Pascal Language Reference

SunSoft, Inc.
A Sun Microsystems, Inc. Business
2550 Garcia Avenue
Mountain View, CA 94043 USA
415 960-1300 fax 415 969-9131

Part No.: 802-5762-10

Revision A, December 1996
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Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
1. Lexical Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Character Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Special Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Reserved Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Summary of Data Format Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Default Data Alignments and Padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Data Formats with -calign. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Data Formats with -xl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Data Formats with -calign and -xl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
real Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

iii
 real Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
real Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Integer Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Integer Initialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Integer Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
boolean Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
boolean Initialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
boolean Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Character Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Character Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Character Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Enumerated Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Enumerated Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Subrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Subrange Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

iv Pascal Language Reference

 Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Record Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Record Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Data Representation of Unpacked Records. . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Data Representation of Packed Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Array Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Array Initialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Packed Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Set Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Set Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Packed Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Standard Pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Universal Pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Procedure and Function Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Pointer Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3. Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Standard Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Contents v
 Statements Specific to Pascal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
assert Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
case Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
exit Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
goto Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
next Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
otherwise Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
return Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
with Statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. Assignments and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Data Type Assignments and Compatibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
String Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fixed- and Variable-Length Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Null Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
String Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
The mod Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Bit Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
boolean Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The and then Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
The or else Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Set Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

vi Pascal Language Reference

 Relational Operators on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
The = and <> Operators on Records and Arrays . . . . . . . 73
String Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Precedence of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5. Program Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Label Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Constant Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Type Declaration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Variable Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Define Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Procedure and Function Headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Visibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Parameter List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Type Identifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Functions Returning Structured-Type Results . . . . . . . . . 89
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6. Built-In Procedures and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Standard Procedures and Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Routines Specific to Pascal (Summary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Routines Specific to Pascal (Details) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
argc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Contents vii
 argv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
arshft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
asl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
asr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
clock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
close. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
concat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
discard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
expo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
filesize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
firstof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
flush. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
getenv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
getfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
halt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
in_range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
lastof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
linelimit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
lnot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

viii Pascal Language Reference

 lor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
lshft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
lsl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
lsr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
null . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
pcexit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
random . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
read and readln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
remove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
reset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
rewrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
rshft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
seek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
sizeof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
stlimit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
stradd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
substr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
sysclock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
tell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Contents ix
 time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
trace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Type Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
wallclock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
write and writeln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
xor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7. Input and Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Input and Output Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
eof and eoln Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
More About eoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
External Files and Pascal File Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Permanent Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Temporary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
input, output, and errout Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Properties of input, output, and errout Variables. . . 211
Associating input with a File Other Than stdin . . . . . 212
Associating output with a File Other Than stdout . . . 212
Associating errout with a File Other Than stderr . . . 212
Pascal I/O Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Buffering of File Output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
I/O Error Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
A. Overview of Pascal Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Lexical Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

x Pascal Language Reference

 Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Assignments and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Headings and Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Procedures and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Built-In Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Input and Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Program Compilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
B. Pascal and DOMAIN Pascal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
The –xl Option. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
DOMAIN Pascal Features Accepted but Ignored . . . . . . . . . . 228
DOMAIN Pascal Features Not Supported. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
C. Implementation Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Nested Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Default Field Widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Contents xi
 D. Pascal Validation Summary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Test Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Manufacturer’s Statement of Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Implementation-Defined Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Reporting of Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Implementation-Dependent Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

xii Pascal Language Reference

Figures
Figure 2-1 32-Bit Floating-Point Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 2-2 64-Bit Floating-Point Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 2-3 16-Bit Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Figure 2-4 32-Bit Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Figure 2-5 true boolean Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Figure 2-6 false boolean Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Figure 2-7 16-Bit Enumerated Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Figure 2-8 Sample Enumerated Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Figure 2-9 16-Bit Subrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Figure 2-10 32-Bit Subrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Figure 2-11 Sample Packed Record (Without -xl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Figure 2-12 Small Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Figure 2-13 Large Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Figure 2-14 Pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

xiii
xiv Pascal Language Reference
Tables
Table 1-1 Nonstandard Special Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Table 1-2 Standard Reserved Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Table 1-3 Nonstandard Reserved Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Table 1-4 Predeclared Standard Identifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Table 1-5 Predeclared Nonstandard Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Table 2-1 real Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Table 2-2 Representation of Extreme Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 2-3 Hexadecimal Representation of Selected Numbers . . . . . . . . . 16

Table 2-4 Integer Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Table 2-5 Values for maxint and minint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Table 2-6 Nonstandard Predeclared Character Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Table 2-7 Subrange Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Table 2-8 Packed Record Storage Without –xl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Table 2-9 Packed Record Storage with –xl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table 2-10 Packed Record Storage with -calign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table 2-11 Sample Sizes and Alignment of Packed Record . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

xv
 Table 2-12 Array Data Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Table 2-13 Data Representation of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Table 3-1 Nonstandard Pascal Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Table 4-1 Data Type Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Table 4-2 Fixed- and Variable-Length String Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Table 4-3 Null String Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Table 4-4 Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Table 4-5 Bit Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Table 4-6 boolean Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Table 4-7 Set Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Table 4-8 Relational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Table 4-9 Precedence of Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Table 6-1 Standard Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Table 6-2 Standard Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Table 6-3 Nonstandard Arithmetic Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Table 6-4 Nonstandard Bit Shift Routines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Table 6-5 Nonstandard Character String Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Table 6-6 Nonstandard Input and Output Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Table 6-7 Extensions to Standard Input and Output Routines . . . . . . . . 98

Table 6-8 Miscellaneous Nonstandard Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Table 6-9 firstof Return Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Table 6-10 land Truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Table 6-11 lastof Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Table 6-12 lnot Truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Table 6-13 lor Truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

xvi Pascal Language Reference

Table 6-14 open Error Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Table 6-15 Default Field Widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Table 6-16 xor Truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Table 7-1 Extensions to Input/Output Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Table 7-2 Pascal File Variable with a Permanent File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Table 7-3 Pascal File Variable with a Temporary File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Table A-1 Nonstandard Identifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Table B-1 Differences Between Programs Compiled with and without –xl 227

Table C-1 Values for single and double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Table C-2 maxint and minint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Table C-3 Internal Representation of Data Types without –xl . . . . . . . . . . 234

Table C-4 Internal Representation of Data Types with -xl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Table C-5 Default Field Widths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Tables xvii
xviii Pascal Language Reference
Preface

The Sun Workshop Compiler Pascal 4.2 is an implementation of the Pascal

language that includes all the standard language elements and many
extensions. These extensions allow greater flexibility in programs include:
• Separate compilation of programs and modules
• dbx (symbolic debugger) support, including fix-and-continue functionality
• Optimizer support
• Multiple label, const, type, and var declarations
• Variable-length character strings
• Compile-time initializations
• static and extern declarations
• Additional sizes of integer and real data types
• Integers in any base from 2 to 16
• Extended input/output facilities
• Extended library of built-in functions and procedures
• Universal and function and procedure pointer types
• Specification of the direction of parameter passing as one of the following:
° Into a routine
° Out of a routine
° Both into and out of a routine

xix
 In addition, Pascal 4.2 contains a compiler switch, -xl, to provide
compatibility with Apollo® DOMAIN® Pascal to ease the task of porting your
Apollo Pascal applications to workstations.

Note – All references to Pascal in this manual refer to the Sun Workshop
Compiler Pascal 4.2 unless otherwise indicated.

Audience
This manual provides reference material for the Pascal 4.2 compiler. To use this
manual, you should be familiar with ISO standard Pascal and with Solaris
commands and concepts.

Operating Environment
The Sun Workshop Compiler Pascal 4.2 runs on Solaris™ 2.x systems.

For other release-specific information, see the README file.

Installation
Instructions for installing Pascal and other software on your SPARCstation are
given in the Sun WorkShop Installation and Licensing Guide, which includes
information on installing the online documentation.

How This Manual Is Organized

This manual is a reference manual for Pascal extensions to Standard Pascal.
Chapters 1 through 7 describe extensions to the elements of a Pascal program:
• Chapter 1, “Lexical Elements”
• Chapter 2, “Data Types”
• Chapter 3, “Statements”
• Chapter 4, “Assignments and Operators”
• Chapter 5, “Program Declarations”
• Chapter 6, “Built-In Procedures and Functions”

xx Pascal Language Reference

• Chapter 7, “Input and Output”

As each extension is presented, a complete example is provided to illustrate

that extension.

This manual also has four appendixes:

• Appendix A, “Overview of Pascal Extensions,” summarizes the Pascal
extensions to standard Pascal, and serves as a quick reference guide to the
differences between Pascal and standard Pascal.
• Appendix B, “Pascal and DOMAIN Pascal,” lists the differences between
Pascal and Apollo DOMAIN Pascal.
• Appendix C, “Implementation Restrictions,” describes Pascal features that
are implementation-defined.
• Appendix D, “Pascal Validation Summary Report,” summarizes the
features, errors, and extensions in the manufacturer’s statement of
compliance for the validation of the Pascal Version 4.2 compiler.

A glossary and an index are included at the end of the manual.

Preface xxi
Conventions Used in This Manual
This manual contains syntax diagrams of the Pascal language in extended
Backus-Naur Formalism (BNF) notation. It uses the following meta symbols:

Table P-1 BNF Meta Symbols

Meta Symbol Description

::= Defined as
| Can be used as an alternative
(a | b) Either a or b
[a] Zero or one instance of a
{a} Zero or more instances of a
'abc' The characters abc

The following table describes the type styles and symbols used in this manual:

Table P-2 Typographic Conventions

Typeface or
Symbol Meaning Example
AaBbCc123 The names of commands, files, and Edit your .login file.
directories; on-screen computer Use ls -a to list all files.
output hostname% You have mail.

AaBbCc123 What you type, contrasted with on- hostname% su

screen computer output Password:
AaBbCc123 Command-line placeholder: To delete a file, type rm filename.
replace with a real name or value
AaBbCc123 Book titles, new words or terms, or Read the User’s Guide.
words to be emphasized These are called class options.
You must be root to do this.

xxii Pascal Language Reference

Shell Prompts in Command Examples
The following table shows the default system prompt and superuser prompt
for the C shell, Bourne shell, and Korn shell.

Table P-3 Shell Prompts

Shell Prompt
C shell prompt machine_name%
C shell superuser prompt machine_name#
Bourne shell and Korn shell prompt $
Bourne shell and Korn shell superuser prompt #

Related Documentation
This manual is designed to accompany the following documents:
• The Pascal User’s Guide, which describes how to use the Pascal 4.2 compiler
• The Pascal Quick Reference Card, which summarizes the compiler options

Both this manual and the Pascal User’s Guide are available in the AnswerBook®
system, an online documentation viewing tool that takes advantage of
dynamically linked headings and cross-references. The Sun WorkShop
Installation and Licensing Guide shows you how to install AnswerBook.

Manual Page
Pascal 4.2 provides an online manual page (also known as a man page), on
pc(1), that describes the Pascal compiler. This document is included in the
Pascal package and must be installed with the rest of the software.

After you install the documentation, you can read about pc by entering the
man command followed by the command name, as in:
hostname% man pc

README Files
The README default directory is: /opt/SUNWspro/READMEs

Preface xxiii
 This directory contains the following files:
• A Pascal 4.2 README, called pascal, which describes the new features,
software incompatibilities, and software bugs of Pascal 4.2.
• A floating-point white paper, “What Every Scientist Should Know About
Floating-Point Arithmetic,” by David Goldberg, in PostScript™ format. The
file is called floating-point.ps, and can be printed on any PostScript-
compatible printer that has Palatino font. It can be viewed online by using
the imagetool command:
hostname% imagetool floating-point.ps

This paper is also available in the AnswerBook system.

Other Related Documentation

Other reference material includes:

Incremental Link Editor (ild)

Numerical Computation Guide
Performance Profiling Tools

Documents in Hard Copy and in AnswerBook

The following table shows what documents are online, in hard copy, or both:

Table P-4 Documents in Hard Copy and in AnswerBook

Title Hard Copy Online

Pascal User’s Guide X X (AnswerBook)
Pascal Language Reference X X (AnswerBook)
Pascal Quick Reference Card X
Incremental Link Editor (ild) X X (AnswerBook)
Numerical Computation Guide X X (AnswerBook)
Performance Profiling Tools X X (AnswerBook)
pascal [README file] X (CD-ROM)
What Every Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic X (AnswerBook and CD-ROM)

xxiv Pascal Language Reference

 Lexical Elements 1

This chapter describes the symbols and words of a Pascal program. It contains
the following sections:

Character Set page 1

Special Symbols page 2
Reserved Words page 3
Identifiers page 4
Comments page 6

Character Set
Pascal uses the standard seven-bit ASCII character set, and the compiler
distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase characters. For example, the
following seven words are distinct from the predefined type integer:

Integer INTEGer
INteger INTEGEr
INTeger INTEGER
INTEger

If you change the case of characters used in a word, the compiler does not
recognize the word and gives an error.

1
 1
The Pascal keywords and built-in procedure and function names are all in
lowercase.

To map all keywords and identifiers to lowercase when you compile your
program, use the following pc options:

–L Maps all uppercase letters in keywords and identifiers to lowercase.

–s Performs the same action as –L and also produces warning diagnostics
for nonstandard constructs and extensions.

See the Pascal 4.2 User’s Guide for a complete description of pc and its options.

Special Symbols
Pascal recognizes the following standard Pascal symbols and the nonstandard
special symbols listed in Table 1-1.

+ - * / = < > [ ] . , :=
: ; ( ) <> <= >= .. ^

Table 1-1 Nonstandard Special Symbols

Symbol Description Example

~ Bitwise not operator ~4
& Bitwise and operator 4&3
| Bitwise or operator 4|3
! Bitwise or operator 4!3
# Specifies an integer value in a base p := 2#10111; { base 2 }
other than base 10. f := 8#76543; { base 8 }
Includes a file in the program. #include "globals.h"
#include "math_p.h"
Indicates a preprocessor command #ifdef DEBUGGING
writeln('Total :',i,sum);
#endif
% Indicates a cppas compiler directive %var one, two
%enable two

2 Pascal Language Reference

 1

Reserved Words
Pascal reserves the standard words in Table 1-2. You cannot redefine a
reserved word to represent another item.

Table 1-2 Standard Reserved Words

Pascal Standard Reserved Words

and file mod repeat
array for nil set
begin forward not then
case function of to
const goto or type
div if packed until
do in procedure var
downto label program while
else main record with

Pascal also reserves the nonstandard words in Table 1-3. These words are not
treated as reserved words when you compile your program with any of the –s,
–s0, –s1, –V0 or –V1 options.

Lexical Elements 3
 1

Table 1-3 Nonstandard Reserved Words

Pascal Nonstandard Reserved Words

define private
extern public
external static
module univ
otherwise

Identifiers
In Pascal, you can include a dollar sign ($) and underscore (_) in an identifier
name. The $ and _ can occur in any position of the identifier name. However,
you should avoid using these characters in the first position because they may
conflict with system names.

Pascal predeclares the standard identifiers in Table 1-4 and the nonstandard
identifiers in Table 1-5.

Table 1-4 Predeclared Standard Identifiers

Pascal Predeclared Standard Identifiers

abs false page sin
arctan get pred sqr
boolean input put sqrt
char integer read succ
chr ln readln text
cos maxint real true
dispose new reset trunc
eof odd rewrite write
eoln ord round writeln
exp output

4 Pascal Language Reference

 1

Table 1-5 Predeclared Nonstandard Identifiers

Pascal Predeclared Nonstandard Identifiers

FALSE exit lor seek
TRUE expo lshft shortreal
addr filesize lsl single
alfa firstof lsr sizeof
append flush max stlimit
argc getenv maxchar stradd
argv getfile message string
arshft halt min substr
asl in_range minchar sysclock
asr index minint tab
assert integer16 next tell
bell integer32 null time
card intset open trace
clock land pack trim
close lastof random univ_ptr
concat length remove unpack
date linelimit return varying
discard lnot rshft wallclock
double longreal seed xor

You can redefine a predeclared identifier to represent another item. For

example, you could redefine the predefined identifier next, a statement that
causes the program to skip to the next iteration of the current loop, as a
variable.

Once you redefine an identifier, you cannot use it as originally defined in the
program, as shown in the following example:

Lexical Elements 5
 1

The Pascal program, program predefined_identifier;

pred_iden.p, redefines the
predeclared identifier next as an var
integer variable. i: integer;
next: integer;

begin
for i := 1 to 10 do begin
if i > 5 then begin
next
end
end
end. { predefined_identifier }

This program does not compile hostname% pc pred_iden.p

because next is declared as a Mon Feb 20 15:13:17 1995 pred_iden.p:
variable, but used in its original 10 next
definition as a statement. E 18470-----------------^--- Replaced variable id with a
procedure id
In program predefined_identifier:
E 18250 next improperly used on line 10

Comments
In Pascal, you can specify a comment in either braces, quotation marks, a
parenthesis/asterisk pair, or a slash/asterisk pair:
{ This is a comment. }
(* This is a comment. *)
" This is a comment. "
/* This is a comment. */

The symbols used to delimit a comment must match. For example, a comment
that starts with { must end with }, and a comment that starts with (* must
end with *).

6 Pascal Language Reference

 1
You can nest comments in Pascal, that is, include one type of comment
delimiter inside another:
{ This is a valid (* comment within a comment. *) }
(* This is a valid " comment within a comment. " *)

You cannot nest the same kind of comments. The following comments result in
a compile-time error:
{ This is not a valid { comment within a comment. } }
(* This is not a valid (* comment within a comment. *) *)
" This is not a valid " comment within a comment. " "
/* This is not a valid /* comment within a comment. */ */

Lexical Elements 7
 1

8 Pascal Language Reference

Data Types 2

This chapter describes the Pascal data types. Some data types represent
different values when you compile your program with or without the –xl
option, and with or without the –calign option. The intent of the –xl option
is to guarantee binary data compatibility between the operating system and
Apollo MC680x0-based workstations. The intent of the -calign option is to
improve compatibility with C language data structures.

This chapter contains the following sections:

Summary of Data Format Differences page 10

real page 13
Integer page 16
boolean page 20
Character page 22
Enumerated Types page 23
Subrange page 25
Record page 26
Array page 34
Set page 38
File page 41
Pointer page 41

9
 2

Summary of Data Format Differences

A few data formats, particularly of structured types, change when you use the
Pascal compiler -calign option, when you use the -xl option, and when you
use the -calign with the -xl option. This section describes the data
alignments and sizes that change with these options. See the remainder of the
chapter for information on types that do not change when you use these
options.

All simple data types take their natural alignments. For example, real
numbers, being four-byte values, have four-byte alignment. Naturally, no
padding is needed for simple types.

Default Data Alignments and Padding

Here is a summary of the default data alignments and padding.

Records
The alignment of a record is always four bytes. Elements take their natural
alignment, but the total size of a record is always a multiple of four bytes.

Packed Records
Elements of types enumerated, subrange, integer16, and sets with a cardinal
number less than 32 are bit-aligned in packed records.

Variant Records
The alignment of each variant in a record is the maximum alignment of all
variants.

Arrays
The alignment of a array is equal to the alignment of the elements, and the size
of most arrays is simply the size of each element times the number of elements.
The one exception to this rule is that the arrays of aggregates always have a
size that is a multiple of four bytes.

10 Pascal Language Reference

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Sets
Sets have an alignment of four bytes when they are longer than 16 bits;
otherwise, their alignment is two bytes. The size of a set is always a multiple
of two bytes.

Enumerated Types
The size and alignment of enumerated types can be one byte or two,
depending on the number of elements defined for the type.

Subranges
The size and alignment of subrange types varies from one to four bytes,
depending on the number of bits requires for its minimum and maximum
values. See Table 2-7 on page 26 for examples.

Data Formats with -calign

With the -calign option, the data formats are:

Records
The alignment of a record is equal to the alignment of the largest element.

Packed Records
Packed records are the same as the default, except integer elements are not bit-
aligned.

Arrays
The size of all arrays is the size of each element times the number of elements.

Sets
Sets have an alignment of two bytes. The size is the same as the default.

Data Types 11
 2

Data Formats with -xl

In addition to the structured types discussed below, two simple data types
change their sizes with the -xl option:
• Type real is eight bytes by default; with -xl, it is four bytes.
• Type integer is four bytes by default; with -xl, it is two bytes.

