.
 The CJA pays tribute to autonomy of understudy columnists, yet requires a

warning board that adequately controls the paper. The board should give just "specialized

direction" yet, as the CEGP study shows, it effectively incorporates control.

The law only supports the setting up of an understudy production in the

rudimentary, secondary school and school level. Not compulsory. Similarly, as there is no

severe guideline on utilization of production expenses.

Pundits of the understudy press ask: Can grounds writers handle the opportunity?

One explanation, they stated, drafters of the CJA set up controls and Congress has

ignored its clear imperfections for a long time currently, is this they are watchful over limit

of the youthful essayists to practice their opportunity. "Genius" writers have editors and

chiefs to survey the item before production. However, in spite of layers of oversight,

significant mistakes can still happen. What amount more for grounds scholars with less

experience and preparing left alone? The law shows hesitance on self-governance by the

youthful columnists. R.A. 7079 says gauges and rules of the paper will not negate strategy

of the school organization.

School organizations are justifiably defensive over its open picture or brand. May

a school paper report, say, an instructor's routine lateness, understudies' dissent over

study hall cheating, or an educator's closeout of evaluations?

A similar irreconcilable situation, obligation to illuminate one's open as against

enthusiasm of the school, parallels with conflicts in customary media, when proprietor's

interests crash into those of the paper's open. A "genius" columnist barely addresses
issues against the paper's promoters or the proprietor's family members or companions

in open office.

The CJA announces the guarantee of press opportunity however does not

accommodate a successful instrument. The law can be revised, less to make that

guarantee a reality as to make that opportunity correspond with the truth on the ground.

In the event that grounds columnists must be educated and sharpened on abilities

of correspondence, they should be set up for the truth over here: (1) opportunity is

restricted by laws and moral standards and (2) a writer now and again needs to manage

settles on his opportunity.

Jasper Briones, manager in-head of "Chiro" and its magazine version, was ousted

while ten (10) different staff members were additionally rejected or suspended for

distributing an article and ballads that the Miriam College people group found disgusting,

gross, and obscene.

Researched by the school's disciplinary board, which prompted the assents, the

case went right to the Supreme Court. In Miriam College Foundation versus Court of

Appeals, the high court decided that the school can remove, suspend or generally rebuff

the understudies.

Two reasons: First, the school condition has "uncommon qualities" and second,

while Campus Journalism Act of 1991 denies removal or suspension of an understudy

essayist exclusively for his articles or his lead in the school paper, the school can in any
case endorse him if that "upsets class work, includes clutter or attacks the privileges of

others."

2.12 Student journalist standing up for a free press

On the article published in CNN Philippines entitled “These Student Journalists are

Standing Up for a Free Press,” campus journalism is the cradle of press freedom but

student publications across the Philippines struggle with editorial independence, low

funds, and a lack of resources. The law is meant to help them, but it has not always

worked. (Cabato and Paris, 2018)

Under the Campus Journalism Act of 1991, or Republic Act 7079, “a student shall

not be expelled or suspended solely on the basis of articles he or she has written.” Yet

three (3) years after its passage, ten (10) students from Miriam College's publication,

Chi-Rho, were dismissed, expelled, and suspended for writing or approving work that the

school deemed vulgar. The case went all the way to the Supreme Court, which upheld

the expulsion.

Editorial board members of AMA Computer College’s Dataline were also expelled

in 1997 after publishing a lampoon issue. A Quezon City Regional Trial Court judge

upheld their dismissal. The Supreme Court later slammed the decision and charged the

judge a five thousand peso (₱5,000) fine but that was in 2002, five years later.

In 2016, Kabataan Party-List Representative Sarah Elago filed House Bill 3636,

looking forward to stronger protection of student journalists. Senator Leila De Lima has

since filed a counterpart measure, Senate Bill 1868, at the upper house. The proposal
criticized the 1991 law for not imposing penalties on non-compliant school

administrations. It also noted that the Supreme Court allowed expulsion if there was

material disruption of class work or substantial disorder or invasion of the rights of others.

Despite these challenges, campus journalists have been stepping up their

coverage. When President Rodrigo Duterte rose to power, Lady Justice graced the cover

of the University of the Philippines’ (UP) The Collegian in a biting editorial cartoon

reminiscent of Raffy Lerma’s iconic Inquirer cover photo, a drug war pieta.

In May 2018, Ateneo de Manila University and Xavier University’s publications The

Guidon and The Crusader released joint multimedia coverage of the aftermath of the

Marawi crisis. The Guidon previously banded with two other Ateneo publications, the

literary Folio Heights and the Filipino language news magazine Matanglawin, for a special

issue with cut-outs of articles, poems, and writing from and about martial law were

designed to be distributed discreetly, as publications had been under dictator Ferdinand

Marcos’ regime.

In a fraught time for the press, here are some other campus publications whose

efforts we cannot afford to overlook.

2.12.1 The Bedan Roar, San Beda Manila Senior High School

San Beda Manila Senior High School’s (SHS) publication, The Bedan Roar, made

headlines when its latest issue, critical of both the government and school administration,

never saw distribution. Its cover featured President Duterte, a Bedan alumnus, sitting on

an iron throne of guns atop a heap of dead bodies, in reference to thousands of

extrajudicial killings under his term. The content includes a commentary on a mandatory

drug test in light of the anti-drug campaign; a news brief on students being accepted to

an international conference, but having no funding to attend; and an editorial on ‘fake

news.’ They noted, said former Editor-in-Chief Lars Salamante, that the same illnesses

that are plaguing society also plague the school. He also stated that he is determined to

include relevant national news, issues, and other subject matter that directly or indirectly

affect the Bedan community and view them from the angle of their readers, the students.

The faculty was not pleased. A member who requested anonymity said the school

did not want the students to question or protest the rule of the current President, who is

a Bedan.

Former Associate Editor Cristina Chi said they met with administrators to negotiate

changes on the cover, but they could not meet halfway. Instructions were given to them

that all opinion articles should be reduced to one to two sentences per topic, and with no

national issues as much as possible and to fill the whole pages with only pictures of

events.

The students said they would not compromise their vision for the paper, or junk

their staffers’ hard work. After studying safety nets under the law, they went to press.

When the copies arrived, Chi said administrators thought they planned a secret circulation

and they allegedly argued the Campus Journalism Act only applied to college students.

The Bedan Roar took to Facebook to explain why the students would not be

receiving their magazines, and uploaded the full issue online. Chi said the online release

was borne from “responsibility and duty,” a sense of accountability to their readers.
 The perceived censorship from the school administration went viral. The Bedan

Alumni Association released a statement of solidarity for the paper, signed by previous

school paper editors including, most prominently, former senator Rene Saguisag.

San Beda Manila SHS Vice Principal Aurora L. Lincumpao told CNN Philippines

that the students were just kids, and the school wanted them to focus on the

achievements of San Beda. She also maintained the students went to print against the

administration’s advice, but did not explain why. She added they were reactionary. They

are just high school students, so they need to be advised. They were just asked to temper

some of the articles.

After talk that the paper would be controlled by administrators, students said they

were promised autonomy again. For a supposedly clean slate, the incoming Editorial

Board has been reshuffled, save for one officer. Applicants will be screened by the paper’s

top editor and two moderators.

2.12.2 Variations, Philippine High School for the Arts

Variations is tasked with covering news, issues, and stories for the student artists

and scholars in the Philippine High School for the Arts (PHSA). Although established

under Marcos’ administration in 1977, students of PHSA have been critical of the regime.

The school paper motto reads: “Makialam. Makiusisa. Makigulo't mambulabog. Higit sa

lahat, magpakadalubhasa.”
 In April 2018, students and alumni went up in arms over the addition of former first

lady Imelda Marcos’ name to a coveted scholarship. Variations released a statement

asking the administration for an explanation.

The publication noted the Makiling Academy and Research Institute for the Arts

(MARIA) scholarship had indeed been affixed with Imelda Romualdez Marcos’ initials, but

they were dropped in 1990 when Executive Order 420 effectively converted PHSA into a

regular government agency, disconnecting the school from the Marcoses.

Variations’ statement would be taken down that same week upon the request of

PHSA officials. Conforming with the former Editor-in-Chief Maura Yap, their adviser asked

them to delete their post after he had been contacted by the administration. He reasoned

the contents had not been reviewed, and could have contained something libelous. Yap

and then-Associate Editor Bea Rabe did as they were told, but reposted the statement on

their personal profiles.