Packed Records
Values of type real have four-byte sizes and alignment. Values of type
integer have a size of two bytes and are bit-aligned.

Enumerated Types
The size and alignment of enumerated types is always two bytes.

Subranges
The size and alignment of subrange types varies from two to four bytes,
depending on the number of bits requires for its minimum and maximum
values. See Table 2-7 for examples.

Data Formats with -calign and -xl

When you use -xl with -calign, alignments and padding are the same as
with -xl alone, with the following differences:

Arrays
Arrays are the same as with -calign alone, except the size of an array of
booleans is always a multiple of two.

Varying Arrays
Varying arrays have an alignment of four bytes. The size is a multiple of four.

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real
Pascal supports the standard predeclared real data type. As extensions to the
standard, Pascal also supports:
• single, shortreal, double, and longreal data types
• real initialization in the variable declaration
• real constants without a digit after the decimal point

real Variables
The minimum and maximum values of the real data types are shown in
Table 2-1.

Table 2-1 real Data Types

Type Bits Maximum Value Minimum Value

real (with –xl option) 32 3.402823e+38 1.401298e-45
real (without –xl option) 64 1.79769313486231470e+308 4.94065645841246544e-324
single 32 3.402823e+38 1.401298e-45
shortreal 32 3.402823e+38 1.401298e-45
double 64 1.79769313486231470e+308 4.94065645841246544e-324
longreal 64 1.79769313486231470e+308 4.94065645841246544e-324

This example declares five real variables:

var x: real;
y: shortreal;
z: longreal;
weight: single;
volume: double;

real Initialization
To initialize a real variable when you declare it in the var declaration of your
program, create an assignment statement as follows:

Data Types 13
 2

This example initializes the var

variable ph to 4.5 and y to ph: single := 4.5;
2.71828182845905e+00. y: longreal := 2.71828182845905e+00;

You can also initialize real variables in the var declaration of a procedure or
function; however, when you do so, you must also declare the variable as
static:

This example initializes the procedure foo (in x : single;

variable sum to 5.0, which out y: single);
has been declared as
static single. var
sum: static single := 5.0;

The example in the following section defines six valid real constants, two of
which do not have a digit after the decimal point.

real Constants
Here is an example that of a real constant:

const
n = 42.57;
n2 = 4E12;
n3 = 567.;
n4 = 83.;
n5 = cos(567.)/2;
n6 = succ(sqrt(5+4));

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Data Representation
Pascal represents real, single, shortreal, double, and longreal data
types according to the IEEE standard, A Standard for Binary Floating-Point
Arithmetic. Figure 2-1 shows the representation of a 32-bit floating point
number; Figure 2-2 shows the representation of a 64-bit floating point number.
Figure 2-1 32-Bit Floating-Point Number

Exponent + 127 Mantissa

S

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-2 64-Bit Floating-Point Number

63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32
Exponent + 1023 Mantissa
S

Mantissa (continued)

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

A real number is represented by this form:

(-1)sign * 2 exponent-bias *1.f

f is the bits in the fraction. Extreme exponents are represented as shown in

Table 2-2.

Table 2-2 Representation of Extreme Exponents

Exponent Description
zero (signed) Represented by an exponent of zero and a fraction of zero.
sign 1-bias
Subnormal number Represented by (-1) *2 *0.f, where f is the bits in the
significand.
Not a Number (NaN) Represented by the largest value that the exponent an assume
(all ones), and a nonzero fraction.

Normalized real numbers have an implicit leading bit that provides one more
bit of precision than usual.

Data Types 15
 2
Table 2-3 shows the hexadecimal representation of several numbers.

Table 2-3 Hexadecimal Representation of Selected Numbers

Value 32-bit Floating-Point Number 64-bit Floating-Point Number

+0 00000000 0000000000000000
-0 80000000 8000000000000000
+1.0 3F800000 3FF0000000000000
-1.0 BF800000 BFF0000000000000
+2.0 40000000 4000000000000000
+3.0 40400000 4008000000000000
+Infinity 7F800000 7FF0000000000000
-Infinity FF800000 FFF0000000000000
NaN 7Fxxxxxx 7FFxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Integer
Pascal supports the standard predeclared integer data type. As extensions to
the standard, Pascal also supports the integer16 and integer32 data types,
integer initialization in the variable declaration, and integer constants in a base
other than base 10.

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Integer Variables
Table 2-4 lists the minimum and maximum values of the integer data types.

Table 2-4 Integer Data Types

Type Number of Bits Maximum Value Minimum Value

integer (without 32 2,147,483,647 -2,147,483,648
–xl option)
integer (with 16 32,767 -32,768
–xl option)
integer16 16 32,767 -32,768
integer32 32 2,147,483,647 -2,147,483,648

This example declares three integer variables:

var
i: integer;
score: integer16;
number: integer32;

To define an unsigned integer in Pascal, use a subrange declaration. The

subrange syntax indicates the lower and upper limits of the data type, as
follows:

This code limits the legal values type

for the variable unsigned_int unsigned_int = 0..65536;
to 0 through 65536. var
u: unsigned_int;

Data Types 17
 2

Integer Initialization
To initialize integer variables when you declare them in the var declaration
part of your program, put an assignment statement in the declaration, as
follows:

This example initializes the var a, b: integer32 := 50;

variables a and b to 50 and c to c: integer16 := 10000;
10000.

You can also initialize integer variables in the var declaration of a procedure
or function; however, when you do so, you must also declare the variable as
static:

This code initializes the variable procedure show (in x : integer16;

sum to 50, which has been out y: integer16);
declared as static var
integer16. sum: static integer16 := 50;

Integer Constants
You define integer constants in Pascal the same as you do as in standard
Pascal.

Here is an example:

const
x = 10;
y = 15;
n1 = sqr(x);
n2 = trunc((x+y)/2);
n3 = arshft(8, 1);

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maxint and minint

The value Pascal assigns to the integer constants maxint and minint is
shown in Table 2-5.

Table 2-5 Values for maxint and minint

Without -xl With -xl

Constant Bits Value Bits Value
maxint 32 2,147,483,647 16 32,767
minint 32 -2,147,483,648 16 -32,768

In Another Base
To specify an integer constant in another base, use the following format:
base#number

base is an integer from 2 to 36. number is a value in that base. To express

number, use the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and then use the letters a to z.
Case is insignificant; a is equivalent to A.

You can optionally put a positive sign (+) or negative sign (-) before base. The
sign applies to the entire number, not the base.

This code specifies integers in power := 2#10111; (* binary (base 2) *)

binary, octal, and hexadecimal fraction_of_c := -8#76543; (* octal (base 8) *)
notation. percentage := +16#fd9c; (* hexadecimal (base 16) *)

Data Representation
Pascal represents integer, integer16, and integer32 data types in twos
complement format. Figure 2-3 shows the representation of a 16-bit integer.
Similarly, Figure 2-4 shows the representation of a 32-bit integer.

Data Types 19
 2
Figure 2-3 16-Bit Integer

Byte 0 Byte 1

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-4 32-Bit Integer

Byte 0 Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

boolean
Pascal supports the standard predeclared data type boolean. As an extension
to the standard, Pascal permits you to initialize boolean variables in the
variable declaration.

boolean Variables
In Pascal, you declare boolean variables the same as in standard Pascal. Both
of the following are valid boolean variables:

This example declares the var

variables cloudy and sunny as cloudy: boolean;
boolean. sunny: boolean;

boolean Initialization
To initialize a boolean variable when you declare it in the var declaration of
your program, use an assignment statement, as follows:

This example initializes cloudy var

to true and sunny to false. cloudy: boolean := true;
sunny: boolean := false;

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You can also initialize boolean variables in the var declaration of a procedure
or function; however, when you do so, you must also declare the variable as
static:

This code initializes the variable function weather (x: integer): boolean;
rainy to false, which has
been declared as static var
boolean. rainy: static boolean := false;

boolean Constants
You declare boolean constants in Pascal the same as in standard Pascal.
Three valid boolean constants follow:

This example declares the const

constants a as true and b as a = true;
false. It also declares n as the b = false;
value odd(y). y = 15;
n = odd(y);

Data Representation
Pascal allocates one byte for each boolean variable. Figure 2-5 shows how
Pascal internally represents a true boolean variable; Figure 2-6 shows how
Pascal represents a false boolean variable.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-5 true boolean Variable

Data Types 21
 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-6 false boolean Variable

Character
Pascal supports the standard predeclared data type char. As extensions to the
standard, Pascal supports character initialization in the variable declaration
and four nonstandard character constants.

Character Variables
You declare character variables in Pascal the same as you do in standard
Pascal. Each of the following is a valid character variable:

var
current_character: char;
largest: char;
smallest: char;

Character Initialization
To initialize a character variable when you declare it in the var declaration of
your program, create an assignment statement, as follows:

This example initializes the var

variable pass to A and fail to F. pass: char := 'A';
fail: char := 'F';

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You can also initialize character variables in the var declaration of a procedure
or function; however, when you do so, you must also declare the variable as
static:

This example initializes the procedure grades;

variable grade1 to A, grade2 to var
B, and grade3 to C. All three grade1: static char := 'A';
variables are declared as grade2: static char := 'B';
static char. grade3: static char := 'C';

Character Constants
Pascal extends the standard definition of character constants by predeclaring
the four character constants in Table 2-6.

Table 2-6 Nonstandard Predeclared Character Constants

Constant Description
minchar Equal to char(0)
maxchar Equal to char(255)
bell Equal to char(7) (which makes your terminal beep)
tab Equal to char(9) (which makes a tab character)

Data Representation
Pascal allocates one byte for each character variable.

Enumerated Types
Pascal supports enumerated data types with extensions that allow you to input
enumerated types with the read and readln procedures and output them
with the write and writeln procedures. See the listings on read and write
in Chapter 7, “Input and Output,” for details.

Data Types 23
 2

Enumerated Variables
You declare enumerated data types in Pascal the same as in standard Pascal.

type
continents =(North_America, South_America,
Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia,
Antartica);
gem_cuts = (marquis, emerald, round, pear_shaped);

var
x: gem_cuts;
index: continents;

Data Representation
When you compile your program without the –xl option, Pascal represents
enumerated types as either 8 or 16 bits, depending on the number of elements
defined for that type. With -xl, Pascal represents variables of enumerated
type as 16 bits. Pascal stores enumerated types as integers corresponding to
their ordinal value.

Figure 2-7 shows the representation of a 16-bit enumerated variable.

Byte 0 Byte 1

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-7 16-Bit Enumerated Variable

As an example, suppose you defined a group of colors, as follows:

colors = (red, green, blue, orange);

Pascal represents each value as shown in Figure 2-8.

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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Red Green

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Blue Orange

Figure 2-8 Sample Enumerated Representation

Subrange
Pascal supports a subrange of integer, boolean, character, and enumerated
data types.

The Pascal subrange type is extended to allow constant expressions in both the
lower and upper bound of the subrange. The lower bound expression is
restricted by requiring that the expression not begin with a left parenthesis.

Subrange Variables
See “Integer Variables” on page 17 for an example of a subrange declaration.

Data Representation
The Pascal subrange takes up the number of bits required for its minimum and
maximum values. Table 2-7 shows the space allocation of six subranges.

Data Types 25
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Table 2-7 Subrange Data Representation

Minimum/Maximum Range Without –xl (Bits) With –xl (Bits)

0..127 8 16
-128..127 8 16
0..255 16 16
-32768..32767 16 16
0...65536 32 32
-2,147,483,648..2,147,483,647 32 32

Figure 2-9 shows how Pascal represents a 16-bit subrange. Similarly,

Figure 2-10 shows how Pascal represents a 32-bit subrange.

Byte 0 Byte 1

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-9 16-Bit Subrange

Byte 0 Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-10 32-Bit Subrange

Record
Pascal supports the standard record and packed record data types. As an
extension, Pascal permits you to initialize a record variable when you declare it
in the variable declaration.

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Record Variables
You declare records in Pascal the same as in standard Pascal, as shown in the
following example:

type
MonthType = (Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, May, Jun, Jul,
Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec);
DateType = record
Month : MonthType;
Day : 1..31;
Year : 1900..2000;
end;

Appointment = record
Date : DateType;
Hour : 0..2400;
end;

Record Initialization
To initialize a field in a record when you declare it in the var declaration of
your program, use either of the following two formats:
• Specify the record field name followed by an assignment operator and
initial value.

[a := FALSE ,
b := TRUE ]

• List the initial value without the field name. In this case, Pascal assigns the
initial value to the next field name in the record definition.

[ FALSE ,
TRUE ]

Data Types 27
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You can also initialize record variables in the var declaration of a procedure or
function; however, when you do so, you must also declare the variable as
static.

The Pascal program, program init_rec(output);

init_rec.p. This example
shows a record initialization by { This program initializes a record. }
name, by position, and by name
and position. type
enumerated_type = (red, green, blue, orange, white);
record_type =
record
c: char;
st: set of char;
z: array [1..10] of char;
case colors: enumerated_type of
red: ( b: boolean;
s: single );
green: ( i16: integer16;
d: double )
end;
var
{ Initialization by name. }
rec1: record_type :=
[st := ['a', 'b', 'c'],
c := 'A',
z := 'ARRAY1',
colors := green,
i16 := 32767];

Initializing Record Variables (Screen 1 of 2)

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{ Initialization by position. }
rec2: record_type :=
['X',
['x', 'y', 'z'],
'ARRAY2',
red,
true];
{ Initialization by name and position. }
rec3: record_type :=
[colors := red,
true,
1.16,
st := ['m', 'n', 'o'],
'ARRAY3'];

begin
writeln('char ', rec1.c);
writeln('char array ', rec1.z);
writeln('integer ', rec1.i16);
writeln;
writeln('char ', rec2.c);
writeln('char array ', rec2.z);
writeln('boolean ', rec2.b);
writeln;
writeln('char array ', rec3.z);
writeln('boolean ', rec3.b);
writeln('single ', rec3.s)
end. { record_example }

Initializing Record Variables (Screen 2 of 2)

Data Types 29
 2

The commands to compile and hostname% pc init_rec.p

execute init_rec.p hostname% a.out
char A
char array ARRAY1
integer 32767

char X
char array ARRAY2
boolean true

char array ARRAY3

boolean true
single 1.160000e+00

Data Representation of Unpacked Records

This section describes the data representations of unpacked fixed and variant
records.

Fixed Records
Pascal allocates fields in a fixed record so that they assume the natural
alignment of the field type. The alignment of a record is equal to the alignment
of the largest element. The size of the record is a multiple of the alignment.

Variant Records
The space Pascal allocates for a variant record is the same with or without the
–xl option.

Data Representation of Packed Records

Table 2-8, Table 2-9, and Table 2-10 show how Pascal aligns fields in a packed
record.

Note – In packed records, bit-aligned fields do not cross word boundaries.

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Packed Record Storage Without the -xl Option

Table 2-8 Packed Record Storage Without –xl

Data Type Size Alignment

integer 4 bytes 4 bytes
integer16 2 bytes Bit-aligned
integer32 4 bytes 4 bytes
real 8 bytes 8 bytes
single 4 bytes 4 bytes
shortreal 4 bytes 4 bytes
double 8 bytes 8 bytes
longreal 8 bytes 8 bytes
boolean 1 bit Bit-aligned
char 1 byte 1 byte
enumerated Number of bits required to Bit-aligned
represent the highest ordinal value
subrange of char 1 byte 1 byte
all other subrange Number of bits required to Bit-aligned
represent the highest ordinal value
set of cardinality <= 32 One bit per element Bit-aligned
set of cardinality > 32 Same as if unpacked 4 bytes
array Requires the same space required Same as element type
by the base type of the array

Data Types 31
 2

Packed Record Storage with the -xl Option

Table 2-9 Packed Record Storage with –xl

Data Type Size Alignment

real 4 bytes 4 bytes
integer 2 bytes Bit-aligned

Packed Record Storage with the -calign Option

Table 2-10 Packed Record Storage with -calign

Data Type Size Alignment

integer16 2 bytes 2 bytes

The following example declares a packed record. Table 2-11 shows the
alignment and sizes of the fields of the record. Figure 2-11 shows the
representation of this record.

type
small = 0..128;
medium = 0..255;
large = 0..65535;
colors = (green, blue, orange, white, black, magenta, gray);
sets = (autumn, summer, winter, fall);
vrec1 = packed record
a: integer16;
b: boolean;
e: colors;
sm: small;
med: medium;
lg: large;
se: sets;
x: integer32;
end;

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Table 2-11 Sample Sizes and Alignment of Packed Record

Field Size (Bits) Alignment

a 16 16 bit-aligned
b 1 Bit-aligned
e 3 Bit-aligned
sm 8 Bit-aligned
med 16 Bit-aligned
lg (without -xl) 32 32 bit-aligned
lg (with -xl) 16 16 bit-aligned
se 4 Bit-aligned
x 32 32 bit-aligned

b e sm med

med

lg

lg se

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-11 Sample Packed Record (Without -xl)

Data Types 33
 2

Array
Pascal supports the standard array data type. As extensions to the standard,
Pascal supplies the predeclared character array types alfa, string, and
varying and permits you to initialize an array variable when you declare it in
the variable declaration.

Array Variables
In addition to the standard array data types, this compiler supports the three
data types in Table 2-12, which include a variable-length string.

Table 2-12 Array Data Types

Type Description
alfa An array of char 10 characters long.
string An array of char 80 characters long.
varying A string of variable length. You declare a varying string as follows:
varying[upper_bound] of char; upper_bound is an integer
between 0 and 65,535

You can assign a variable-length string a string of any length, up to the

maximum length you specify in the declaration. Pascal ignores any characters
you specify over the maximum. It does not pad the unassigned elements with
spaces if you specify a string under the maximum. When you output a
variable-length string with write or writeln, the procedure writes only the
characters included in the string’s current length.

You also can assign a variable-length string to a fixed-length string. If the

variable-length string is shorter than the fixed-length string, the fixed-length
string is padded with blanks. If the variable-length string is longer than the
fixed-length string, the string is truncated.

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The following program demonstrates the differences between the fixed-length
and varying data types:

The Pascal program, varying.p program varying_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the differences

between fixed- and variable-length strings. }

var
name1: array [1..25] of char; { String of size 25. }
name2: array [76..100] of char; { String of size 25. }
name3: alfa; { String of size 10. }
name4: string; { String of size 80. }
name5: varying [25] of char; { Varying string. }
name6: varying [25] of char; { Varying string. }

begin
name1 := 'van Gogh';
name2 := 'Monet';
name3 := 'Rembrandt';
name4 := 'Breughel';
name5 := 'Matisse';
name6 := 'Cezanne';
writeln(name1, ' and ', name2, '.');
writeln(name3, ' and ', name4, '.');
writeln(name5, ' and ', name6, '.')
end. { varying_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc varying.p

execute varying.p hostname% a.out
van Gogh and Monet .
Rembrandt and
Breughel .
Matisse and Cezanne.

Data Types 35
 2

Array Initialization
To initialize an array variable when you declare it in the var declaration of
your main program, use an assignment statement after the declaration. Pascal
offers you the following four different formats:
• Supply the lower and upper bounds in the initialization.

This code initializes the first five var

elements of int to maxint, int : array[1..10] of integer := [maxint, 1, -327, 5, 20];
1, -32767, 5, and 20. The first six c1 : array[1..10] of char := '123456';
elements of c1 are assigned the
characters 1 through 6. Because
c1 is a fixed-length string, the last
four characters are padded with
blanks.

• Put an asterisk in place of the upper bound, and let the compiler determine
the upper bound once it counts the initial values. You can use this format
only when you also supply the initial values.

In this example, the compiler var

assigns the upper bound of 5 to i : integer;
int and of 6 to c1. int : array[1..*] of integer := [maxint, 1, -32767, 5, 20];
c1 : array[1..*] of char := '123456';

• Use the repeat count feature n of constant to initialize n array elements to

the value constant. n must be an integer or an expression that evaluates to
an integer constant.

This code initializes all the first 50 var

values of int2 to 1 and the int2 : array[1..100] of integer := [50 of 1, 50 of 2];
second 50 values to 2.