Both students said their adviser had always been hands on, but nonetheless gave

them the freedom to report the truth. Yap mentioned that two years ago, Variations

reported on a fire extinguisher that leaked in one of PHSA’s school buses while students

were on board. Fortunately, no student got hurt. They were told to remove it because it

reflected poorly on the school.

Variations’ statement closed with a demand for the school to explain the Marcos

tribute. They added that as a student publication, it is their responsibility to the student

body to take word for what the students think. The media blackout from their school
administration is simply proof that something happened without any of the students’

knowledge or consent.

As of this writing, PHSA administration has still not issued a public explanation. It

also did not respond to CNN Philippines’ request for comment.

However, the school sent a letter to the similarly troubled PHSA Alumni

Association, explaining that Imelda Marcos’ initials were a typographical error, and as a

result, read out loud by mistake. Students were unconvinced, pointing out that the 2015

student handbook also used Marcos’ name and it has not been edited since.

2.12.3 Assortedge, various schools

Assortedge was established in 2016 by John Paul Punzalan and Kharl James

Villadolid, campus journalists from Christ the King College in La Union. They assembled

a ragtag editorial board with members from Davao, Cavite, Cagayan de Oro, Mindoro,

and Laguna among other places to help monitor the presidential elections. The mix was

enriching, allowing for mobility and a wider reach. But it also meant plowing through

operations with no office and no profit, all from different locations.

After the election, the online publication expanded its coverage to include science,

pop culture, and even religion. Only a handful of founding editors are still with the

organization, but the challenges have stayed the same. It was difficult for them to publish

newspapers since they were all students and have no yet steady income. They just

facilitate in workshops, participate and partner events and rely on abono.

 According to Gil, a business Economic sophomore at UP Diliman, Assortedge also

holds editorial and creative exams, growing its membership to around forty (40) and

becoming a home for student journalists across the country. Most members hail from

Region IV-A, which is a powerhouse in the school press conference circuit.

Their goal was to fight misinformation and propaganda with fact. Its tagline mission

“to put the world into context” means reporting with “no colors, but also no neutrality: just

bias to the truth,”

Assortedge produces explanatory graphics compiled in photo albums for different

topics, from national issues covering politics and health to student-handy guides like a list

of top universities and entrance exam tips.

It has had its share of backlash too. One post, “Debunking Martial Law Myths,”

was disputed by trolls and Marcos supporters. Last year, the page was taken down after

sharing an alleged three hundred thousand-peso (₱300,000) check issued to Presidential

Communications Assistant Secretary Mocha Uson.

Moreover, they admitted that it has not exactly been a cake walk. They are

repeatedly been red-tagged, accused as ‘bayaran’ or ‘dilawan,’ or just called ‘bobo’ or

‘ugok na admin,’ among other things. While those words may take hits on our morale, it

is only ever momentary, because they knew they were doing something that is right in the

long run.

Despite this, the youth-run organization has acknowledged responsibility and

accountability by being transparent about its membership. They explained the decision to
publish members’ names was a way of declaring they were unafraid in the face of media

suppression, that regardless of their age, location, or current educational standing, they

will stand as one organization that champions truth in media and real life.

2.12.4 Various school papers, University of the Philippines Diliman

Amid protests opposing inefficient systems in school and the government, students

of the University of the Philippines have been slammed for both activism and elitism.

Tasked with recording these voices, UP’s various student publications deal with

challenges both internally and externally.

The ninety-six (96) year old Philippine Collegian, or Kulê, drew attention in April

2018 after two (2) members, Marvin Ang and Richard Calayeg Cornelio, were barred from

taking editorial exams. The Board of Judges (BOJ) ruled that as graduating students, they

were not qualified as incoming editors. Both Ang and Cornelio said they intended to

pursue second degrees.

The restriction was largely seen as an effort to stifle the campus press. In a joint

statement, publications across the UP system urged the BOJ to reverse their decision.

From the past years, a lot of graduating students took the exam but now it has been

vanished.

Beyond organizational politics, student journalists from across UP also face trouble

in a volatile political environment. Molecular Biology senior Jon Bonifacio was among

those detained by police during a picket of NutriAsia workers demanding regularization

last July 2018. He was reporting for Scientia, the official publication of the UP College of
Science. Bonifacio recounted that he was literally dragged into police custody with other

eighteen (18) protesters and students accused of being involved in drugs and bringing

guns. They were released two days later. Since then, the issue of fair labor has hit closer

to home.