36 Pascal Language Reference

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• Use the repeat count feature * of constant to initialize all remaining array
elements to the value of constant.

This example initializes all 100 var

elements of int4 to 327. The int4 : array[1..100] of integer := [* of 327];
example also initializes the int5 : array[1..10,1..10] of integer := [
multidimensional array int5 to [* of 327],
an array of 10 rows and columns. [3 of 8],
The compiler initializes all 10
[10 of 88],
elements in the first row to 327,
the first three elements of the ];
second row to 8, and all 10
elements of the third row to 88.

When you initialize an array in the var declaration, the compiler sets those
elements for which it doesn’t find data to zero.

You can also initialize array variables in the var declaration of a procedure or
function; however, you must also declare the variable as static.

Packed Arrays
Although you can define an array as packed, it has no effect on how the
Pascal compiler allocates the array data space.

Data Representation
The elements of an array require the same space as that required by the base
type of the array. However, there are two exceptions to this. With the
-calign option, the size of all arrays is the size of each element times the
number of elements. When you use the -calign and -xl options together,
arrays are the same as with -calign alone, except the size of an array of
booleans is always a multiple of two.

Data Types 37
 2

Set
Pascal supports sets of elements of integer, boolean, character, and
enumerated data types. As extensions to the standard, Pascal predefines a set
of intset; you can then initialize a set variable when you declare it in the var
declaration of your program.

Set Variables
In Pascal, you declare set variables the same as you do in standard Pascal. The
following is a valid set variable:

type
character_set = set of char;

var
letters: character_set;

Pascal predefines the set intset as the set of [0..127].

Set Initialization
To initialize a set variable when you declare it in the var declaration of your
program, create an assignment statement, as follows:

This code initializes citrus type

to the set of orange, lemon, fruit = (orange, lemon, lime, apple, banana);
and lime. var
citrus: set of fruit := [orange, lemon, lime];

38 Pascal Language Reference

 2
You can also initialize set variables in the var declaration of a procedure or
function; however, when you do so, you must also declare the variable as
static:

This example initializes primary procedure assign_colors;

to the set of red, yellow, and type
blue. It also initializes grays to colors = (white, beige, black, red, blue,
the set of white and black. yellow, green);
var
primary: static set of colors := [red, yellow,
blue];
grays: static set of colors := [white, black];

Packed Sets
Although you can define a set as packed, it has no effect on how the compiler
allocates the set data space.

Data Representation
Pascal implements sets as bit vectors, with one bit representing each element of
a set. The maximum ordinal value of a set element is 32,768.

The size of a set is determined by the size of the ordinal value of maximal
element of the set plus one. Sets are allocated in multiples of 16 bits; therefore,
the smallest set has size 16 bits. The ordinal value of the minimal element
must be equal to or greater than 0. Sets have an alignment of four bytes when
they are longer than 16 bits; otherwise their alignment is two bytes. For
example, 'set of 1..20' has a four-byte alignment and 'set of 1..15' has a two-byte
alignment.

With the -calign option, sets have an alignment of two bytes. The size is the
same as the default.

Data Types 39
 2
Table 2-13 shows the data representation of four sets.

Table 2-13 Data Representation of Sets

Set Description
set of 0..15 This set requires 16 bits because 15 is the maximal element, and
15 + 1 = 16.
set of 0..16 This set requires 32 bits because 16 is the maximal element. 16 + 1 = 17,
and the next multiple of 16 above 17 is 32.
set of 14..15 This set requires 16 bits because 15 is the element, and 15 + 1 = 16.
set of char This set requires 256 bits because the range of char is
chr(0)..chr(255). The ordinal value of the maximal element is 255,
and 255+1 = 256, which is divisible by 16.

You can visualize the bit vector representation of a set as an array of bits
starting from the highest element to the lowest element. For example, the
representation of the following set is shown in Figure 2-12.

var
smallset: set of 2..15 := [7,4,3,2];

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-12 Small Set

40 Pascal Language Reference

 2
The representation of this larger set is shown in Figure 2-13.

var
largeset: set of 2..255 := [7,4,3,2];

255 247 239 231 224

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Loc +1 Loc +1
Loc +0

Figure 2-13 Large Set

File
Pascal treats files declared as file of char the same as files declared as
text, except when you use the –s –s0, –s1, –V0, or –V1 options. In this case,
the compiler treats the two data types differently, as required by standard
Pascal.

Pointer
Pascal supports the standard Pascal pointer and the nonstandard universal
pointer and procedure and function pointer.

Standard Pointer
The standard pointer is the same in Pascal and standard Pascal.

Data Types 41
 2

Universal Pointer
The universal pointer data type, univ_ptr, is compatible with any pointer
type. Use univ_ptr to compare a pointer of one type to another, to assign a
pointer of one type to another, or to weaken type checking when passing
parameters of pointer types.

When the type of a formal parameter is univ_ptr, the type of the

corresponding actual parameter can be of any pointer type, or vice versa.

You cannot dereference a univ_ptr variable: you cannot find the contents of
the address to which univ_ptr points.

The Pascal program, program univ_ptr_example;

univ_ptr.p, which prints the
value of the floating-point variable { This program demonstrates how to use
r in hexadecimal format. universal pointers. }

var
i: integer32;
r: single;
ip: ^ integer32;
rp: ^ single := addr(r);
up: univ_ptr;

begin
r := 10.0;
{ The next two statements are equivalent to rp := ip.
However, rp := ip is not legal since they are
different types. }
up := rp;
ip := up;
writeln(ip^ hex);
{ This will do the same thing but uses transfer functions. }
writeln(integer32(r) hex)
end. { univ_ptr_example }

42 Pascal Language Reference

 2

The commands to compile and hostname% pc univ_ptr.p

execute univ_ptr.p hostname% a.out
41200000
41200000

Procedure and Function Pointers

The following is an example that shows how to use procedure and function
pointers in Pascal.

Data Types 43
 2

The Pascal program, pointer.p, program pointer_example;

which demonstrates how to print
out enumerated values using type
procedure pointers. colors = (red, white, blue);
procptr = ^ procedure; { Procedure pointer type. }

procedure printred;

begin
writeln('RED')
end; { printred }

procedure printwhite;

begin
writeln('WHITE')
end; { printwhite }

procedure printblue;

begin
writeln('BLUE')
end; { printblue }

var
{ Array of procedure pointers. }
colorprinter: array [colors] of procptr :=
[addr(printred),
addr(printwhite),
addr(printblue)];
c: colors;
desc_proc: procptr;

begin
write('Enter red, white, or blue: ');
readln(c);
desc_proc := colorprinter[c];
desc_proc^
end. { pointer_example }

44 Pascal Language Reference

 2

The commands to compile and hostname% pc pointer.p

execute pointer.p hostname% a.out
Enter red, white, or blue: red
RED

Pointer Initialization
To initialize a pointer variable when you declare it in the var declaration of
your program, use an assignment statement, as follows:

This example initializes the var

variable rp to addr(r). Legal rp : ^single := addr(r);
values for compile-time pp : ^procedure := NIL;
initializations are NIL, addr(0) sp : ^string := addr('Title');
of variables, procedures, strings,
and set constants, and
previously declared constants of
the same pointer type.

You can also initialize pointer variables in the var declaration of a procedure
or function; however, when you do so, you must also declare the variable as
static.

Data Representation
Pascal represents a pointer as shown in Figure 2-14.

Address

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 2-14 Pointer

Data Types 45
 2

46 Pascal Language Reference

 Statements 3

This chapter describes Pascal statements in the following sections:

Standard Statements page 47

Statements Specific to Pascal page 47

Standard Statements
Pascal supports all standard statements. Pascal also supports extensions to:

assert next
case otherwise
exit return
goto with

Statements Specific to Pascal

Table 3-1 summarizes the nonstandard Pascal statements and standard
statements with nonstandard features. Detailed descriptions and examples of
each statement follow.

47
 3

Table 3-1 Nonstandard Pascal Statements

Statement Description
assert Causes a boolean expression to be evaluated each time the
statement is executed.
case Accepts ranges of constants and an otherwise statement.
exit Transfers program control to the first statement after the end of a
for, while, or repeat loop.
goto Accepts an identifier as the target of goto.
next Causes the program to skip to the next iteration of the enclosing for,
while, or repeat loop.
otherwise An extension to the case statement. If the expression in a case
statement does not match any of the case values, the compiler
executes the statements under the otherwise statement.
return Prematurely ends a procedure or a function.
with An alternative format to the standard with statement.

assert Statement
The assert statement causes a boolean expression to be evaluated each time
the statement is executed.

If your program contains an assert statement, you must compile it with the
–C option, which enables runtime tests. Otherwise, the compiler treats
assert as a comment.

A runtime error results if the expression in the assert statement evaluates to

false.

assert is a shorthand for using the if statement.

48 Pascal Language Reference

 3
For example, the following code uses an assert statement to test whether num
is greater than 0 and less than or equal to MAX_STUDENTS:

assert((num > 0) and (num <= MAX_STUDENTS));

for i := 1 to num do begin
write('Enter grade for student ', i: 3, ': ');
readln(grades[i])
end.

The following if statement is equivalent to the assert statement in the

preceding program:

if (num > 0) and (num <= MAX_STUDENTS) then begin

for i := 1 to num do begin
write('Enter grade for student ', i: 3, ': ');
readln(grades[i])
end
end else begin
writeln('Error message.');
halt
end

Statements 49
 3

The Pascal program, program assert_example;

assert.p, which tests whether
num is greater than 0 and less const
than or equal to MAX_STUDENTS MAX_STUDENTS = 4;
before reading in the grades.
var
num: integer;
i: integer;
grades: array [1..MAX_STUDENTS] of char;

begin
num := 6;
assert((num > 0) and (num <= MAX_STUDENTS));
for i := 1 to num do begin
write('Enter grade for student ', i: 3, ': ');
readln(grades[i])
end
end. { assert_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc assert.p

execute assert.p without the hostname% a.out
–C option. The compiler treats Enter grade for student 1: A
assert as a comment. Enter grade for student 2: B
Enter grade for student 3: C
Enter grade for student 4: D
Enter grade for student 5: F
Enter grade for student 6: A

50 Pascal Language Reference

 3

The result when you compile hostname% pc -C assert.p

assert.p with the –C and –g hostname% a.out
option. The expression evaluates
to false, so the compiler Assertion #1 failed
generates an error and halts. Trace/BPT trap (core dumped)

hostname% pc -C -g assert.p
hostname% a.out

Assertion #1 failed
Trace/BPT trap (core dumped)

case Statement
Pascal supports the standard case statement with extensions for an
otherwise clause and ranges of constants.

If expression does not match any of the case values, the compiler executes the
otherwise statement list. The reserved word otherwise is not a case label,
so it is not followed by a colon (:). Also, the begin/end pair is optional in an
otherwise statement.

You can use a range of constants instead of a single case value. A case range
must be in ascending order.

The case statement operates differently when you compile your program with
and without the –xl option. Without –xl, if the value of the expression is not
equal to one of the case labels and you omit the otherwise statement, the
program generates an error and halts.

If this situation occurs and you compile your program with –xl, the program
falls through and does not generate an error; program execution continues
with the statement immediately following the case statement.

Statements 51
 3

The Pascal program, program otherwise_example(input, output);

otherwise.p, which reads a
character from the terminal. If the { This program demonstrates the otherwise
value of the character is not in the clause and ranges in the case statement. }
range 0 - 9, the compiler executes
the statement in the otherwise
var
statement. The program specifies
all digits between 0 and 9 as the ch: char;
range '0'..'9'.
begin
write('Please enter one character: ');

{More than one character will produce erroneous results.}

readln(ch);
case ch of
'0'..'9':
writeln('The character you input is a digit.');
otherwise
writeln('The character you input is not a digit.')
end
end. { otherwise_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc otherwise.p

execute otherwise.p without hostname% a.out
–xl. This example shows your Please enter one character: 3
output when you input the The character you input is a digit.
characters 3 and B. hostname% a.out
Please enter one character: B
The character you input is not a digit.

exit Statement
The exit statement, which you can use in a for, while, or repeat loop,
transfers program control to the first statement after the end of the current
loop.

If used in a nested loop, exit only breaks out of the innermost loop.

You receive a compile-time error if you use this statement anywhere but in a
for, while, or repeat loop.

52 Pascal Language Reference

 3

The Pascal program, exit.p program exit_example(input, output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

exit statement in for, while, and repeat loops. }

const
MAX = 10;

type
integer_type = array [1..MAX] of integer16;

var
i: integer16;
i_array: integer_type := [1, 99, 13, 45, 69, 18, 32, -6];
number: integer16;
flag: boolean := false;

begin
write('Enter a number: ');
readln(number);
for i := 1 to MAX do begin
if number = i_array[i] then begin
flag := true;
exit
end
end;
if flag then
writeln('Number WAS found: ', number)
else
writeln('Number WAS NOT found: ', number)
end. { exit_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc exit.p

execute exit.p. This example hostname% a.out
shows the program output when Enter a number: 13
you input the number 13. Number WAS found: 13

Statements 53
 3

goto Statement
Pascal supports the standard format of the goto statement with two
extensions.

In Pascal, you can use an identifier as the target of a goto. Standard Pascal
allows only integers as targets of gotos.

If you use a goto to jump out of the current block, Pascal closes all open files
in the intervening blocks between the goto statement and the target of the
goto.

54 Pascal Language Reference

 3

The Pascal program, goto.p, program goto_example;

which uses an identifier as a
target of a goto statement. { This program uses an identifier as a target
of a goto statement. }

label
skip_subtotal;

const
MAX_STUDENTS = 100;

var
i: integer;
grades: array [1..MAX_STUDENTS] of char;
num: 1..MAX_STUDENTS;
sum: real;
points: real;

begin
{ Read in number of students and their grades. }
write('Enter number of students: ');
readln(num);
assert((num > 0) and (num < MAX_STUDENTS));
for i := 1 to num do begin
write('Enter grade for student ', i: 3, ': ');
readln(grades[i])
end;
writeln;
{ Now calculate the average GPA for all students. }
sum := 0;
for i := 1 to num do begin
if grades[i] = 'I' then begin
goto skip_subtotal
end else begin
case grades[i] of
'A': points := 4.0;
'B': points := 3.0;
'C': points := 2.0;
'D': points := 1.0;
'F': points := 0.0;

Identifiers as Targets (Screen 1 of 2)

Statements 55
 3

otherwise
writeln('Unknown grade: ', grades[i]);
points := 0.0
end
end;
sum := sum + points;
skip_subtotal:
end;
writeln('GPA for all students is ', sum / num: 6: 2, '.')
end. { goto_example }

Identifiers as Targets (Screen 2 of 2)

You must compile goto.p with hostname% pc -C goto.p

the –C option to execute the hostname% a.out
assert statement; otherwise, Enter number of students: 4
the compiler treats assert as a Enter grade for student 1: B
comment. This example returns Enter grade for student 2: B
the collective GPA of four
Enter grade for student 3: C
students.
Enter grade for student 4: A

GPA for all students is 3.00.

next Statement
The next statement, which you can only use in a for, while, or repeat loop,
causes the program to skip to the next iteration of the current loop, thus
skipping the rest of the statements in the loop.

The next statement has the same effect as a goto to the end of the loop. If
you use next in a for loop, Pascal increments the index variable as normal.

When you use next in a nested loop, it goes to the end of the innermost loop
containing the next statement.

You receive a compile-time error if you use this statement anywhere but in a
for, while, or repeat loop.

56 Pascal Language Reference

 3

The Pascal program, next.p, program next_example;

which also uses the otherwise
statement. { This program demonstrates the use of the next
statement in for, while, and repeat loops. }

const
MAX_STUDENTS = 100;

var
i: integer;
grades: array [1..MAX_STUDENTS] of char;
num: 1..MAX_STUDENTS;
sum: real;
points: real;

begin
{ Read in number of students and their grades. }
write('Enter number of students: ');
readln(num);
assert((num > 0) and (num <= MAX_STUDENTS));
for i := 1 to num do begin
write('Enter grade for student ', i: 3, ': ');
readln(grades[i])
end;
writeln;

The next Statement (Screen 1 of 2)

Statements 57
 3

{ Now calculate the average GPA for all students. }

sum := 0;
for i := 1 to num do begin
if grades[i] = 'I' then begin
next
end else begin
case grades[i] of
'A': points := 4.0;
'B': points := 3.0;
'C': points := 2.0;
'D': points := 1.0;
'F': points := 0.0;
otherwise
writeln('Unknown grade: ', grades[i]);
points := 0.0
end
end;
sum := sum + points
end;
writeln('GPA for all students is: ', sum / num: 6: 2)
end. { next_example }

The next Statement (Screen 2 of 2)

You must compile next.p with hostname% pc -C next.p

the –C option to execute the hostname% a.out
assert statement; otherwise, Enter number of students: 3
the compiler treats assert as a Enter grade for student 1: A
comment. This example outputs Enter grade for student 2: A
the collective GPA of three
Enter grade for student 3: C
students.
GPA for all students is: 3.33

otherwise Statement
The otherwise statement is a Pascal extension to the standard Pascal case
statement. If specified, otherwise must be at the end of the case statement.
See the listing in “case Statement” on page 51 for additional information.

58 Pascal Language Reference

 3

return Statement
The return statement prematurely ends a procedure or a function.

Program control transfers to the calling routine. This has the same effect as a
goto to the end of the routine. If used in the main program, return causes
the program to terminate.

The Pascal program, return.p. program return_example;

The compiler prematurely
returns from the procedure test { This program demonstrates the use of the
if you input 1 or any integer from return statement in a procedure. }
4 through 99. The program also
uses identifiers as the target of a
var
goto.
i: integer;

procedure test;
label
error_negative_value, error_bad_values, error_value_too_big;
begin
if i < 0 then
goto error_negative_value
else if (i = 2) or (i = 3) then
goto error_bad_values
else if i > 100 then
goto error_value_too_big;
return;
error_negative_value:
writeln('Value of i must be greater than 0.');
return;
error_bad_values:
writeln('Illegal value of i: 2 or 3.');
return;
error_value_too_big:
writeln('Value of i too large.');
return
end; { test }

begin { main procedure }

write('Enter value for i: ');
readln(i);
test
end. { return_example }

Statements 59
 3

The commands to compile and hostname% pc return.p

execute return.p hostname% a.out
Enter value for i: -1
Value of i must be greater than 0.
hostname% a.out
Enter value for i: 2
Illegal value of i: 2 or 3.
hostname% a.out
Enter value for i: 101
Value of i too large.
hostname% a.out
Enter value for i: 5

with Statement
Pascal supports the standard with statement plus an alternative format.

The following is an example that illustrates how to use a with statement in

Pascal.

60 Pascal Language Reference

 3

The Pascal program, with.p, program with_example(output);

which uses the alternate form of
the with statement. { Sample program using the extension to the
with statement. }

const
MAX = 12;

type
name_type = varying [MAX] of char;
Patient =
record
LastName: name_type;
FirstName: name_type;
Sex: (Male, Female)
end;

var
new_patient: Patient;
old_patient: Patient;

begin
with new_patient: new, old_patient: old do begin
new.LastName := 'Smith';
new.FirstName := 'Abby';
new.Sex := Female;

old.LastName := 'Brown';
old.FirstName := 'Henry';
old.Sex := Male
end;
write('The new patient is ');
write(new_patient.FirstName: 10);
writeln(new_patient.LastName: 10, '.');
write('The old patient is ');
write(old_patient.FirstName: 10);
writeln(old_patient.LastName: 10, '.')
end. { with_example }

Statements 61
 3

The commands to compile and hostname% pc with.p

execute with.p hostname% a.out
The new patient is Abby Smith.
The old patient is Henry Brown.

62 Pascal Language Reference

 Assignments and Operators 4

This chapter describes the different types of assignments and operators in

Pascal. It contains the following sections:

Data Type Assignments and Compatibility page 63

String Assignments page 64
Operators page 66
Precedence of Operators page 76

Data Type Assignments and Compatibility

Table 4-1 lists the assignment compatibility rules for real, integer,
boolean, character, enumerated, subrange, record, set, and pointer data types.