Campus journalists have not been spared online either. The Facebook page of

Tinig ng Plaridel, the UP College of Mass Communication official student publication, was

nearly suspended after a slew of online attacks after it posted photos of a Human Rights

Day protest in December 2017. The Diliman community gave Plaridel high online ratings

to avert suspension. For Zamora, their experience was only a symptom of the overall

problem of press freedom in the Philippines.

These issues are just a few of the campus press problems we know of. Across the

country, students use pen names when critical of school authorities; publication funds

take hits for various reasons, from mismanagement to free tuition; and both internal

bureaucracy and external conflict, among them militarization in Mindanao, prevent

publications from delivering.

After the Securities and Exchanges Commission revoked Rappler’s license in

January 2018, some student journalists joined advocates and media professionals in what

was dubbed the #BlackFridayForPressFreedom.

In a statement, the College Editors Guild of the Philippines called on their peers to

unite and combat state-perpetuated violence and all forms of repression that target press

freedom and the people’s democratic rights.

 On the ground, many students have yet to feel this empowerment, and more

protection under the law.

2.13 Why campus journalists should go beyond classrooms?

In the course of Philippine history, several campus publications stayed true to this

role of shaping public opinion. They’ve gone beyond the four (4) walls of the classroom

and tackled the same issues hounding the country.

One can no longer belittle the role of the campus press in the bigger fight to

preserve democracy in the Philippines.

University of the Philippines journalism professor Danilo Arao said that, like

mainstream media, campus publications also help shape public opinion by providing

relevant information. Aside from keeping the student body up to date with relevant issues,

the campus press plays a huge role in preserving freedom of speech and expression.

This was most evident especially during Martial Law.

While there is no difference when it comes to standards they follow as campus

publications follow the same normative standards in journalism, there are people who

argue that campus publications should only cover school events.

According to Arao, student-run publications should not be hindered from covering

beyond the campus because there should be no distinction between national and

local/school issues because they are inter-related. In discussing local/school issues,

campus publications should relate them to what is happening community-wide or

nationwide.
 2.13.1 Beginnings

Student publications have been around since the Philippines was placed under

colonial rule – both during the Spanish and American periods. To understand the role of

campus publications, one needs to be reminded of the oppressive systems Filipinos were

subjected to.

The reality brought about by abusive leaderships led to students harnessing the

power of the pen. Their move was similar to the actions taken by the likes of Marcelo del

Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Jose Rizal, and other members of the Propaganda

movement.

Meanwhile, before World War II, Arao explained that student publications also

struggled to expose the ills of American occupation in the Philippines.

It was also during this period in 1931 when the College Editors Guild of the

Philippines (CEGP) was established. Its founder was Ernesto Rodriguez Jr. of the

National University’s The National, while Wenceslao Vinzons of the University of the

Philippines Diliman’s Philippine Collegian became The Guild’s first president.

Aside from NU and UP, CEGP’s co-founders also included University of Santo

Tomas, The Varsitarian (founded in 1928), and Ateneo de Manila University’s The Guidon

(founded in 1929).

Initially starting out as “apolitical”, Arao said that CEGP eventually took on social

causes a year later in 1932 when it opposed the salary increase of lawmakers then.
 The guild eventually took on other issues such as the economic crises, corruption,

and human rights violations. It also acknowledged the creation of the Kabataang

Makabayan (KM) in 1964 in its transformation from a traditional institution to a militant

and democratic organization.

2.13.2 Under Martial Law

Student publications and journalists also became victims of the oppressive

government of then president Ferdinand Marcos. They were among those subjected to

state censorship following the release of Letter of Instruction No. 1 which ordered the

“takeover and control” of all newspapers, magazines, and radio and television facilities.

In fact, the first female and student activist to die in detention during Martial Law

was a campus journalist. Liliosa Hilao, who led Hasik of Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng

Maynila, was arrested, tortured, and eventually killed in 1973.

Among those she penned were critical essays such as the "The Vietnamization of

the Philippines" and "Democracy is Dead in the Philippines under Martial Law."

Meanwhile, Abraham “Ditto” Sarmiento who, as editor-in-chief of the Philippine

Collegian, led the early opposition among students against Martial Law. He was arrested

in 1976 over an editorial he wrote which questioned the future of a Marcos dictatorship.