63
 4

Table 4-1 Data Type Assignment

Type of Variable/Parameter Type of Assignment-Compatible Expression

real, single, shortreal real, single, shortreal, double, longreal,
any integer type†
double, longreal real, single, shortreal, double, longreal,
any integer type
integer, integer16,integer32 integer, integer16,integer32
boolean boolean
char char
enumerated Same enumerated type
subrange Base type of the subrange
record Record of the same type
array Array with the same type
set Set with compatible base type
pointer Pointer to an identical type, univ_ptr

† Pascal implicitly converts the integer to the real type, if necessary.

String Assignments
Pascal has special rules for assigning fixed- and variable-length strings, null
strings, and string constants.

Fixed- and Variable-Length Strings

When you make an assignment to a fixed-length string, and the source string is
shorter than the destination string, the compiler pads the destination string
with blanks. If the source string is larger than the destination string, the
compiler truncates the source string to fit the destination.

When you make an assignment to a variable-length string, and the source

string is longer than the destination string, the compiler truncates the source to
fit the destination.

The valid fixed- and variable-length string assignments are given in Table 4-2.

64 Pascal Language Reference

 4

Table 4-2 Fixed- and Variable-Length String Assignments

Type of String Type of Assignment-Compatible Expression

array of char varying string, constant string, and array of char if the
arrays have the same length
varying varying string, constant string, array of char, and char

Null Strings
Pascal treats null strings as constant strings of length zero. Table 4-3 shows the
null string assignments.

Table 4-3 Null String Assignments

Assignment Description
varying := ''; The compiler assigns the null string to the variable-
length string. The length of the variable-length string
equals zero.
array of char := ''; The compiler assigns a string of blanks to the character
array. The length of the resulting string is the number
of elements in the source character array.
char := ''; It is illegal to assign a null string to a char variable.
Use chr(0) instead.
String concatenation In a string concatenation expression such as:
S := 'hello' + '' + S;
'' is treated as the additive identity (as nothing).

String Constants
When assigning a constant string to a packed array of char, standard
Pascal requires that the strings be the same size.

Pascal allows the constant string and packed array of char to be unequal
in size, truncating the constant string if it is longer or padding it with blanks if
it is shorter.

Assignments and Operators 65

 4

Operators
Pascal supplies six classes of operators:
• Arithmetic operators
• Bit operators
• boolean operators
• Set operators
• Relational operators
• String operators

Arithmetic Operators
The arithmetic operators are summarized in Table 4-4.

Table 4-4 Arithmetic Operators

Operator Operation Operands Result

+ addition integer or real integer or real
- subtraction integer or real integer or real
* multiplication integer or real integer or real
/ division integer or real real
div truncated division integer integer
mod modulo integer integer

The mod Operator

Pascal extends the standard definition of the mod operator as follows.

In the expression i mod j, when i is positive, Pascal and standard Pascal

produce the same results. However, when i is negative, and you do not
compile your program with a standard option (–s, –s0, –s1, –V0, or –V1), the
following is true:
i mod j

equals:
-1 * remainder of |i| divided by |j|

66 Pascal Language Reference

 4

The Pascal program, mod.p, program modexample(output);

which computes i mod j
{ This program demonstrates the nonstandard
mod function. }

var
i: integer;
j: integer;

begin
for i := -3 to -1 do
for j := 1 to 3 do
if j <> 0 then
writeln(i: 4, j: 4, i mod j: 4)
end. { mod_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc mod.p

execute mod.p without any hostname% a.out
options -3 1 0
-3 2 -1
-3 3 0
-2 1 0
-2 2 0
-2 3 -2
-1 1 0
-1 2 -1
-1 3 -1

Assignments and Operators 67

 4

The results negative i produces hostname% pc -s mod.p

when you compile mod.p with hostname% a.out
the –s option -3 1 0
-3 2 1
-3 3 0
-2 1 0
-2 2 0
-2 3 1
-1 1 0
-1 2 1
-1 3 2

Bit Operators
Table 4-5 shows the bit operators. The ~ operator produces the same results as
the built-in Pascal function, lnot. Similarly, & is equivalent to the function,
land; | and ! are equivalent to lor. See Chapter 7, “Input and Output,” for
descriptions of these functions and the truth tables that both the functions and
the operators use.

Table 4-5 Bit Operators

Operator Operation Operands Result

~ bitwise not integer integer
& bitwise and integer integer
| bitwise or integer integer
! bitwise or (same as |) integer integer

boolean Operators
The boolean operators, which include the nonstandard and then and or else
operators, are summarized in Table 4-6.

68 Pascal Language Reference

 4

Table 4-6 boolean Operators

Operator Operation Operands Result

and Conjunction boolean boolean
and then Similar to boolean and boolean boolean
not Negation boolean boolean
or Disjunction boolean boolean
or else Similar to boolean or boolean boolean

The and then Operator

The and then operator differs from the standard and operator in that it
guarantees the order in which the compiler evaluates the logical expression.
Left to right and the right operands are evaluated only when necessary. For
example, when you write the following syntax, the compiler may evaluate
odd(y) before it evaluates odd(x):
odd(x) and odd(y)

However, when you use the following syntax, the compiler always evaluates
odd(x) first:
odd(x) and then odd(y)

If odd(x) is false, odd(y) is not evaluated.

Note – You cannot insert comments between the and and the then operators.

Assignments and Operators 69

 4

The Pascal program, program and_then(input, output);

and_then.p, which uses
and then to test if two numbers { This program demonstrates the use
are odd of the operator and then. }

var
x, y: integer16;

begin
write('Please enter two integers: ');
readln(x, y);
if odd(x) and then odd(y) then
writeln('Both numbers are odd.')
else
writeln('Both numbers are not odd.');
end. { and_then }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc and_then.p

execute and_then.p. This hostname% a.out
example shows the output when Please enter two integers: 45 6
you input the numbers 45 and 6. Both numbers are not odd.

The or else Operator

The or else operator is similar to the and then operator. In the following
expression, the compiler evaluates odd(x) first, and if the result is true, does
not evaluate odd(y):
odd(x) or else odd(y)

Note – You cannot insert comments between the or and the else operators.

70 Pascal Language Reference

 4

The Pascal program, program or_else(input, output);

or_else.p, which uses
or else to test if two numbers { This program demonstrates the use
are less than 10. of the operator or else. }

var
x, y: integer16;

begin
write('Please enter two integers: ');
readln(x, y);
if (x < 10) or else (y < 10) then
writeln('At least one number is less than 10.')
else
writeln('Both numbers are greater than or equal to 10.');
end. { or_else }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc or_else.p

execute or_else.p. This hostname% a.out
example shows the output when Please enter two integers: 101 3
you input the numbers 101 and 3. At least one number is less than 10.

Set Operators
The set operators in Table 4-7 accept different set types as long as the base
types are compatible. The relational operators can also be used to compare
set-type values.

Table 4-7 Set Operators

Operator Operation Operands Result

+ Set union Any set type Same as operands
- Set difference Any set type Same as operands
* Set intersection Any set type Same as operands
in Member of a specified set 2nd arg:any set type boolean
1st arg:base type of 2nd arg

Assignments and Operators 71

 4

Relational Operators
The relational operators are given in Table 4-8. In Pascal, you can apply all
relational operators to sets and the equality (=) and inequality (<>) operators
on records and arrays.

Table 4-8 Relational Operators

Operator Operation Operand Results

= Equal Any real, integer, boolean
boolean, char, record,
array, set, or pointer type
<> Not equal Any real, integer, boolean
boolean, char, record,
array, set, or pointer type
< Less than Any real, integer, boolean
boolean, char, string,
or set type
<= Less than or equal Any real, integer, boolean
boolean, char, string,
or set type
> Greater than Any real, integer, boolean
boolean, char, string,
or set type
>= Greater than or equal Any real, integer, boolean
boolean, char, string,
or set type

Relational Operators on Sets

Use the relational operators to compare sets of identical types. The result is a
boolean (true or false) value.

72 Pascal Language Reference

 4

The Pascal program, sets.p, program set_example(output);

which applies the < and >
operators to two sets of colors. { This program demonstrates the use of relational
The < operator tests if a set is a operators on sets. }
subset of another set. The >
operator tests if a set is a proper
var
subset of another set.
set1, set2: set of (red, orange, yellow, green);

begin
set1 := [orange, yellow];
set2 := [red, orange, yellow];
writeln(set1 > set2);
writeln(set1 < set2)
end. { set_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc sets.p

execute sets.p hostname% a.out
false
true

The = and <> Operators on Records and Arrays

Use the = and <> operators to compare character arrays of the same size. For
example:
• You can compare a varying[10] string with an alfa string.
• You cannot compare an alfa string with an array[1..15].

In making comparisons, between arrays and records, make sure the operands
are of the same type.

Assignments and Operators 73

 4

The Pascal program, program record_example(output);

compare.p, which makes
comparisons among records const
MAX = 10;

type
Shape = (Square, Trapezoid, Rectangle);
variant_record =
record
case Shape_type: Shape of
Square: ( side1: real );
Trapezoid: ( top1: real;
bottom: real;
height: real );
Rectangle: ( length: real;
width: real )
end;

normal_record =
record
name: array [1..MAX] of char;
avg: integer;
grade: char
end;

var
class1: normal_record := ['Susan', 100];
class2: normal_record := ['John', 99];
shapes1: variant_record;
shapes2: variant_record;

Comparing Records (Screen 1 of 2)

74 Pascal Language Reference

 4

begin
{ Should PASS. }
if class1 <> class2 then
writeln('PASSED')
else
writeln('FAIL');

shapes1.Shape_type := Rectangle;
shapes2.Shape_type := Square;
{ Should PASS }
if shapes1 = shapes2 then
writeln('FAIL')
else
writeln('PASSED');

shapes1.Shape_type := Trapezoid;
shapes2.Shape_type := Trapezoid;

{ Should PASS. }
if shapes1 = shapes2 then
writeln('PASSED')
else
writeln('FAIL')
end. { record_example }

Comparing Records (Screen 2 of 2)

The commands to compile and hostname% pc compare.p

execute compare.p hostname% a.out
PASSED
PASSED
PASSED

String Operators
With the string concatenation operator, the plus sign (+), you can concatenate
any combination of varying, array of char, constant strings, and single
characters.

Assignments and Operators 75

 4

The Pascal program, program string_example(output);

concate.p, which concatenates
four types of strings { This program demonstrates the use of
the string concatenation operator. }

var
col: varying [10] of char := 'yellow';
fish: array [1..4] of char := 'tail';
n1: char := 'o';
n2: char := 'r';

begin
write(fish + n1 + n2 + 'bird ', col + 'bird ');
writeln(col + fish)
end. { string_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc concate.p

execute concate.p hostname% a.out
tailorbird yellowbird yellowtail

Precedence of Operators
Table 4-9 lists the order of precedence of Pascal operators, from the highest to
the lowest.

Table 4-9 Precedence of Operators

Operators Precedence
~, not, Highest
*, /, div, mod, and, &, .
|, !, +, -, or, .
=, <>, <, <=, >, >=, in, .
or else, and then Lowest

76 Pascal Language Reference

 Program Declarations 5

This chapter describes Pascal program declarations. It contains the following

sections:

Declarations page 77
Procedure and Function Headings page 84

Declarations
This section describes the label, constant, type, variable, and define
declarations. Procedure and function declarations are described in Chapter 6,
“Built-In Procedures and Functions.”

Label Declaration
The label declaration defines labels, which are used as the target of goto
statements.

Comments
In Pascal, you can use both identifiers and integers as labels. Using identifiers
as labels makes your code easier to read.

77
 5

Example

The Pascal program, label.p program return_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

label declaration. }

var
i: integer;

procedure test;
label
error_negative_value, error_bad_values, error_value_too_big;
begin
if i < 0 then
goto error_negative_value
else if (i = 2) or (i = 3) then
goto error_bad_values
else if i > 100 then
goto error_value_too_big;
return;
error_negative_value:
writeln('Value of i must be greater than 0.');
return;
error_bad_values:
writeln('Illegal value of i: 2 or 3.');
return;
error_value_too_big:
writeln('Value of i too large.');
return
end; { test }

begin { main procedure }

write('Enter value for i: ');
readln(i);
test
end. { return_example }

78 Pascal Language Reference

 5

The commands to compile and hostname% pc label.p

execute label.p hostname% a.out
Enter value for i: 101
Value of i too large.

Constant Declaration
The constant declaration defines constants, values that do not change during
program execution.

The value of expression can be a compile-time evaluable expression. It can

contain any of the following:
• A real, integer, boolean, character, set, or string value.
• The pointer constant nil.
• Another previously defined constant.
• Predefined Pascal routines (see Chapter 7, “Input and Output”) called with
constant expression arguments, if applicable.
• An operator (see Chapter 4, “Assignments and Operators”).

Example

This constant declaration const

defines six valid constants. x = 75;
y = 85;
month = 'November';
lie = false;
result = (x + y) / 2.0;
answer = succ(sqrt(5+4));

Type Declaration
The type declaration describes and names types used in variable, parameter,
and function declarations.

Program Declarations 79
 5
Unlike standard Pascal, in Pascal, you can define universal pointer types and
procedure and function pointer types in the type declaration.

Example

This type declaration defines type

opaque_pointers as a lowints = 0..100;
universal pointer and routines primary_colors = (red, yellow, blue);
as a function pointer. opaque_pointers = univ_ptr;
routines = function(i: integer): boolean;
capital_letters = set of 'A'..'Z';
digits = set of lowints;
char_array = array[1..10] of char;
record_type = record
name: char_array;
age : integer;
end;

Variable Declaration
The variable declaration declares variables.

In the variable declaration, you can specify the variable scope, attributes, and
initial values. In most cases, you do not have a variable declaration that has
both a variable scope and a variable attribute, because these are different ways
for doing similar things.

Scope
The scope of a variable is either private or public.
• A private variable is visible in the current compilation unit only.
• A public variable is visible across multiple programs and modules.

You can also use the define/extern declaration to declare a variable as

public, and the static attribute to declare a variable as private. See
Appendix A, “Overview of Pascal Extensions,” for information on
define/extern.

80 Pascal Language Reference

 5
Variables in the var declaration section of a program default to public when
you compile your program without the –xl option. When you compile your
program with –xl, variables default to private.

This code declares both public public var

and private variables. total: single := 100.00;
quantity: integer16 := 25;

private var
score: integer16 := 99;

Attributes
The variable attributes determine how to allocate the variable and its scope.
They include static, extern, and define.

static
A static variable is a variable that is private in scope and which is
allocated statically. A global variable declared as static is equivalent to a
variable that has been declared private. Pascal generates a compile-time
error if you attempt to declare a global variable as both static and public.

When you declare a local variable as static, the variable retains its value
after the program exits the procedure in which it is declared. You can only
initialize a local variable, that is, a variable declared in a procedure, in the var
declaration if you also declare it as static.

Program Declarations 81
 5

The Pascal program, static.p program static_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

static variable attribute. }

var
i: integer;

procedure count;

var
number_of_times_called: static integer := 0;

begin
number_of_times_called := number_of_times_called + 1;
writeln('Call number: ', number_of_times_called)
end; { count }

begin { main program }

for i := 1 to 4 do begin
count
end
end. { static_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc static.p

execute static.p hostname% a.out
Call number: 1
Call number: 2
Call number: 3
Call number: 4

extern
The extern attribute is used to declare a variable that is not allocated in the
current module or program unit, but is a reference to a variable allocated in
another unit. You cannot initialize extern variables. See the Pascal 4.2 User’s
Guide, which describes separately compiled programs and modules; it also
contains examples of the extern attribute.

82 Pascal Language Reference

 5
define
The define attribute is used to declare a variable that is allocated in the
current module and whose scope is public. define is especially useful for
declaring variables with the –xl option, which makes global variables
private by default. See the Pascal 4.2 User’s Guide for an example of this
attribute.

Initialization
You can initialize real, integer, boolean, character, set, record, array, and
pointer variables in the var declaration. You cannot initialize a local variable
(a variable in the var declaration of a procedure or function) unless you
declare it as static.

This example shows how to var

initialize a variable in the var x: array[1..5, 1..3] of real := [[* of 0.0], [* of 0.0]];
declaration. year, zeta: integer := 0;
sunny: boolean := false;
c1: char := 'g';
citrus: set of fruit := [orange, lemon, lime];
name: array[1..11] of char := 'Rembrandt';

This code correctly declares the procedure miscellaneous;

variables x, y, windy, and
grade in procedure var
miscellaneous as static. x: static integer16 := maxint;
y: static single := 3.9;
windy: static boolean := true;
grade: static char := 'C';

Define Declaration
The define declaration controls the allocation of variables.

Program Declarations 83
 5

Comments
The value of identifier must correspond to either a variable or procedure or
function identifier. If identifier corresponds to a variable, it must have a
matching variable declaration with the extern attribute. The define
declaration nullifies the meaning of extern: it allocates the variable in the
current program or module unit.

If identifier corresponds to a procedure or a function, it nullifies a previous

extern procedure/function declaration; this means that you must define the
procedure/function thereafter.

You can initialize variables, but not procedures and functions, in the define
declaration. Identifiers in the define declaration are always public.

Example
See the chapter on separate compilation in the Pascal 4.2 User’s Guide for
examples of the define declaration.

Procedure and Function Headings

This section discusses the visibility, parameters, the type identifier, functions,
and options for procedure and function headings.

Visibility
You can declare a procedure or function at the outer block level as either
public or private.

When a procedure or function is public, you can reference that routine in

another program or module unit. Declaring a routine as private restricts its
accessibility to the current compilation unit.

You can also use the define/extern declaration to declare a procedure or

function as public, and the internal routine option to declare a routine as
private. For more information on the define/extern declaration, see
Appendix A, “Overview of Pascal Extensions.”

84 Pascal Language Reference

 5
Top-level procedures and functions declared in a program default to public
when you compile your program without the –xl option. When you compile
your program with –xl, all top-level routines declared in the program become
private.

Nested procedures and functions are always private; it is illegal to declare a

nested routine as public.

Procedures and functions declared within a module unit are always public.
For additional information on modules, see the Pascal 4.2 User’s Guide.

This code fragment declares public procedure average(s,t: single);

both public and private
functions and procedures. private procedure evaluate(n : integer);

public function big (quart : integer16;

cost : single) : single;

private function simple (x, y : boolean) : integer16;

Parameter List
Pascal supplies the parameter types in, out, in out, var, value, and univ.

Parameters: in, out, and in out

The in, out, and in out parameters are extensions to the standard, which are
used to specify the direction of parameter passing:

Program Declarations 85
 5

in Indicates that the parameter can only pass a value into the routine. The
parameter is, in effect, a read-only variable. You cannot assign a value to
an in parameter, nor can you pass an in parameter as an argument to
another procedure that expects a var, out, or in out argument.
out Indicates that the parameter is used to pass values out of the routine. In
effect, declaring a parameter as out informs the compiler that the
parameter has no initial value, and that assignments to the parameter are
retained by the caller.
in out Indicates that the parameter can both take in values and pass them back
out. An in out parameter is equivalent to a var parameter.

86 Pascal Language Reference

 5

Example

The Pascal program, program in_out_example(input, output);

in_out.p. The procedure
compute_area reads in the { This program, which finds the area of a rectangle,
length and width and outputs demonstrates the use of the in, out, and in out
result. The procedure parameters. }
multiply_by_two reads in
result, multiplies it by two and
returns the modified value. var
length, width, result: real;

{ Find area given length and width. }

procedure compute_area(in length: real; in width: real;
out result: real);

begin
result := length * width
end; { compute_area } { compute_area }

{ Multiply the area by two. }

procedure multiply_by_two(in out result: real);

begin
result := result * 2
end; { multiply_by_two } { multiply_by_two }

begin { main program }

write('Enter values for length and width: ');
readln(length, width);
compute_area(length, width, result);
writeln('The area is ', result: 5: 2, '.');
multiply_by_two(result);
writeln('Twice the area is ', result: 5: 2, '.')
end. { in_out_example }

Program Declarations 87
 5

The commands to compile and hostname% pc in_out.p

execute in_out.p. This hostname% a.out
example shows the program Enter values for length and width: 4 5
output when you input a length The area is 20.00.
of 4 and a width of 5. Twice the area is 40.00.

var Parameters
With standard conformance options (-s, -V0, -V1), var parameters are the
same in standard Pascal and Pascal. By default, the Apollo-like var
compatibility approach applies: actual and formal records and arrays should
be of the same type; other types of var must be of the same length.