In 1977, he died after his health deteriorated while he was incarcerated.

CEGP, on the other hand, was declared “illegal” during the first years of Martial

Law like many progressive groups. In the early 1970s, several campus publications were

“revived” but subjected to extreme state surveillance.

 Yet this occasion paved the way for the campus press to become part of alternative

media, according to Arao. In fact, several student journalists took part in the struggle

against oppressive military rule. They were among those arrested over the pieces they

wrote for their campus papers.

Analyzing the history, student publications have functioned as ‘alternative media’

especially during the period of Martial Law. The Martial Law period prompted student

publications such as the Philippine Collegian and The Dawn of the University of the East

to rise to the occasion.

After the toppling of the dictatorship in 1987, campus publications remained

steadfast in their coverage of various issues such as labor movements, the presence of

US bases in the country, and poverty, among others.

As news editor of the Philippine Collegian during the late 1980s up to the early

1990s, Arao noticed that there was a demand for the publication even outside the

campus.

2.13.3 The challenge now

The number of campus publications in the Philippines now has exceeded one

thousand (1,000). In fact, CEGP alone counts seven hundred fifty (750)

member-publications. The guild is considered the "oldest and broadest intercollegiate

alliance of student publications in the Asia-Pacific."

Arao claimed that many student publications since then have continued the

tradition and the role of analyzing pressing social issues.

 For example, members of CEGP, various school publications, and student

journalism groups recently condemned recent actions of the government against the

press, adding that press freedom is a pillar of democracy. They had previously also

condemned human rights violations and other threats to democracy.

There are, however, still existing student publications that still fall short in tackling

issues outside the campus. There are various reasons for this, including the “pressure”

from school administrations thus undermining editorial independence.

It doesn’t help that the Campus Journalism Act (CJA), though a law crafted to

protect campus journalists is flawed because it compromises press freedom via funding

and material provisions on editorial independence.

The challenge now, according to Arao, is for student journalists to be properly

trained not only on skills but also on the concept of journalism and its role in society and

nation-building.

2.14 What a Campus Press Should Be Like

According to Corrigan and Proffitt (2011), in their journal made in the

United States of America entitled “Campus Press, Inc.: A Critical Analysis of the

Corporatization Of Collegiate Media”, a campus press is a publication of a school entity

funded by the institution or school fees, but retaining its own editorial control and

independence from the school administration. They can only provide some forms of help

like advice, technical help, or financial assistance, but the school cannot restrain and is
not liable over the content of the school publication. They do not have the power to

manipulate content, staffing, and other duties of the school press. (p. 5)

Editorial freedom from administration censorship has been supported by many

courts and has ensured that any kind of support, like financial and technical support,

among others, cannot be used as a means of control. The most common way of

manipulation is by cutting-off funds, and it is stated that this is illegal; as the support for

the campus press and the campus press itself is mandatory and its content, staffing, and

theme must not be “what is well-liked by the administrators.”(p. 7)

By definition and purpose, the content and members of a school press must be

free from constraint of the school administration, but it is not always the case; most school

administrations attempt to censor and “diminish the autonomy, resources, and democratic

potential of subsidiary publications.” Some student publications still have to endure the

restrictions that they shouldn’t be experiencing. (p. 2)

James (1970) in his journal made in United States of America entitled

“Propaganda or Education? Censorship and School Journalism”, as cited by Lang

(2010), concluded and proved ways on how to enforce “Responsible Journalism” in high

school campus journalists, as its main goals are honesty and freedom of speech. These

guidelines are also based on J. Edward Murray, one of Arizona’s most respected

newspapermen. These are also referred as the “specific and practical suggestions for

catered for operating high school newspapers.”

One of the points made by James (1970) is that newspapers must be a “fair

newspaper”, one that gives factual, balanced, and objective presentation. It should not be
a tool used by the publisher, the school, to express their interests and sides in certain

issues. It must serve as the voice of the students, and not for the administrators.

Serious issues and topics in the campus (e.g., drugs, contraceptives, and

homosexuality) must also be in the school newspaper. James (1970) emphasized that

sensitive subjects like these are not too sensitive and delicate for students if these are

handled carefully. He emphasized that students who are on the receiving end of the

newspaper will most definitely benefit from this information catered for their age group.