For example, all pointer types are compatible to univ_ptr, and vice versa.
See “Universal Pointer” on page 42. Subranges -128...127 and 0...127 are
also var-compatible.

Value Parameters
Value parameters are the same in standard Pascal and Pascal.

univ Parameters
The nonstandard univ parameter type is actually a modifier used before data
types in formal parameter lists to turn off type checking for that parameter.
You can use it with any type of parameter except conformant array, procedure,
or function parameters.

univ is used as follows:

procedure somename (var firstparam: univ integer);

You could then call this procedure with a parameter of any type. You should
always declare a univ parameter as either in, out, in out, or var.

88 Pascal Language Reference

 5
univ is most often used for passing arrays, where you can call a procedure or
function with different array sizes. In that case, you generally would pass
another parameter that gives the actual size of the array, as follows:

type
real_array = array[1..100] of real;

procedure receive(size: integer;

var theArray: univ real_array);

var
n: integer;

begin
for n:= 1 to size do
.
.
.

Type Identifier
In Pascal, a function may represent a structure, such as a set, array, or record.
In standard Pascal, a function can only represent the simple types of value,
ordinal, or real.

Functions Returning Structured-Type Results

If a Pascal function returns the result of a structured type, for example, an
array, a record, a string, or some combination of these, you can construct or
update the result, component-by-component, using assignments of the form:
F S1 ... SN := E

where:
• F is the function name
• S1, ..., SN are appropriate component selectors
• E is the result component value

Program Declarations 89
 5
Standard Pascal allows assignments to the whole function result variable only,
that is, F:= E, which may not be feasible or efficient enough, since you may
have to declare and initialize extra structured-type variables.

Example 1: A Function That Returns Strings

When declaring functions that return strings (arrays of chars) and varying
strings, you can specify the result by an assignment. For example:
F:= 'The answer: 12 miles'

where F is the function. However, sometimes you may want to obtain the
string result by modifying some of the characters of an existing string (variable
or parameter). In the following example, you may want to substitute a string
for the string XX.

program String_Function_Example;
type s1 = array [1..20] of char;
s2 = array [1..2 ] of char;

function f(x:s2):s1;
begin
f := 'The answer: XX miles';
f[13]:=x[1];
f[14]:=x[2];
end;

var r: s2;
s: s1;
begin
r:='12';
s:=f(r);

writeln(s)
end.

In general, an identifier of a function f returning a string can be used in an

assignment of the kind:
f[i]:=c

for specifying the i'th byte of the function result. This Pascal extension can be
used both for strings and varying strings.

90 Pascal Language Reference

 5

Example 2: A Function that Returns Arrays of Records

(Complex Vector Addition)

program complex_vectors;

type
complex = record re, im: real end;
compl_vect = array [1..10] of complex;

function add (var a, b: compl_vect): compl_vect;

var i: integer;
begin
for i:= 1 to 10 do
begin
add[i].re:= a[i].re + b[i].re;
add[i].im:= a[i].im + b[i].im;
end;
end; { add }

var V1, V2, V3: compl_vect;

begin
...
V1:= add (V2, V3);
...
end. { complex_vectors }

Options
Pascal supplies the standard forward routine option and the nonstandard
options, extern, external, internal, variable, and nonpascal.

forward
The forward option is the same in Pascal and standard Pascal.

Program Declarations 91
 5

extern and external

The extern and external options indicate that the procedure or function is
defined in a separate program or module. extern and external allow the
optional specification of the source language of the procedure or function. For
more information on these options, see the chapter on separate compilation in
the Pascal 4.2 User’s Guide.

internal
The internal option makes the procedure or function local to that module.
Specifying the internal option is the same as declaring the procedure or
function as private. Pascal generates an error message if you attempt to
declare a public procedure or function as internal.

variable
Using the variable option, you can pass a procedure or function a smaller
number of actual arguments than the number of formal arguments defined in
the routine. The actual arguments must match the formal parameters types.
You cannot pass a larger number of actual arguments than formal arguments.

92 Pascal Language Reference

 5

Example

The Pascal program, program variable_example(input, output);

variable.p, passes either two
or three actual arguments to the { This program demonstrates the use of the
procedure, calculate_total, variable routine option. }
depending on the user input.
const
tax_rate = 0.07;
shipping_fee = 2.50;

var
price: single;
resident: char;
total: single;

function calculate(count: integer16; price: single;

tax: single): single;
options(variable);

begin
if count = 2 then
calculate := price + tax + shipping_fee
else
calculate := price + shipping_fee
end; { calculate }

begin { main program }

write('Please enter the price: ');
readln(price);
writeln('California residents must add local sales tax.');
write('Are you a California resident? Enter y or n: ');
readln(resident);
if resident = 'y' then
total := calculate(2, price, tax_rate * price)
else
total := calculate(1, price);
writeln('Your purchase amounts to $', total: 5: 2, '.')
end. { variable_example }

Program Declarations 93
 5

The commands to compile and hostname% pc variable.p

execute variable.p hostname% a.out
Please enter the price: 10.00
California residents must add local sales tax.
Are you a California resident? Enter y or n: y
Your purchase amounts to $13.20.
hostname% a.out
Please enter the price: 10.00
California residents must add local sales tax.
Are you a California resident? Enter y or n: n
Your purchase amounts to $12.50.

nonpascal
Pascal supports nonpascal as a routine option when you compile your
program with the –xl option. nonpascal declares non-Pascal routines when
you are porting Apollo DOMAIN programs written in DOMAIN Pascal,
FORTRAN, or C.
nonpascal passes arguments by reference. If the argument is a variable,
nonpascal passes its address. If the argument is a constant or expression,
nonpascal makes a copy on the caller’s stack and passes the address of the
copy.

94 Pascal Language Reference

 Built-In Procedures and Functions 6

This chapter describes the built-in procedures and functions Pascal supports.
It starts with two major sections:

Standard Procedures and Functions page 95

Routines Specific to Pascal (Summary) page 96
Routines Specific to Pascal (Details) page 99

The third section, beginning on page 99, lists the nonstandard routines
alphabetically and contains detailed descriptions and examples of each routine.

Standard Procedures and Functions

Pascal supplies the standard procedures listed in Table 6-1, and the standard
functions listed in Table 6-2.

Table 6-1 Standard Procedures

dispose page readln unpack

get put reset write
new read rewrite writeln
pack

95
 6

Table 6-2 Standard Functions

abs eof odd round sqrt

arctan eoln ord sin succ
chr exp pred sqr trunc
cos ln

Routines Specific to Pascal (Summary)

This section lists the nonstandard Pascal procedures and functions according to
the following categories:
• Arithmetic routines
• Bit-shift routines
• Character string routines
• Input and output routines
• Miscellaneous routines

Table 6-3 through Table 6-8 summarize these Pascal routines.

Table 6-3 Nonstandard Arithmetic Routines

Routine Description
addr Returns the address of a variable, constant, function, or procedure.
card Returns the cardinality of a set.
expo Calculates the exponent of a variable.
firstof Returns the first possible value of a type or variable.
in_range Determines whether a value is in the defined integer subrange.
lastof Returns the last possible value of a type or variable.
max Returns the larger of two expressions.
min Returns the smaller of two expressions.
random Generates a random number between 0.0 and 1.0.
seed Resets the random number generator.
sizeof Returns the size of a designated type or variable.

96 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Table 6-4 Nonstandard Bit Shift Routines

Routine Description
arshft Does an arithmetic right shift of an integer.
asl Does an arithmetic left shift of an integer.
asr Identical to arshft.
land Returns the bitwise and of two integers.
lnot Returns the bitwise not of an integer.
lor Returns the inclusive or of two integers.
lshft Does a logical left shift of an integer.
lsl Identical to lshft.
lsr Identical to rshft.
rshft Does a logical right shift of an integer.
xor Returns the exclusive or of two integers.

Table 6-5 Nonstandard Character String Routines

Routine Description
concat Concatenates two strings.
index Returns the position of the first occurrence of a string or character
inside another string.
length Returns the length of a string.
stradd Adds a string to another string.
substr Extracts a substring from a string.
trim Removes all trailing blanks in a character string.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 97

 6

Table 6-6 Nonstandard Input and Output Routines

Routine Description
append Opens a file for modification at its end.
close Closes a file.
filesize Returns the current size of a file.
flush Writes the output buffered for a Pascal file into the associated
operating system file.
getfile Returns a pointer to the C standard I/O descriptor associated with a
Pascal file.
linelimit Terminates program execution after a specified number of lines has
been written into a text file.
message Writes the specified information on stderr.
open Associates an external file with a file variable.
remove Removes the specified file.
seek Performs random access to a file, changing its current position.
tell Returns the current position of a file.

Table 6-7 Extensions to Standard Input and Output Routines

Routine Description
read and Reads in boolean variables, fixed- and variable-length strings, and
readln enumerated types from the standard input.
reset and Accepts an optional second argument, an operating system file name.
rewrite
write and Outputs enumerated type values to the standard output.
writeln Outputs expressions in octal or hexadecimal.
Allows negative field widths.

98 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Table 6-8 Miscellaneous Nonstandard Routines

Routine Description
argc Returns the number of arguments passed to the program.
argv Assigns the specified program arguments a string variable.
clock Returns the user time consumed by this process.
date Fetches the current date.
discard Explicitly discards the return value of a function.
getenv Returns the value associated with an environment name.
halt Terminates program execution.
null Performs no operation.
pcexit Terminates the program and returns an exit code.
stlimit Terminates program execution if a specified number of statements have
been executed in the current loop
sysclock Returns the system time consumed by this process.
time Retrieves the current time.
trace Prints a stack traceback.
Type transfer Changes the data type of a variable or expression.
wallclock Returns the elapsed number of seconds since
00:00:00 GMT January 1, 1970.

Routines Specific to Pascal (Details)

Described in this section are the detailed descriptions for each of the Pascal-
specific routines: its syntax, arguments, and return value. Comments and an
example are also included.

addr
The addr function returns the address of a variable, constant, function, or
procedure.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 99

 6

Syntax
addr(x)

Arguments
x is either a variable, a constant string, a function, or a procedure.

Return Value
The return value of addr is the address in which the variable or a constant
string is stored. For function or procedural arguments, addr returns the
starting address of the function or procedure. In each case, addr returns a
value of type univ_ptr.

Comments
In Pascal, you can apply addr to a variable, function, or procedure with
dynamic extent such as local variables and nested functions or procedures.
Exercise caution in doing so and then dereferencing the resulting pointer value.
In the case of local variables, dereferencing these pointers outside the scope in
which the variable is active results in a meaningless value.

The compiler passes a static link to nested functions and procedures when it
calls them. The compiler does not generate this link when dereferencing
pointer values to procedures or functions. Consequently, Pascal generates a
warning if the argument to addr is any of these objects.

addr cannot be applied to bit-aligned fields of aggregates.

Note – If you use the addr ( ) function, do not use the –H option. The –H
option makes sure that all pointers used point into the heap.

100 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, addr.p program addr_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

addr function. }

const
name = 'Gail';

type
ptr = ^ integer;
ptr_char = ^ alfa;

var
ptr_address: ptr;
ptr_address_char: ptr_char;
x: integer;
y: integer;
c: alfa;

begin
x := maxint;

{ Get the address of x. }

ptr_address := addr(x);

{ Get the contents of ptr_address. }

y := ptr_address^;
writeln('The address of x is ', ptr_address: 3, '.');
writeln('The contents of x is ', y: 3, '.');

{ Get the address of the constant name. }

ptr_address_char := addr(name);

{ Get the contents of ptr_address_char. }

c := ptr_address_char^;

writeln('The address of c is ', ptr_address_char: 3, '.');

writeln('The contents of c is ', c: 4, '.')
end. { addr_example }

Built-In Procedures and Functions 101

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc addr.p

execute addr.p hostname% a.out
The address of x is 38764.
The contents of x is 2147483647.
The address of c is 33060.
The contents of c is Gail.

append
The append function allows a file to be modified, and sets the current position
to the end of the file.

Syntax
append(file, filename)

Arguments
file is a variable with the text or file data type.

filename, which is optional, is a string of fixed or variable length, or a string

constant.

Return Value
append does not return any values.

Comments
For example, this code associates the Pascal file data with the operating system
file, existent:
append(data, 'existent');

If you do not pass an optional second argument, Pascal creates a new

temporary file, which is deleted when the program is terminated.

See also the sections: “reset,” “rewrite,” and “close.”

102 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example
The example that follows shows how to use append.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 103

 6

The Pascal program, files.p program files_example(input, output);

const
MaxLength = 80;
var
f: text;
line: varying [MaxLength] of char;
begin
rewrite(f, 'poem.txt');
writeln('Enter a lines of text and hit Control+D to end the
job.');
while not eof do begin
readln(line);
writeln(f, line);
end;
close(f);
writeln;
writeln('There are the lines of text you input:');
reset(f, 'poem.txt');
while not eof(f) do begin
readln(f, line);
writeln(line);
end;
close(f);

reset(input); { Because Control+D close input }

append(f, 'poem.txt');
writeln('Append a lines of text and hit Control+D to end the
job.');
while not eof do begin
readln(line);
writeln(f, line);
end;
close(f);
writeln;
writeln('There are the lines of all text you input:');
reset(f, 'poem.txt');
while not eof(f) do begin
readln(f, line);
writeln(line);
end;
close(f);
end.

104 Pascal Language Reference

 6

argc
The argc function returns the number of arguments passed to the program.

Syntax
argc

Arguments
argc does not take any arguments.

Return Value
argc returns an integer value.

Comments
The return value of argc is always at least 1, the name of the program.

argc is normally used in conjunction with the built-in procedure, argv. See
the argv listing on page 105.

Example
See the example in the argv listing page 105.

argv
The argv procedure assigns the specified program argument to a string
variable.

Syntax
argv(i, a)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 105

 6

Arguments
i is an integer value.

a is a fixed- or variable-length string.

Return Value
argv returns a string variable.

Comments
argv returns the i'th argument of the current process to the string variable a. i
ranges from 0, the program name, to argc-1.

argc is a predeclared function that tells you how many arguments are being
passed to the program. argv is normally used in conjunction with argc.

106 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, argv.p program argv_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of

argc and argv. }

var
i: integer32;
name: varying [30] of char;

begin
{ Argument number 0 is the name of the program. }
argv(0, name);
writeln('The name of the program is ', name, '.');
i := 1;
while i <= argc - 1 do begin
argv(i, name);
writeln('Argument number ', i: 1, ' is ', name, '.');
i := i + 1
end
end. { argv_example }

The commands to output and hostname% pc argv.p

execute argv.p hostname% a.out
The name of the program is a.out.
hostname% a.out one two three
The name of the program is a.out.
Argument number 1 is one.
Argument number 2 is two.
Argument number 3 is three.

arshft
The arshft function does an arithmetic right shift of an integer value.

Syntax
arshft(num, sh)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 107

 6

Arguments
num and sh are integer expressions.

Return Value
arshft returns a 32-bit integer value.

Comments
arshft shifts the bits in num sh places to the right. arshft preserves the sign
bit of num. arshft does not wrap bits around from left to right. The sign bit
is the most significant (leftmost) bit in the number. Pascal uses two's
complement to represent negative integers. For example, -8 as a 16-bit integer
is represented as:
1111 1111 1111 1000

If you shift this number to the right by 1:

(arshft (-8, 1) )

your result is:

1111 1111 1111 1100

The result arshft returns is machine-dependent, and is unspecified unless the

following is true:
0 <= sh <= 32

108 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, arshft.p program arshft_example(input, output);

{ This program demonstrates the arithmetic right shift. }

const
SIZE = 8;

var
i: integer32;
i32: integer32;
loop: integer32;

begin
write('Enter a positive or negative integer: ');
readln(i);
for loop := 1 to SIZE do begin
i32 := arshft(i, loop);
write('Arithmetic right shift ', loop: 2);
writeln(' bit(s): ', i32 hex)
end
end. { arshft_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc arshft.p

execute arshft.p. The value hostname% a.out
the bit-shift routines return may Enter a positive or negative integer: -2
depend upon the architecture of Arithmetic right shift 1 bit(s): FFFFFFFF
your system. Arithmetic right shift 2 bit(s): FFFFFFFF
Arithmetic right shift 3 bit(s): FFFFFFFF
Arithmetic right shift 4 bit(s): FFFFFFFF
Arithmetic right shift 5 bit(s): FFFFFFFF
Arithmetic right shift 6 bit(s): FFFFFFFF
Arithmetic right shift 7 bit(s): FFFFFFFF
Arithmetic right shift 8 bit(s): FFFFFFFF

asl
The asl function does an arithmetic left shift of an integer value.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 109

 6

Syntax
asl(num, sh)

Arguments
num and sh are integer expressions.

Return Value
asl returns a 32-bit integer value.

Comments
asl shifts the bits in num sh places to the left. asl preserves the sign bit of
num and does not wrap bits from left to right.

The result asl returns is machine-dependent and is unspecified unless the

following is true:
0 <= sh <= 32

110 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, asl.p program asl_example(input, output);

{ This program demonstrates the arithmetic left shift. }

const
SIZE = 8;

var
i: integer32;
i32: integer32;
loop: integer32;

begin
write('Enter a positive or negative integer: ');
readln(i);
for loop := 1 to SIZE do begin
i32 := asl(i, loop);
write('Arithmetic left shift ', loop: 2);
writeln(' bit(s): ', i32 hex)
end
end. { asl_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc asl.p

execute asl.p hostname% a.out
Enter a positive or negative integer: 19
Arithmetic left shift 1 bit(s): 26
Arithmetic left shift 2 bit(s): 4C
Arithmetic left shift 3 bit(s): 98
Arithmetic left shift 4 bit(s): 130
Arithmetic left shift 5 bit(s): 260
Arithmetic left shift 6 bit(s): 4C0
Arithmetic left shift 7 bit(s): 980
Arithmetic left shift 8 bit(s): 1300

asr
The asr function is identical to the arshft function. See the arshft listing.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 111

 6

card
The card function returns the number of elements in a set variable.

Syntax
card(x)

Arguments
x must be a set variable.

Return Value
card returns an integer value.

Comments
card returns the number of elements in the actual set variable, not the size of
the set type.

112 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, card.p program card_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the card function. }

type
lowints = 0..100;
primary_colors = set of (red, yellow, blue);
possibilities = set of boolean;
capital_letters = set of 'A'..'Z';
digits = set of lowints;

var
pri: primary_colors;
pos: possibilities;
cap: capital_letters;
dig: digits;

begin
pri := [red, yellow, blue];
pos := [true, false];
cap := ['A'..'Z'];
dig := [0..100];
writeln('There are ',card(pri): 4, ' primary colors.');
writeln('There are ',card(pos): 4, ' possibilities.');
writeln('There are ',card(cap): 4, ' capital letters.');
writeln('There are ',card(dig): 4, ' digits.')
end. { card_example }

The commands to output and hostname% pc card.p

execute card.p hostname% a.out
There are 3 primary colors.
There are 2 possibilities.
There are 26 capital letters.
There are 101 digits.

clock
The clock function returns the user time consumed by the process.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 113

 6

Syntax
clock

Arguments
clock does not take any arguments.

Return Value
clock returns an integer value.

Comments
clock returns the user time in milliseconds.

See also the sysclock function, which returns the system time the process
uses.