With this in mind, campus journalists must be taught good reporting and writing

techniques. Students must undergo trainings, press conferences, as well as interviews

with school officials, faculty members, and even school leaders. In short, perspective and

background in stories must be present so that accuracy, integrity, and responsibility are

ensued.

Student journalists must be taught what freedom of the press means, and what the

laws for freedom of expression and journalism are. They must know where they stand in

the field they have chosen to take. They must also be taught that the misuse of freedom

by spreading “libelous content in the name of advocacy” will cause “passion without

direction”, as stated by James (1970).

All in all, the aforementioned guidelines emphasize that campus journalism’s

interest and focus must be for students and students only, not for any other organizations

and administrations. The administrators can only support the press, but only just that.

Censoring them and restricting their freedom to express objective content in any way with

the use of cutting-down different types of support must be stopped. With this, students
must know their rights and they must have the capability to write and report all factual

content relevant to students who are in the receiving end. These are the real duties of the

journalists, the vanguards of truth and justice.

Summary of Related Literature

Campus journalism plays an important role in the academe. It is vital in shaping

the future of our country and help building the nation. It is a platform that trains students

to be responsible members of the society. Thus, they should be continually trained to

produce a paper that is fair, balanced, and investigative. Further, it serves as the voice of

the students to speak out their concerns to the school administration. But how can we

produce proactive and responsible citizens by threatening the campus journalists not to

issue any article that opposes the school administration? In fact, they are just doing their

duties and responsibilities to deliver truthful and authentic news which is a right of the

public to know.

Following the footsteps of our national hero, Jose Rizal, the youth learned to use

the power of pen. Without informing the public of what is happening inside the country,

transparency is deteriorated. Integrity has lost its way to help students of young minds

and other audience be educated and help make informed decisions. Unity cannot be

achieved.

Press freedom has been a struggle since time immemorial. Despite of being a

democratic country, campus journalists and professional journalists were suppressed

with their independence to present news and information that may threaten the
administration. That is why before anything else happens, the administration will threaten

the journalists at first.

Censorship has been a major hindrance that campus journalists’ experiences.

Despite of having the Campus Journalism Act of 1991, also known as Republic Act 7079,

the perpetrators were not afraid to put any journalist at risk by doing their job.

History has shown us that journalists, whether a student or professional, remained

steadfast in facing the challenges. Some of them were killed, abducted, and arrested.

They were also tagged as terrorists and NPAs just because they published news that is

opposing to the nation’s administration.

We will never forget what happened during the Ampatuan Massacre and Martial

Law Period wherein hundreds of journalists were exposed to violence and their human

rights were violated. We have championed odds, but this is not our goal. We fight to be

free. We fight for the essence of democracy. We fight for the people’s rights. We fight for

betterment. We fight because there is something to be fought for. At the end of the day,

truth will always prevail. In fact, without letting the people know what is right and just,

without opposing if something is wrong, we cannot achieve progress. To be a journalist,

one must have a strong heart and prepared mind to dedicate itself to the public.
 Framework

Predictor Variables Criterion Variables

Campus Journalism Related Factors Journalistic Merits

 Self-censorship  Relevance of issues and
 Writer’s journalistic freedom volume of relevant articles
 Extent of implementation of  Periodicity of production
Republic Act 7079 or  Recognitions
otherwise known as the
Campus Journalism Act of
1991

School

Moderating Variable

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

The conceptual framework of the study shows that there are three variables used.

Predictor variable is a variable used in regression to predict another variable. It is

sometimes referred to as an independent variable if it is manipulated rather than just

measured. In the study, the predictor variables used are self-censorship, writer’s

journalistic freedom, and the extent of implementation of Republic Act 7079 or otherwise

known as Campus Journalism Act of 1991. Criterion variable is the variable being

predicted. In general, the criterion variable is the dependent variable. In the study, the

criterion variables used are the relevance of issues and volume of relevant articles,

periodicity of production, and recognitions. Moderating variable refers to a variable that

can strengthen, diminish, negate, or otherwise alter the association between independent
and dependent variables. Moderating variables can also change the direction of this

relationship. School is the moderating variable used in the study.

Statement of the Hypothesis

I. Journalistic Merits of School Publications

1. The relevance of issues and volume of relevant article as expected by the

researchers are as follows:

H1: In the relevance of issues and volume of relevant articles of the

selected secondary public-school publications in North Caloocan

City, the description is based on the topics they tackled and the

average number of relevant articles it contained.

H1a: In the relevance of issues and volume of relevant articles of the

selected secondary public-school publications in North Caloocan City, the

description was very low based on the topics they tackled and the average

number of relevant articles it contained.

H1b: In the relevance of issues and volume of relevant articles of the

selected secondary public-school publications in North Caloocan City, the

description was low based on the topics they tackled and the average

number of relevant articles it contained.

H1c: In the relevance of issues and volume of relevant articles of the

selected secondary public-school publications in North Caloocan City, the

description was moderate based on the topics they tackled and the average

number of relevant articles it contained.

 H1d: In the relevance of issues and volume of relevant articles of the

selected secondary public-school publications in North Caloocan City, the

description was high based on the topics they tackled and the average

number of relevant articles it contained.

H1e: In the relevance of issues and volume of relevant articles of the

selected secondary public-school publications in North Caloocan City, the

description was very high based on the topics they tackled and the average

number of relevant articles it contained.

2. The periodicity of production as expected by the researchers are as follows:

H2: In one school year, the selected secondary public-school

publications in North Caloocan City can issue school newspaper/s

consistently.

H2a: In one school year, the selected secondary public-school publications

in North Caloocan City can issue zero (0) school newspaper.

H2b: In one school year, the selected secondary public-school publications

in North Caloocan City can issue zero (0) to one (1) school newspaper

consistently.

H2c: In one school year, the selected secondary public-school publications

in North Caloocan City can issue one (1) school newspaper consistently.
 H2d: In one school year, the selected secondary public-school publications

in North Caloocan City can issue one (1) to two (2) school newspaper

consistently.

H2e: In one school year, the selected secondary public-school publications

in North Caloocan City can issue two (2) school newspaper consistently.

3. The journalistic merits of student publications as expected by the researcher

are as follows:

H3: In a year, the average number of citations/awards received by the

student publication or its staff is based on their appearance in schools

press conference.

H3a: In a year, the average number of citations/awards received by the

student publication or its staff is zero (0) based on their recognition in

schools press conference.

H3b: In a year, the average number of citations/awards received by the

student publication or its staff is one (1) based on their recognition in

schools press conference.

H3c: In a year, the average number of citations/awards received by the

student publication or its staff is two (2) based on their recognition in schools

press conference.
 H3d: In a year, the average number of citations/awards received by the

student publication or its staff is three (3) based on their recognition in

schools press conference.

H3e: In a year, the average number of citations/awards received by the

student publication or its staff is four (4) or more based on their recognition

in schools press conference.

II. Campus Journalism Related Factors

4. In writer’s self-censorship, the following are expected by the researchers:

H4: At the individual level, writer’s self-censorship in the selected

secondary public-schools in North Caloocan City is distinguished

based on the factors that influenced him/her.

H4a: At the individual level, writer’s self-censorship in the selected

secondary public-schools in North Caloocan City is distinguished as very

low based on the factors that influenced him/her.

H4b: At the individual level, writer’s self-censorship in the selected

secondary public-schools in North Caloocan City is distinguished as low

based on the factors that influenced him/her.

H4c: At the individual level, writer’s self-censorship in the selected

secondary public-schools in North Caloocan City is distinguished as

moderate based on the factors that influenced him/her.

 H4d: At the individual level, writer’s self-censorship in the selected

secondary public-schools in North Caloocan City is distinguished as high

based on the factors that influenced him/her.

H4e: At the individual level, writer’s self-censorship in the selected

secondary public-schools in North Caloocan City is distinguished as very

high based on the factors that influenced him/her.

5. In writer’s journalistic freedom and extent of implementation of R.A. 7079, the

following are expected by the researchers:

H5: The writer’s journalistic freedom and extent of implementation has a

description based on the facts reported.

H5a: The writer’s journalistic freedom and extent of implementation has a

description of “not implemented” based on the facts reported.

H5b: The writer’s journalistic freedom and extent of implementation has a

description of “limited implementation” based on the facts reported.

H5c: The writer’s journalistic freedom and extent of implementation has a

description of “fairly implemented” based on the facts reported.

H5d: The writer’s journalistic freedom and extent of implementation has a

description of “implemented” based on the facts reported.

H5e: The writer’s journalistic freedom and extent of implementation has a

description of “strictly implemented” based on the facts reported.