114 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, clock.p program clock_example(input, output);

{ This program times how long it takes to run the

towers of hanoi. }

const
DISK = 16;

var
num: array [1..3] of integer;
counts: integer32;
before_user: integer;
before_sys: integer;
after_user: integer;
after_sys: integer;

procedure moves(number, f, t: integer);

var
o: integer;

begin
if number = 1 then begin
num[f] := num[f] - 1;
num[t] := num[t] - 1;
counts := counts + 1
end else begin
o := 6 - (f + t);
moves(number - 1, f, o);
moves(1, f, t);
moves(number - 1, o, t)
end
end; { moves } { moves }

clock.p Program (Screen 1 of 2)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 115

 6

begin { main program }

before_user := clock;
before_sys := sysclock;
moves(DISK, 1, 3);
after_sys := sysclock;
after_user := clock;
write('For ', DISK: 1, ' disks, there were ');
writeln(counts: 1, ' steps.');
write('Elapsed system time: ');
writeln(after_sys - before_sys: 1, ' milliseconds.');
write('Elapsed user time: ');
writeln(after_user - before_user: 1, ' milliseconds.')
end. { clock_example }

clock.p Program (Screen 2 of 2)

The commands to compile and hostname% a.out

execute clock.p. The time For 16 disks, there were 65535 steps.
clock and sysclock return is Elapsed system time: 16 milliseconds.
system-dependent. Elapsed user time: 583 milliseconds.

close
The close procedure closes a file.

Syntax
close(file)

Arguments
file is a file having the text or file data type.

Return Value
close does not return any values.

116 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Comments
close closes the open file named file. close is optional; Pascal closes all files
either when the program terminates or when it leaves the procedure in which
the file variable is associated with the open file.

Pascal generates a runtime error if file is not an open file. You can trap this
error with the I/O error recovery mechanism, described in “I/O Error
Recovery” on page 214.

In Pascal, you cannot close the predeclared files input and output. If you
redirect input or output, the associated streams are automatically closed.

See also the open, reset, and rewrite procedures, which open a file.

Example
See the example in the open listing in this chapter.

concat
The concat function returns the concatenation of two strings.

Syntax
concat(str1, str2)

Arguments
str1 is a variable-length string, a character array, or a character-string constant.

str2 is a variable-length string, a character array, or a character-string constant.

Return Value
concat returns a variable-length string.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 117

 6

Comments
concat returns a concatenation of str1 and str2. You can concatenate any
combination of varying, array of char, constant strings, and single characters.

The string plus (+) operator returns the same result as the concat function.

If the resulting string is longer than the maximum length of the destination
varying string, it is truncated to this maximum length. If the resulting string is
longer than 65,535 characters, it is truncated to this length.

See also the section: “stradd.”

Example

The Pascal program, concat.p program concat_example(output);

var
color: varying [10] of char := ' Black';

begin
writeln(concat(color, 'bird' + '.'));
end.

The commands to compile and hostname% pc concat.p

execute concat.p hostname% a.out
Blackbird.

date
The date procedure takes the current date (as assigned when the operating
system was initialized) and assigns it to a string variable.

Syntax
date(a)

118 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Arguments
a is a variable that can be either a character array that is 8 elements long for the
"C" locale, or a variable-length string.

Return Value
date returns a character string in the form traditional for a given locale. For
the "C" locale, the form is mm-dd-yy, where dd is the day, mm is the month,
and yy is the year.

Comments
date puts a zero in front of the day and the year, so that they always consist of
two digits.

Use the environment variable LC_TIME to set the necessary locale.

See also the section: “time.”

Example

The Pascal program, date.p program date_example(output);

var
s1: alfa;
s2: array[1..8] of char;
s3: array[89..96] of char;
s4: varying[100] of char;

begin
date(s1);
date(s2);
date(s3);
date(s4);
writeln('The date is ', s1, '.');
writeln('The date is ', s2, '.');
writeln('The date is ', s3, '.');
writeln('The date is ', s4, '.');
end.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 119

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc date.p

execute date.p hostname% a.out
The date is 12/19/94.
The date is 12/19/94.
The date is 12/19/94.
The date is 12/19/94.
hostname% setenv LC_TIME ru
hostname% a.out
The date is 19.12.94.
The date is 19.12.94.
The date is 19.12.94.
The date is 19.12.94.
hostname% setenv LC_TIME C
hostname% a.out
The date is 12/19/94.
The date is 12/19/94.
The date is 12/19/94.
The date is 12/19/94.

discard
The discard procedure removes the value of an expression.

Syntax
discard(expr)

Arguments
expr is any expression including a function call.

Return Value
discard does not return any values.

120 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Comments
Use discard to call a function or evaluate an expression whose value you do
not need to continue program execution. For example, you can use discard
to execute a function whose return value you do not need.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 121

 6

Example

The Pascal program, program discard_example(output);

discard.p
{ This program computes a discount if the total amount
is over DISC_AMOUNT. }

const
RATE = 0.15;
DISC_AMOUNT = 100.00;

var
amount: single;
discount: single;

function compute(amount: single): single;

begin
compute := amount * RATE
end; { compute }

begin { main program }

write('Enter sale amount: ');
readln(amount);
if amount < DISC_AMOUNT then begin
discard(compute(amount));
write('No discount applied; total charge amount');
writeln(' must be more than ', DISC_AMOUNT: 2: 2, '.')
end else begin
discount := compute(amount);
write('The amount of discount on ');
writeln(amount: 2: 2, ' is ', discount: 2: 2, '.')
end
end. { discard_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc discard.p

execute discard.p hostname% a.out
Enter sale amount: 125.00
The amount of discount on 125.00 is 18.75.

122 Pascal Language Reference

 6

expo
The expo function calculates the integer-valued exponent of a specified
number.

Syntax
expo(x)

Arguments
x is either a real or integer value.

Return Value
expo returns an integer value.

Comments
expo returns an integer that represents the integer-valued exponent of a real
number.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 123

 6

Example

The Pascal program, expo.p program expo_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the expo function. }

const
MAX = 10;

var
i: integer;
r: real;

begin
writeln(' x r := exp(x) expo(r)');
writeln(' - ----------- -------');
for i := 1 to MAX do begin
r := exp(i);
writeln(i: 2, ' ', r, ' ', expo(r))
end
end. { expo_example }

The value expo returns may hostname% pc expo.p

depend upon the architecture of hostname% a.out
your system. x r := exp(x) expo(r)
- ------------------
1 2.71828182845905e+00 0
2 7.38905609893065e+00 0
3 2.00855369231877e+01 1
4 5.45981500331442e+01 1
5 1.48413159102577e+02 2
6 4.03428793492735e+02 2
7 1.09663315842846e+03 3
8 2.98095798704173e+03 3
9 8.10308392757538e+03 3
10 2.20264657948067e+04 4

filesize
The filesize function returns the size of a given file.

124 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Syntax
filesize(file)

Arguments
file is a variable with the text or file data type.

Return Value
filesize returns an integer value.

Comments
The argument can be either a text file of text type, or a binary file of a certain
file of T type. It must be associated with an open file, otherwise an error
occurs.

For a text file, filesize returns the number of bytes in the file.

For a binary file of type file of T, filesize returns the number of

elements of type T in the file.

See also the sections, “seek,” and “tell.”

Built-In Procedures and Functions 125

 6

Example

The Pascal program, program filesize_example;

filesize.p var
ft: text;
fi: file of integer;
i: integer;
begin
rewrite(ft);
rewrite(fi);
i := 10;
write(ft, i, i);
write(fi, i, i);
writeln('size of a text of an integer =', filesize(ft):
3, ' bytes');
writeln('size of a file of an integer =', filesize(fi):
3, ' elements');
close(ft);
close(fi)
end. { filesize_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc filesize.p

execute filesize.p hostname% a.out
size of a text of an integer = 20 bytes
size of a file of an integer = 2 elements

firstof
The firstof function returns the value of the lower bound when its
argument is or has an ordinal type. For array types, firstof returns the
lower bound for the subrange defining the array index. For set types, it
returns the lower bound of the set base type.

Syntax
firstof(x)

126 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Arguments
x is either a variable, a constant, an expression, or the name of a user-defined
or predeclared Pascal data type. x cannot be a record, a file, a pointer type, a
conformant array, a procedure or function parameter, or a string literal.

Return Value
The return value depends on the type that x is.

When x is ... The value firstof returns ...

An ordinal type, a constant, Has the same data type as its argument.
an expression, or variable
An array Has the same data type as the type of the array index.
A set type Has the same data type as the base type of the set.

Comments
Pascal follows the rules in Table 6-9 when returning the value of x.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 127

 6

Table 6-9 firstof Return Values

Type of Argument Return Value

integer (without –xl option) -2,147,483,648
integer (with –xl option) -32,768
integer16 -32,768
integer32 -2,147,483,648
char chr(0)
boolean false
Enumerated The first element in the enumeration type declaration.
array The lower bound of the subrange that defines the
array size.
varying 1
set of 'A'..'Z' A (the character A).

Example
See the examples that follow.

128 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The Pascal program, program firstof_example(output);

firstof.p
{ This program illustrates the use of firstof and lastof
used with arrays and enumerated types. }

const
dollars_per_tourist = 100;

type
continents = (North_America, South_America, Asia, Europe,
Africa, Australia, Antarctica);

var
i: continents;
major_targets: array [continents] of integer :=
[20, 3, 15, 25, 5, 1, 0];
planned_targets: array [continents] of integer := [* of 0];

begin
for i := firstof(planned_targets) to
lastof(planned_targets) do begin
planned_targets[i] := major_targets[i] * dollars_per_tourist
end;

for i := firstof(continents) to lastof(continents) do begin

writeln(i, ' is the goal of ', planned_targets[i]: 1,
' dollars per tourist.')
end

end. { firstof_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc firstof.p

execute firstof.p hostname% a.out
North_America is the goal of 2000 dollars per tourist.
South_America is the goal of 300 dollars per tourist.
Asia is the goal of 1500 dollars per tourist.
Europe is the goal of 2500 dollars per tourist.
Africa is the goal of 500 dollars per tourist.
Australia is the goal of 100 dollars per tourist.
Antarctica is the goal of 0 dollars per tourist.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 129

 6

flush
The flush procedure writes the output buffer for the specified Pascal file into
the associated file.

Syntax
flush(file)

Arguments
file is a file having the text or file data type.

Return Value
flush does not return any values.

Comments
The flush procedure causes the compiler to write all characters buffered for
output to the specified file.

For example, in the following code fragment, the compiler writes the output
integer i to the file f when it encounters flush:

for i := 1 to 5 do begin
write(f,i);
Compute a lot with no output
end;
flush(f);

flush does not append a newline character after writing the data. See also the
output procedures, message, write, and writeln.

130 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, flush.p program flush_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

flush procedure. }

const
NAME = 'flush.txt';
var
i: integer;
f1, f2: text;

procedure read_file;
var
i: integer;
begin
reset(f2, NAME);
writeln('Beginning of file.');
while not eof(f2) do begin
while not eoln(f2) do begin
read(f2, i);
writeln(i)
end;
readln(f2)
end;
writeln('End of file.');
writeln
end; { read_file }

flush.p (Screen 1 of 2)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 131

 6

begin { main program }

rewrite(f1, NAME);
for i := 1 to 10 do
write(f1, i);

{ At this point the file is still empty. }

read_file;

flush(f1);

{ Now the file contains data after the flush. }

read_file
end. { flush_example }

flush.p (Screen 2 of 2)

The commands to compile and hostname% pc flush.p

execute flush.p hostname% a.out
Beginning of file.
End of file.

Beginning of file.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
End of file.

getenv
The getenv function returns the value associated with an environment name.

132 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Syntax
getenv(string, string_variable)

Arguments
string is either a constant string, a variable-length string, or a character array.
string_variable is a variable-length string or a character array.

Return Value
getenv returns a variable-length string or a character array.

Comments
The variable string is an environment name. Pascal returns the value for the
environment name through the parameter, string_variable.

string must match the environment exactly, and trailing blanks are significant.
If string is a character array, you may want to use the trim function.

If there are no environment names with the value string, the value of
string_variable is the null string if string_variable is a variable-length string. If
string_variable is a character array, it is padded with blanks.

See the Solaris documentation for a complete description of environment

variables.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 133

 6

Example

The Pascal program, getenv.p program getenv_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

getenv function. }

var
namev: varying [10] of char := 'EDITOR';
names: array [1..10] of char := 'EDITOR';
valv: varying [20] of char;

begin
getenv(namev, valv);
writeln(namev, ' = ', valv);
getenv(trim(names), valv);
writeln(names, ' = ', valv)
end. { getenv_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc getenv.p

execute getenv.p hostname% a.out
EDITOR = /usr/ucb/vi
EDITOR = /usr/ucb/vi

getfile
The getfile function returns a pointer to the C standard I/O descriptor
associated with a Pascal file.

Syntax
getfile(file)

Arguments
file is a file having the text or file data type. file must be associated with an
open file; otherwise, getfile returns nil.

134 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Return Value
getfile returns a value of type univ_ptr.

Comments
You can use the result of getfile for files opened with either the reset,
rewrite, or open procedures, placing the return value as a parameter to a C
I/O routine. Use extreme caution when you call getfile; directly calling C
I/O routines circumvents bookkeeping data structures in the Pascal I/O
library.

As a general rule, calling C routines for writing is safe. Using the return value
for calling C routines for reading may cause subsequent eoln, eof, or readln
calls to produce errors for that file.

Example

The Pascal program, program getfile_example;

getfile.p
{ This program demonstrates the use of the getfile function. }

type
char_array = array [1..30] of char;

var
f: text;
cfile: univ_ptr;

procedure fprintf(cf: univ_ptr; in format: char_array;

in year: integer); external c;

begin { main program }

rewrite(f, 'output.data');
cfile := getfile(f);
fprintf(cfile, 'Hello, world, in the year %d .', 1996)
end. { getfile_example }

Built-In Procedures and Functions 135

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc getfile.p

execute getfile.p hostname% a.out
hostname% more output.data
Hello, world, in the year 1996 .

halt
The halt procedure terminates program execution.

Syntax
halt

Arguments
halt does not take any arguments.

Return Values
halt does not return any values.

Comments
You can use halt anywhere in a program to terminate execution. When
execution of a program encounters a halt, it prints the following message:

Call to procedure halt

Pascal returns to command level after it executes halt.

136 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, halt.p program halt_example(input, output);

{ This program calculates a factorial. }

var
x, y: integer;

function factorial(n: integer): integer;

begin
if n = 0 then
factorial := 1
else
factorial := n * factorial(n - 1)
end; { factorial } { factorial }

begin { main program }

write('Enter a positive integer from 0 to 16: ');
readln(x);
if (x >= 0) and (x <= 16) then begin
y := factorial(x);
write('The factorial of ', x: 1);
writeln(' is ', y: 1, '.')
end else begin
writeln('Illegal input.');
halt
end
end. { halt_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc halt.p

execute halt.p hostname% a.out
Enter a positive integer from 0 to 16: 8
The factorial of 8 is 40320.
hostname% a.out
Enter a positive integer from 0 to 16: 20
Illegal input.
Call to procedure halt

Built-In Procedures and Functions 137

 6

in_range
The in_range function checks if a value is in the defined subrange.

Syntax
in_range(x)

Arguments
x is an integer, boolean, character, enumerated, or subrange data type.

Return Value
in_range returns a boolean value.

Comments
in_range returns true if x is in the defined range, false if x is outside the
range.

in_range is useful for doing a runtime check to see if x has a valid value.
in_range is especially helpful for checking enumerated and subrange types.
However, this feature does not work for 32-bit integer values.

If you compile your program with the –C option, the compiler also generates
code that does range checking. However, if the variable is out of range, the
program terminates. By using in_range instead, you can control subsequent
execution of your program.

138 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, program in_range_example(input, output);

in_range.p
{ This program demonstrates the use of the in_range function. }

type
positive = 1..maxint;

var
base, height: positive;
area: real;

begin
write('Enter values for triangle base and height: ');
readln(base, height);
if in_range(base) and in_range(height) then begin
area := base * height / 2;
writeln('Area is ', area: 5: 2, '.')
end else
writeln('Cannot compute negative areas.')
end. { in_range_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc in_range.p

execute in_range.p hostname% a.out
Enter values for triangle base and height: 4 5
Area is 10.00.

index
The index function returns the position of the first occurrence of a string or
character within another string.

Syntax
index(target_string, pattern_string)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 139

 6

Arguments
target_string is a constant string, variable-length string, or an array of character.

pattern_string is a constant string, variable-length string, an array of character,

or a character.

Return Value
index returns an integer value that represents the position of the first
occurrence of pattern_string within target_string. If the first occurrence is at the
starting position of the original string, the returned index value is 1.

Comments
The leftmost occurrence of the pattern-string is considered the first occurrence.

If the pattern_string is not found in the target_string, index returns 0. If

pattern_string is the null string, index returns –1.

Example
See the example that follows.

140 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The Pascal program, index.p program index_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of

the index function. }

const
MAX = 20;
STRING = 'FOO';

type
char_array = varying [MAX] of char;

var
s1: char_array := 'INDEX_EXAMPLE';
s2: char_array := 'EXAMPLE';
i: integer16;

procedure print(index: integer; s1: char_array;

s2: char_array);

begin
if index = 0 then begin
write('The string ', s2, ' is not');
writeln(' in the string ', s1, '.')
end else begin
write('The string ', s2, ' is at index ', i: 1);
writeln(' in the string ', s1, '.')
end
end; { print } { print } { print }

begin { main program }

i := index(s1, s2);
print(i, s1, s2);
i := index(s1, STRING);
print(i, s1, STRING)
end. { index_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc index.p

execute index.p hostname% a.out
The string EXAMPLE is at index 7 in the string INDEX_EXAMPLE.
The string FOO is not in the string INDEX_EXAMPLE.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 141

 6

land
The land function returns the bitwise and of two integer values.

Syntax
land(int1, int2)

Arguments
int1 and int2 are integer expressions.

Return Value
land returns an integer value.

Comments
land performs a bit-by-bit and operation, as shown in Table 6-10.

Table 6-10 land Truth

Value of Bit in int1 Value of Bit in int2 Value of Bit in result

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

If int1 and int2 are different size integers, Pascal converts the smaller integer to
the larger integer before it performs the land operation.

land produces the same results as the bitwise operator &. Do not confuse
land with the boolean operator and, which finds the logical and of two
boolean expressions.

142 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, land.p program land_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of the land, lor,

lor, and xor functions. }

procedure BinaryOutput(intval: integer32);

var
i: integer32;

begin
write(' Decimal : ', intval, ' Binary : ');
for i := 31 downto 0 do begin
if lsr(intval, i) mod 2 = 0 then
write('0')
else
write('1')
end;
writeln
end; { BinaryOutput }

var
ival1, ival2: integer32;

begin
ival1 := 2#00000000000000000000000000001111;
ival2 := 2#00000000000000000000000011111111;
writeln('IVAL1');
BinaryOutput(ival1);
writeln('IVAL2');
BinaryOutput(ival2);
writeln('LNOT(IVAL1)');
BinaryOutput(lnot(ival1));
writeln('LAND(IVAL1,IVAL2)');
BinaryOutput(land(ival1, ival2));
writeln('LOR(IVAL1,IVAL2)');
BinaryOutput(lor(ival1, ival2));
writeln('XOR(IVAL1,IVAL2)');
BinaryOutput(xor(ival1, ival2))
end. { land_example }

Built-In Procedures and Functions 143

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc land.p

execute land.p. The value the hostname% a.out
bit-shift routines return may IVAL1
depend upon the architecture of Decimal : 15 Binary : 00000000000000000000000000001111
your system. IVAL2
Decimal : 255 Binary :00000000000000000000000011111111
LNOT(IVAL1)
Decimal : -16 Binary :11111111111111111111111111110000
LAND(IVAL1,IVAL2)
Decimal : 15 Binary : 00000000000000000000000000001111
LOR(IVAL1,IVAL2)
Decimal : 255 Binary :00000000000000000000000011111111
XOR(IVAL1,IVAL2)
Decimal : 240 Binary :00000000000000000000000011110000

lastof
The lastof function returns the value of the upper bound when its argument
is or has an ordinal type. For array types, lastof returns the upper bound for
the subrange defining the array index. For set types, it returns the upper
bound of the set base type.

Syntax
lastof(x)

Arguments
x is either a variable, a constant, an expression, or the name of a user-defined
or predeclared Pascal data type. x cannot be a record, a file, a pointer type, a
conformant array, a procedure or function parameter, or a string literal.

Return Value
When x is an ordinal type, a constant, an expression, or variable, the value
lastof returns has the same data type as its argument.

When x is an array, the value lastof returns has the same data type as the
type of the array index.

144 Pascal Language Reference

 6
When x is a set type, the value lastof returns has the same data type as the
base type of the set.

Comments
Pascal follows the rules in Table 6-11 when returning the value of x.

Table 6-11 lastof Return Values

Type of Argument Return Value

integer (without –xl) 2,147,483,647
integer (with –xl) 32,767
integer16 32,767
integer32 2,147,483,647
char chr(255)
boolean true
enumerated The last element in the enumeration type declaration.
array The upper bound of the subrange that defines the array size.
varying The upper bound of the varying string.
set of 'A'..'Z' The character Z.

Example
See the example under firstof on page 126.

length
The length function returns the length of a string.

Syntax
length(str)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 145

 6

Arguments
str is a variable-length string, a character array, or a character-string constant.

Return Value
length returns an integer value.

Comments
length returns a value that specifies the length of str.

Example

The Pascal program, length.p program length_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the length function. }

var
s1: array [1..15] of char;
s2: varying [20] of char;
begin
s1 := 'San Francisco ';
s2 := 'California';
writeln('The length of string one is ', length(s1): 2, '.');
writeln('The length of string two is ', length(s2): 2, '.');
writeln('The combined length is ', length(s1 + s2): 2, '.')
end. { length_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc length.p

execute length.p hostname% a.out
The length of string one is 15.
The length of string two is 10.
The combined length is 25.

146 Pascal Language Reference

 6

linelimit
The linelimit procedure terminates execution of a program after a specified
number of lines has been written into a text file.

Syntax
linelimit(file, n)

Arguments
file is a file having the text or file data type.

n is a positive integer expression.

Return Value
linelimit does not return any values.

Comments
linelimit terminates program execution if more than n lines are written to
file f. If n is less than zero, no limit is imposed.

linelimit has no effect unless you compile your program with the –C
option.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 147

 6

Example

The Pascal program, program linelimit_example;

linelimit.p
{ This program demonstrates the use of the
linelimit procedure. }

const
FILE = 'linelimit.dat';

var
infile: text;
error: integer32;
name: array [1..20] of char;

begin
open(infile, FILE, 'unknown', error);
rewrite(infile, FILE);
if error = 0 then begin
writeln('Enter the names of your children.');
writeln('The last entry should be "0".');
repeat
readln(name);
writeln(infile, name);
linelimit(infile, 10)
until name = '0';
close(infile)
end else begin
writeln('Difficulty opening file.');
writeln('Error code = ', error, '.')
end
end. { linelimit_example }

148 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc -C linelimit.p

execute linelimit.p hostname% a.out
Enter the names of your children.
The last entry should be "0".
Ryan
Matthew
Jennifer
Lynne
Lisa
Ann
Katherine
Devon
Geoffrey
Bria

linelimit.dat : Line limit exceeded

*** a.out terminated by signal 5: SIGTRAP
*** Traceback being written to a.out.trace
Abort (core dumped)

lnot
The lnot function returns the bitwise not of an integer value.

Syntax
lnot(int)

Arguments
int is an integer expression.

Return Value
lnot returns an integer value.

Comments
lnot performs a bit-by-bit not operation, as shown in Table 6-12.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 149

 6
Table 6-12 lnot Truth

Value of Bit in int Value of Bit in result

0 1
1 0

lnot produces the same results as the bitwise operator ~. Do not confuse
lnot with the boolean operator not, which evaluates the logical not of a
boolean expression.

Example
See the example under land on page 142.

lor
The lor function returns the inclusive or of two integer values.

Syntax
lor(int1, int2)

Argument
int1 and int2 are integer expressions.

Return Value
lor returns an integer value.

Comments
lor performs an inclusive or, as shown in Table 6-13.

150 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Table 6-13 lor Truth

Value of Bit in intl1 Value of Bit in int2 Value of Bit in result

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

If int1 and int2 are different size integers, Pascal converts the smaller integer to
the larger integer before it performs the lor operation.

lor produces the same results as the bitwise operators ! and |. Do not
confuse lor with the boolean operator or, which evaluates the logical or of
a boolean expression.

Example
See the example under land on page 142.

lshft
The lshft function does a logical left shift of an integer value.

Syntax
lshft(num, sh)

Argument
num and sh are integer expressions.

Return Value
lshft returns a 32-bit integer value.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 151

 6

Comments
lshft shifts all bits in num sh places to the left. lshft does not wrap bits
from the left to right. The value lshft returns is machine-dependent and is
unspecified unless 0 <= sh <= 32.

Do not confuse lshft with the arithmetic left shift functions which preserve
the sign bit.

The Pascal program, lshft.p program lshft_example(input, output);

{ This program does a logical left shift. }

const
SIZE = 8;

var
i: integer32;
i32: integer32;
loop: integer32;

begin
write('Enter a positive or negative integer: ');
readln(i);
for loop := 1 to SIZE do begin
i32 := lshft(i, loop);
write('Logical left shift ', loop: 2);
writeln(' bit(s): ', i32 hex)
end
end. { lshft_example }

152 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc lshft.p

execute lshft.p. The value hostname% a.out
the bit-shift routines return may Enter a positive or negative integer: 3
depend upon the architecture of Logical left shift 1 bit(s): 6
your system. Logical left shift 2 bit(s): C
Logical left shift 3 bit(s): 18
Logical left shift 4 bit(s): 30
Logical left shift 5 bit(s): 60
Logical left shift 6 bit(s): C0
Logical left shift 7 bit(s): 180
Logical left shift 8 bit(s): 300

lsl
The lsl function is identical to the lshft function. See the lshft listing on
page 151.

lsr
The lsr function is identical to the rshft function. See the rshft listing on
page 171.

max
The max function evaluates two scalar expressions and returns the larger one.

Syntax
max(exp1, exp2)

Arguments
exp1 and exp2 are any valid scalar expressions that are assignment-compatible.

Return Value
max returns the same or the converted type of exp1 and exp2.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 153

 6
See also the min listing on page 156.

Example

The Pascal program, max.p program max_example(input, output);

{ This program reads in 10 positive integers

in the range 1 through 501 and determines
the largest even and smallest odd.Out of range numbers
are rejected. }

var
smallest_odd: integer := 501;
largest_even: integer := 0;
number, counter: integer;

begin
writeln('Please enter 10 integers between 0 and 501:');
for counter := 1 to 10 do begin
read(number);
if (number < 0) or (number > 501)
then writeln ('The number is out of range ')
else if odd(number)
then smallest_odd := min(number, smallest_odd)
else
largest_even := max(number, largest_even)
end;
writeln('The smallest odd number is ', smallest_odd: 1, '.');
writeln('The largest even number is ', largest_even: 1, '.')
end. { max_example }

154 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc max.p

execute max.p hostname% a.out
Please enter 10 integers between 0 and 501:
56 431 23 88 222 67 131 337 401 99
The smallest odd number is 23.
The largest even number is 222.

message
The message procedure writes the specified information on stderr (usually
the terminal).

Syntax
message(x1, ..., xN)

Arguments
x is one or more expressions separated by commas. x can be a variable,
constant, or expression of a type that write accepts (such as integer, real,
character, boolean, enumerated, or string). x cannot be a set variable.

Return Value
message does not return any values.

Comments
message is an output procedure similar to write and writeln. Whereas
write and writeln send the output to standard output or the specified file,
message sends the output to standard error. message also appends a
carriage return to the message.

message flushes all buffers both before and after writing the message.

message(x1, ..., xN) is equivalent to the following code:

Built-In Procedures and Functions 155

 6

writeln(errout, x1, ..., xN);

flush(errout);
flush(output);
.
.
{ Flush all open files. }

Example

The Pascal program, program message_example(output);

message.p
{ This program demonstrates the use of the
message function. }

begin
writeln('This message will go to standard output.');
message('This message will go to standard error.')
end. { message_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc message.p

execute message.p hostname% a.out > temp_file
This message will go to standard error.
hostname% cat temp_file
This message will go to standard output.
hostname% a.out >& temp_file
hostname% cat temp_file
This message will go to standard output.
This message will go to standard error.

min
The min function evaluates two scalar expressions and returns the smaller one.

Syntax
min(exp1, exp2)

156 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Arguments
exp1 and exp2 are any valid scalar expressions that are assignment-compatible.

Return Value
min returns the same or the converted type of exp1 and exp2.

Comments
See also the max listing on page 153.

Example
See the example under the max listing on page 153.

null
The null procedure performs no operation.

Syntax
null

Arguments
null does not take any arguments.

Return Value
null does not return any values.

Comments
null does absolutely nothing; it is useful as a placeholder. For example,
suppose you are developing a program, and you are uncertain about a
particular case statement, you could put null in place of the case statement,
then replace it later with an actual function or procedure.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 157

 6

open
The open procedure associates an external file with a file variable.

Syntax
open(file, pathname, history, error, buffer)

Arguments
open takes the following arguments:
• file is a variable having the text or file data type.
• pathname is a string constant or string variable.
• history is a string variable.
• error is an integer32 variable. This argument is optional.
• buffer is an optional integer variable. This argument is currently ignored.

Return Value
open does not return any values.

Comments
open associates the permanent file file with a file variable for reading or
writing. open does not actually open the file; you must call reset or
rewrite before reading or writing to that file.

pathname must be one of the following:

• An operating system path name.
• A string of '^n', where n is an integer from 1 to 9. n represents the nth
argument passed to the program. ^n is equivalent to argv(n, file).
• A prompt string. The string must begin with the character '*'. Pascal prints
the prompt string on the standard output at runtime.
• The string '-STDIN' or '-STDOUT.'
• A variable or constant that contains any of the above items.

158 Pascal Language Reference

 6
history instructs the compiler whether to create the file or what to do with it if
it exists. history must be one of these values:

'new' Associates the operating system file with a new file. The compiler
generates an error if the file already exists.
'old' Associates the operating system file with an existing file. The
compiler generates an error if the file does not exist. This option
first tries to open the file for writing. Failing to do so, it tries to
open it for reading only.
'unknown' Searches for an existing file and associate it with the operating
system file. The compiler creates the file if it does not exist.

Pascal returns an integer error code through error, as shown in Table 6-14.

Table 6-14 open Error Codes

Number Description
0 open is successful.
1 File not specified on the command-line. For example, this error is
generated for the following line when argument one is not specified:
open(infile,'^1','new',Error);
2 Unable to open file.
3 Invalid history specified. history must be either 'new', 'old', or
'unknown'.

Pascal automatically closes all open files when your program terminates or
when the program exits the scope in which the file variable for the open file is
allocated. See also the close, reset, and rewrite procedures.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 159

 6

The Pascal program, open.p program open_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of the open procedure. }

const
name_of_file = 'open1.txt';
file3 = '*Enter_a_filename-- ';

type
char_array = varying [50] of char;

var
infile: text;
error: integer32;
name: char_array;

begin
{ Open an existing file. }
open(infile, name_of_file, 'old', error);
if error = 0 then begin
writeln('Opened ', name_of_file, ' for reading.');
close(infile)
end else
writeln('Error opening file', name_of_file, error);

{ Open a file specified by a command line argument. }

open(infile, '^1', 'unknown', error);
if error = 0 then begin
argv(1, name);
writeln('Opened ', name, ' for reading.');
close(infile)
end else
writeln('No command line argument; error code =', error);

{ Open a file that may or may not exist. }

{ Prompt user for name of file at runtime. }
open(infile, file3, 'unknown', error);
if error = 0 then begin
writeln('Opened file for reading.');
close(infile)
end else
writeln('Error opening file', error)
end. { open_example }

160 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc open.p

execute open.p hostname% a.out
Opened open1.txt for reading.
No command line argument; error code = 1
Enter_a_filename-- test.txt
Opened file for reading.

pcexit
The pcexit function:
• Checks whether any imposed statement count has been exceeded.
• Calls the ieee_retrospective ( ) routine. See the Solaris
documentation for details.
• Terminates the program with the specified return value (similar to the C
exit() function).

Syntax
pcexit(x)

Arguments
x is an integer variable or constant.

Return Value
pcexit does not return any values.

Comments
The C function exit(3C) calls any functions registered through the
atexit(3C) function in the reverse order of their registration.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 161

 6

random
The random function generates a random number between 0.0 and 1.0.

Syntax
random(x)

Arguments
x has no significance and is ignored.

Return Value
random returns a real value.

Comments
random generates the same sequence of numbers each time you run the
program. See the seed function on page 172 to reseed the number generator.

162 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, random.p program random_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of

the random function. }

var
i: integer;
x: integer;

begin
writeln('These numbers were generated at random:');
for i := 1 to 5 do begin
write(trunc(random(x) * 101))
end;
writeln
end. { random_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc random.p

execute random.p hostname% a.out
These numbers were generated at random:
97 6 48 91 35

read and readln

Pascal supports the standard form of read and readln with three extensions:
• Read in boolean variables.
• Read in fixed- and variable-length strings.
• Read in enumerated type values from a text file.

Syntax
read(file, var1 ..., varN);

readln(file, var1 ..., varN);

Built-In Procedures and Functions 163

 6

Arguments
file is an optional variable having either the text or file data type.

var can be any real, integer, character, boolean, subrange, enumerated, or

array variable or a fixed- or variable-length string variable. If read or readln
is used in a function to define the function result, var can also be an identifier
of that function.

Return Value
read and readln do not return any values.

Comments
If var is a variable-length string, read and readln try to read in as many
characters as indicated by the current length, up to the first newline character.
read and readln do not pad the string with blanks if the length of the string
is less than the current length.

With both variable- and fixed-length strings, if the number of characters on a

line is more than the maximum length of the string, the next read picks up
where the last read left off. With readln, the rest of the line is discarded, so
the next read or readln begins at the next line.

If var is an enumerated type, read and readln attempt to read a value that is
included in the type definition. If the value is not in the type definition, the
compiler terminates program execution and prints the following error
message:

Unknown name "value" found on enumerated type read

Trace/BPT trap (core dumped)

You can trap this error with the I/O error recovery mechanism, described in
“I/O Error Recovery” on page 214. Using read or readln in the block of a
function in the form:
read (..., f, ...)

is treated as if it were an assignment of the form:

f:=e

164 Pascal Language Reference

 6
where e is the input value. This feature is an extension of the Pascal Standard,
and so cannot be used with the -s option.

Example

The Pascal program, read.p program read_example(input, output);

{ This program uses readln to input strings,

boolean data, and enumerated data. }

type
gem_cuts = (marquis, emerald, round, pear_shaped);

var
x: gem_cuts;
gem: varying [10] of char;
gift: boolean;

begin
write('Enter type of gem: ');
readln(gem);
write('Enter cut: ');
write('marquis, emerald, round, pear_shaped: ');
readln(x);
write('Enter true if this a gift, false if it is not: ');
readln(gift);
write('You have selected a ', gem);
writeln(' with a ', x, ' cut.');
if gift then
writeln('We will gift wrap your purchase for you.')
end. { read_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc read.p

execute read.p hostname% a.out
Enter type of gem: diamond
Enter cut: marquis, emerald, round, pear_shaped: pear_shaped
Enter true if this a gift, false if it is not: true
You have selected a diamond with a pear_shaped cut.
We will gift wrap your purchase for you.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 165

 6

remove
The remove procedure removes the specified file.

Syntax
remove(file)

Arguments
file is either a fixed- or variable-length string that indicates the name of the file
to be removed. file cannot be a text or file variable.

Return Value
remove does not return any values.

Comments
Pascal generates an I/O error if the file does not exist. You can trap this error
with the I/O error recovery mechanism, described in “I/O Error Recovery” on
page 214.

166 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Example

The Pascal program, remove.p program remove_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

remove procedure. }

var
name: varying [10] of char;

begin
if argc <> 2 then
writeln('Usage is : rm <file>')
else begin
argv(1, name);
remove(name)
end
end. { remove_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc remove.p

execute remove.p hostname% touch rmc
hostname% ls rmc
rmc
hostname% a.out rmc
hostname% ls rmc
rmc not found

reset
Pascal supports an optional second argument to the reset procedure. This
argument gives an operating system file name.

Syntax
reset(file, filename)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 167

 6

Arguments
file is a variable having the text or file data type.

filename is a fixed- or variable-length string, or a string constant.

Return Value
reset does not return any values.

Comments
reset gives you permission to read from the file, but not to write to the file.

In standard Pascal, reset takes only one argument, a file variable. In Pascal,
reset can take an optional second argument, an operating system file name.
If you give the optional file name, the compiler opens the file with that name
on the current path and associates it with the given file variable.

For example, this code associates the Pascal file data with the operating
system file primes:
reset(data, 'primes');

reset does an implicit close on the file, hence you can reuse its file variable
with a different file. Similarly, if input or output is reset, the current
implementation of the product also implicitly closes stdin and stdout.

reset normally generates an error and halts if the file specified in the two
argument form does not exist. You can trap this error with the I/O error
recovery mechanism, described in “I/O Error Recovery” on page 214.

See also the section on “rewrite,” which opens a file for writing.

Example
See the example in the rewrite listing that follows.

rewrite
Pascal supports an optional second argument to the rewrite procedure. This
argument gives an operating system file name.

168 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Syntax
rewrite(file, filename)

Arguments
file is a variable having the text or file data type.

filename is a fixed- or variable-length string, or a string constant.

Return Value
rewrite does not return any values.

Comments
rewrite gives you permission to modify a file.
• In standard Pascal, rewrite takes only one argument—a file variable.
• In Pascal, rewrite can take an optional second argument, an operating
system file name.

In Pascal, if you give the optional file name, the compiler opens the file with
that name on the current path and associates it with the given file variable. For
example, this code associates the Pascal file data with the operating system
file primes:
rewrite(data, 'primes');

If you do not give an optional second argument, Pascal creates a physical

operating system file for you. This file has the same name as the file variable if
the file variable is listed in the program header. If the file variable is not listed
in the program header, Pascal creates a temporary file with the name
#tmp.suffix. The temporary file is deleted when the program terminates.

If the file variable is output, and the second argument is not given, Pascal
creates a temporary file, but does not delete it after the program exits.

rewrite does an implicit close on the file, thus you can reuse its file variable
with a different file.

See also the section on “reset,” which opens a file for reading.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 169

 6

Example

The Pascal program, rewrite.p program rewrite_example(input, output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of rewrite

and reset.}

const
MAX = 80;

var
f: text;
line: varying [MAX] of char;

begin
rewrite(f, 'poem.txt');
write('Enter a line of text.');
writeln(' Hit Control-D to end the job.');
while not eof do begin
readln(line);
writeln(f, line)
end;
close(f);
writeln;
writeln;
writeln('These are the lines of text you input:');
reset(f, 'poem.txt');
while not eof(f) do begin
readln(f, line);
writeln(line)
end;
close(f)
end. { rewrite_example }

170 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc rewrite.p

execute rewrite.p hostname% a.out
Enter a line of text. Hit Control-D to end the job.
Hello, how are you?
Please keep in touch
^D

These are the lines of text you input:

Hello, how are you?
Please keep in touch.

rshft
The rshft function does a logical right shift of an integer value.

Syntax
rshft(num, sh)

Arguments
num and sh are integer expressions.

Return Value
rshft returns a 32-bit integer value.

Comments
rshft shifts the bits in num sh spaces to the right. rshft does not preserve
the sign bit (leftmost) bit of a number and does not wrap bits from right to left.
The value rshft returns is machine-dependent, and is unspecified unless
0 <= sh <= 32. Do not confuse rshft with the arithmetic right shift
functions asr and arshft, which preserve the sign bit.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 171

 6

The Pascal program, rshft.p program rshft_example(input, output);

{ This program demonstrates the logical right shift. }

const
SIZE = 8;

var
i: integer32;
i32: integer32;
loop: integer32;

begin
write('Enter a positive or negative integer: ');
readln(i);
for loop := 1 to SIZE do begin
i32 := rshft(i, loop);
write('Logical right shift ', loop: 2);
writeln(' bit(s): ', i32 hex)
end
end. { rshft_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc rshft.p

execute rshft.p. The value hostname% a.out
the bit-shift routines return may Enter a positive or negative integer: 32
depend upon the architecture of Logical right shift 1 bit(s): 10
your system. Logical right shift 2 bit(s): 8
Logical right shift 3 bit(s): 4
Logical right shift 4 bit(s): 2
Logical right shift 5 bit(s): 1
Logical right shift 6 bit(s): 0
Logical right shift 7 bit(s): 0
Logical right shift 8 bit(s): 0

seed
The seed function reseeds the random number generator.

172 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Syntax
seed(x)

Arguments
x is an integer value.

Return Value
seed returns an integer value.

Comments
seed sets the random number generator to x and returns the previous seed. If
you do not reseed the random number generator, the random function returns
the same sequence of random numbers each time you run the program. To
produce a different random number (sequence each time the program is run),
set the seed with the following statement:
x := seed(wallclock);

Example
See the example that follows.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 173

 6

The Pascal program, seed.p program seed_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

seed function. }

var
i: integer;
x: integer;
begin
x := seed(wallclock);
writeln('These numbers were generated at random:');
for i := 1 to 5 do begin
write(trunc(random(i) * (i * 101)))
end;
writeln
end. { seed_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc seed.p

execute seed.p hostname% a.out
These numbers were generated at random:
75 175 186 260 178

seek
The seek procedure changes the current position in the file.

Syntax
seek(file, pos)

Arguments
file is a variable with the text or file data type.

pos is a positive integer.

174 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Return Value
seek does not return any values.

Comments
The seek procedure is a facility to support random access input/output. It
changes the position of a given file that is open for reading or writing.

You can use seek with text files of text type, or binary files of a certain file
of T type.

For a binary file of type file of T, the argument pos denotes the number of
the element of type T, which becomes the new position of file. Elements are
numbered from 0. The argument pos can have an arbitrary non-negative value.

If file is open for writing, and pos exceeds the size of the file, the file is
appended by the corresponding number of elements of type T with undefined
values. For example, if filesize(f) = 0, then after seek(f,100) and
write(f,x), the result is: filesize(f) = 101.

If file is open for reading, seek does not detect an error in seeking an element
with a non-existing number. The compiler may detect this error later, however,
when it performs the read procedure.

For a text file, you can use seek only in the following forms:

seek(file, 0) or seek(file, tell(file))

That is, seek can only set the current position to the beginning of the file or
have it stay “as is,” otherwise an error occurs. Hence, the only correct way of
processing a text file in Pascal is reading or writing it successively, line by line.

See also the sections: “filesize,” and “tell.”

Built-In Procedures and Functions 175

 6

Example

The Pascal program, seek.p program seek_example;

var
f: file of integer;
i: integer;
begin
rewrite(f);
for i:= 0 to 9 do
write(f, i);
writeln('Initial size of f =', filesize(f) :3, ' elements');
reset(f);
seek(f, 4);
read(f, i);
writeln('The 4th element of f =', i :3);
rewrite(f);
write(f, i);
seek(f, 100);
write(f, i);
writeln('Final size of f =', filesize(f):3, ' elements');
close(f);
end. { seek_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc seek.p

execute seek.p hostname% a.out
Initial size of f = 10 elements
The 4th element of f = 4
Final size of f =101 elements

sizeof
sizeof returns the number of bytes the program uses to store a data object.

Syntax
sizeof(x, tag1, ... tagN)

176 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Arguments
x is any predeclared or user-defined Pascal data type, a variable, a constant, or
a string.

tag is a constant. This argument is optional.

Return Value
sizeof returns an integer value.

Comments
sizeof returns the number of bytes in the data object x. tags correspond to
the fields in a variant record. tags are effectively ignored because Pascal
allocates records according to the largest variant.

You cannot use sizeof to determine the size of a conformant array parameter
because the array size is not known until runtime. The difference between the
size of a constant string and that of a varying string variable to which the
string is assigned. For example:
sizeof ('') = 0

However, if S is defined as follows:

var S: varying [12] of char;

begin
S:='';

then sizeof (S) = 16. Moreover,

sizeof (''+'') = 4

because the '+' string operator returns a varying string object.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 177

 6

Example

The Pascal program, sizeof.p program sizeof_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

sizeof function. }

const
MAX = 5;

type
subB = false..true;
sub1 = 0..7;
sub2 = 0..127;
sub3 = 0..255;
color1 = (re, gree, blu, whit);
color2 = (red, green, blue, white, orange, purple, black);
rec_type =
record
i: integer;
ar: array [1..MAX] of single;
d: double
end;

var
b: boolean;
c: char;
f: text;
i: integer;
i16: integer16;
i32: integer32;
s: shortreal;
r: real;
l: longreal;
rec: rec_type;
u: univ_ptr;

sizeof.p Program (Screen 1 of 2)

178 Pascal Language Reference

 6

begin
writeln('The size of boolean is ', sizeof(b), '.');
writeln('The size of char is ', sizeof(c), '.');
writeln('The size of color1 is ', sizeof(color1), '.');
writeln('The size of color2 is ', sizeof(color2), '.');
writeln('The size of file is ', sizeof(f), '.');
writeln('The size of integer is ', sizeof(i), '.');
writeln('The size of integer16 is ', sizeof(i16), '.');
writeln('The size of integer32 is ', sizeof(i32), '.');
writeln('The size of longreal is ', sizeof(l), '.');
writeln('The size of shortreal is ', sizeof(s), '.');
writeln('The size of real is ', sizeof(r), '.');
writeln('The size of rec_type is ', sizeof(rec_type), '.');
writeln('The size of rec_type.ar is ', sizeof(rec.ar), '.');
writeln('The size of subB is ', sizeof(subB), '.');
writeln('The size of sub1 (8) is ', sizeof(sub1), '.');
writeln('The size of sub2 (128) is ', sizeof(sub2), '.');
writeln('The size of sub3 (256) is ', sizeof(sub3), '.');
writeln('The size of univ_ptr is ', sizeof(u), '.')
end. { sizeof_example }

sizeof.p Program (Screen 2 of 2)

Built-In Procedures and Functions 179

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc sizeof.p

execute sizeof.p. The value hostname% a.out
sizeof returns may depend The size of boolean is1.
upon the architecture of your The size of char is1.
system. The size of color1 is1.
The size of color2 is1.
The size of file is2089.
The size of integer is 4.
The size of integer16 is 2.
The size of integer32 is 4.
The size of longreal is 8.
The size of shortreal is 4.
The size of real is 8.
The size of rec_type is 32.
The size of rec_type.ar is20.
The size of subB is1.
The size of sub1 (8) is1.
The size of sub2 (128) is1.
The size of sub3 (256) is2.
The size of univ_ptr is4.

stlimit
The stlimit procedure terminates program execution if a specified number
of statements have been executed in the current loop.

Syntax
stlimit(x)

Arguments
x is an integer value.

Return Value
stlimit does not return any values.

180 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Comments
To use stlimit, you must include the following code in your source program:
{$p+}

When you call stlimit, it tests if x number of statements have been executed
in the current loop. If the number of statements executed equals or exceeds x,
stlimit stops the program, dumps core, and prints the following message:

Statement count limit of x exceeded

Trace/BPT trap (core dumped)

If stlimit is used without a loop, it reports the number of statements

executed and the CPU time utilized.

To check the statement limit after each statement, you can turn on runtime
checks using the –C command-line option or the C or t program text options.
When runtime checks are turned on and the compiler encounters a stlimit
statement, the compiler inserts a statement limit check after each subsequent
statement.

Example

The Pascal program, program stlimit_example;

stlimit.p {$p+}

{ This program demonstrates the use

of the stlimit procedure. }

begin
repeat
writeln('Hello.');
stlimit(10)
until false
end. { stlimit_example }

Built-In Procedures and Functions 181

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc stlimit.p

execute stlimit.p hostname% a.out
Hello.
Hello.
Hello.
Hello.

Statement count limit of 11 exceeded

Trace/BPT trap (core dumped)

stradd
The stradd procedure adds a string to another string.

Syntax
stradd(strdest, strsrc)

Arguments
strdest is a variable-length string.

strsrc is a variable-length string, a character array, or a character-string

constant.

Return Value
stradd does not return any values.

Comments
stradd adds strsrc to strdest, and is a more efficient operator for the
concatenation of strings. Use stradd when a string is constructed by multiple
concatenation, with other strings to its end.

stradd avoids allocating temporary storage. An example is the assignment

str1 := str1 + str2, in which the compiler copies str1 into some temporary
storage, appends str2, and copies the result back into str1.

182 Pascal Language Reference

 6
If the resulting string is longer than the maximum length of strdest, it is
truncated to this maximum length.

See also the section: “concat.”

Example

The Pascal program, stradd.p program stradd_example(output);

var
greeting: varying [20] of char := ' Hello';

begin
stradd(greeting, ',');
stradd(greeting, ' world');
stradd(greeting, '!');
writeln(greeting);
end.

The commands to compile and hostname% pc stradd.p

execute stradd.p hostname% a.out
Hello, world!

substr
The substr function takes a substring from a string.

Syntax
substr(str, p, n)

Arguments
str is a variable-length string, a character array, or a character-string constant.

p is a positive integer.

n is a positive integer or zero.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 183

 6

Return Value
substr returns a variable-length string.

Comments
substr returns a substring beginning at position p and continuing for n
characters. If the values of either p or n indicate a character outside the
bounds of the string size, Pascal returns a null string.

Example

The Pascal program, substr.p program substr_example(output);

{ This program demonstrates the use of the

substr function. }

var
string1: array [1..15] of char;
string2: varying [25] of char;

begin
string1 := 'Paris, Texas';
string2 := 'Versailles, France';
write(substr(string1, 1, 6));
writeln(substr(string2, 12, 7))
end. { substr_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc substr.p

execute substr.p hostname% a.out
Paris, France

sysclock
The sysclock function returns the system time consumed by the process.

184 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Syntax
sysclock

Arguments
sysclock does not take any arguments.

Return Value
sysclock returns an integer value.

Comments
sysclock returns the system time in milliseconds. See also the clock
function, which returns the user time the process consumes.

Example
See the example in the clock listing earlier in this chapter.

tell
The tell function returns the current position of a given file.

Syntax
tell(file)

Arguments
file is a variable with the text or file data type.

Return Value
tell returns an integer value.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 185

 6

Comments
The argument can be either a text file of text type, or a binary file of a certain
file of T type. It must be associated with an open file, otherwise an error
occurs.

For a text file, the tell function returns the byte number that corresponds to
the current position in the file.

For a binary file of type file of T, the tell function returns the number of
the element of type T that corresponds to the current position in the file.
Elements are numbered from 0.

See also the sections on: “filesize,” “seek.”

Example

The Pascal program, tell.p program tell_example;

var
ft: text;
fi: file of integer;
i: integer;
begin
rewrite(ft);
rewrite(fi);
for i:= 1 to 3 do begin
writeln('tell(ft) =', tell(ft) :3);
writeln('tell(fi) =', tell(fi) :3);
writeln(ft, i :3);
write(fi, i);
end;
close(ft);
close(fi)
end. { tell_example }

186 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc tell.p

execute tell.p hostname% a.out
tell(ft) = 0
tell(fi) = 0
tell(ft) = 4
tell(fi) = 1
tell(ft) = 8
tell(fi) = 2

time
The time procedure retrieves the current time.

Syntax
time(a)

Arguments
a is a variable that can be either a character array that is 8 elements long for the
"C" locale, or a variable-length string.

Return Value
time returns a character string in the form traditional for a given locale. For
the "C" locale, the form is hh:mm:ss, where hh is the hour (0 through 23); mm
is the minutes (0 through 59); and ss is the seconds (0 through 59).

Comments
time uses a 24-hour clock. It puts a zero in front of the hours, minutes, and
seconds, so that they always consist of two digits.

Use the environment variable LC_TIME to set the necessary locale.

See also the section: “date.”

Built-In Procedures and Functions 187

 6

Example

The Pascal program, time.p program time_example(output);

var
s1: alfa;
s2: array[1..8] of char;
s3: array[89..96] of char;
s4: varying[100] of char;

begin
time(s1);
time(s2);
time(s3);
time(s4);
writeln('The time is ', s1, '.');
writeln('The time is ', s2, '.');
writeln('The time is ', s3, '.');
writeln('The time is ', s4, '.');
end.

188 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc time.p

execute time.p hostname% a.out
The time is 14:02:49.
The time is 14:02:49.
The time is 14:02:49.
The time is 14:02:49.
hostname% setenv LC_TIME ru
hostname% a.out
The time is 14:02:56.
The time is 14:02:56.
The time is 14:02:56.
The time is 14:02:56.
hostname% setenv LC_TIME C
hostname% a.out
The time is 14:03:21.
The time is 14:03:21.
The time is 14:03:21.
The time is 14:03:21.

trace
The trace routine prints stack traceback without terminating a program.

Syntax
trace

Arguments
trace does not take any arguments.

Return Value
trace does not return any values.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 189

 6

Comments
You can use the trace routine for debugging. This routine prints stack
traceback information to a file without terminating your program. The name
of the traceback file is p.trace, where p is the name of your executable. For
example, if the executable is called a.out, then the name of the traceback file
is a.out.trace.

The trace routine can be called several times during program execution, if
necessary. In this case, traceback information is appended to the traceback file.

The trace routine uses dbx, so be sure that dbx is in your path.

To print the traceback output in a clearer format, use the -g option to compile
your program.

Example

The Pascal program, trace.p program trace_example;

procedure subr(count: integer);

begin
if (count > 0 ) then
subr(count - 1)
else
trace;
end;

begin
subr(5);
end.

190 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc trace.p -g

execute trace.p hostname% a.out
hostname% cat a.out.trace

### Stacktrace of a.out

[4] subr(count = 0), line 8 in "trace.p"
[5] subr(count = 1), line 6 in "trace.p"
[6] subr(count = 2), line 6 in "trace.p"
[7] subr(count = 3), line 6 in "trace.p"
[8] subr(count = 4), line 6 in "trace.p"
[9] subr(count = 5), line 6 in "trace.p"
[10] program(), line 12 in "trace.p"
detaching from process 28226

trim
The trim function removes the trailing blanks in a character string.

Syntax
trim(input_string)

Arguments
input_string is a constant string, a variable-length string, a character array, or a
character.

Return Value
trim returns a variable-length string equal to the input string without any
trailing blanks. If input_string is a null string or contains only blanks, trim
returns a null string of length 0.

Comments
trim has no effect if its result value is assigned to a fixed-length character
string variable. Fixed-length characters are always padded with blanks during
assignments.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 191

 6

Example

The Pascal program, trim.p program trim_example;

{ This program demonstrates the use of the trim function. }

const
TEN = ' ';
MAX = 10;
type
large = varying [100] of char;
s_type = array [1..MAX] of char;
v_type = varying [MAX] of char;
var
c1: char := ' ';
st1: s_type := '123456 ';
st2: s_type := ' ';
st3: s_type := '0123456789';
v1: v_type := '01234 ';
v2: v_type := ' ';
v3: v_type := '0123456789';
l: large;

begin
l := trim(st1) + trim(st2) + trim(st3) + trim(c1);
writeln(l, length(l));
l := substr(trim(st1) + trim(st2) + trim(st3), 3, 5);
writeln(l, length(l));
l := trim(v1) + trim(TEN) + trim(v2) + trim(v3) + trim(st1)
+ trim(st2) + trim(st3);
writeln(l, length(l))
end. { trim_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc trim.p

execute trim.p hostname% a.out
1234560123456789 16
34560 5
0123401234567891234560123456789 31

192 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Type Transfer
The type transfer function changes the data type of a variable, constant, or
expression.

Syntax
transfer_function(x)

Arguments
transfer_function is a predeclared or user-defined Pascal data type.

x is a variable, constant, or expression.

Return Value
A type transfer function returns its argument unchanged in internal value, but
with a different apparent type.

Comments
Suppose your program contains the following data type declarations:

var
x: integer32;
y: single;

To transfer the value of variable x to a floating-point number, you would write:

y := single(x);

Built-In Procedures and Functions 193

 6
When the argument of a type transfer function is a variable, the size of the
argument must be the same as the size of the destination type. However, if the
argument to a transfer function is a constant or an expression, Pascal attempts
to convert the argument to the destination type because constants and
expressions do not have explicit types.

The type transfer functions copy, but do not convert, a value. Do not confuse
the type transfer functions with functions that actually convert the value of the
variable, such as ord, chr, and trunc.

Example

The Pascal program, type.p program type_transfer_example(output);

{ This program uses transfer functions to

convert integer to character. }

type
range = 65..90;

var
i: range;
c: char;

begin
for i := firstof(i) to lastof(i) do begin
write('The character value of ', i: 1);
writeln(' is ', char(i), '.')
end
end. { type_transfer_example }

194 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The commands to compile and hostname% pc type.p

execute type.p hostname% a.out
The character value of 65 is A.
The character value of 66 is B.
The character value of 67 is C.
The character value of 68 is D.
The character value of 69 is E.
The character value of 70 is F.
The character value of 71 is G.
The character value of 72 is H.
The character value of 73 is I.
The character value of 74 is J.
The character value of 75 is K.
The character value of 76 is L.
The character value of 77 is M.
The character value of 78 is N.
The character value of 79 is O.
The character value of 80 is P.
The character value of 81 is Q.
The character value of 82 is R.
The character value of 83 is S.
The character value of 84 is T.
The character value of 85 is U.
The character value of 86 is V.
The character value of 87 is W.
The character value of 88 is X.
The character value of 89 is Y.
The character value of 90 is Z.

wallclock
The wallclock function returns the elapsed number of seconds since
00:00:00 GMT January 1, 1970.

Syntax
wallclock

Built-In Procedures and Functions 195

 6

Arguments
wallclock does not take any arguments.

Return Value
wallclock returns an integer value.

Comments
wallclock can be used with the seed function to generate a random number.
It can also be used to time programs or parts of programs.

Example
See the example that follows.

196 Pascal Language Reference

 6

The Pascal program, program wallclock_example(output);

wallclock.p
{ This program demonstrates the use of the
wallclock function. }

const
NTIMES = 20; { Number of times to compute Fib value. }
NUMBER = 24; { Biggest one we can compute with 16 bits. }

var
start: integer;
finish: integer;
i: integer;
value: integer;

{ Compute fibonacci number recursively. }

function fib(number: integer): integer;

begin
if number > 2 then
fib := fib(number - 1) + fib(number - 2)
else
fib := 1
end; { fib }

begin { main program }

writeln('Begin computing fibonacci series.');
write(NTIMES, ' Iterations: ');
start := wallclock;
for i := 1 to NTIMES do
value := fib(NUMBER);
finish := wallclock;
writeln('Fibonacci(', NUMBER: 2, ') = ', value: 4, '.');
writeln('Elapsed time is ', finish - start: 3, ' seconds.')
end. { wallclock_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc wallclock.p

execute wallclock.p hostname% a.out
Begin computing fibonacci series.
20 Iterations: Fibonacci(24) = 46368.
Elapsed time is 5 seconds.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 197

 6

write and writeln

Pascal supports the standard form of write and writeln with the following
extensions:
• Output enumerated type values to a text file.
• Write the internal representation of an expression in octal or hexadecimal.
• Specify a negative field width.

Syntax
write(file, exp1:width ..., expN:width)

writeln(file, exp1:width ..., expN:width)

Arguments
file is a variable having either the text or file data type. file is optional; it
defaults to output.

exp is a variable, constant, or expression of type integer, real, character,

boolean, enumerated, or string. exp cannot be a set variable.

width is an integer. width is optional.

Return Value
write and writeln do not return any values.

Comments
If exp is an enumerated type, write and writeln attempt to write a value
that is included in the type definition. If the value is not in the type definition,
the compiler terminates program execution and prints an error message.

To write the internal representation of an expression in octal, use this form:

write(x oct);

x is a boolean, character, integer, pointer, or user-defined type. It can also be a

constant, expression, or variable.

198 Pascal Language Reference

 6
To write an expression in hexadecimal, use this form:
write(x hex);

When you specify a negative field width of a parameter, Pascal truncates all
trailing blanks in the array. write and writeln assume the default values in
Table 6-15 if you do not specify a minimum field length.

Table 6-15 Default Field Widths

Data Type Default Width without -xl Option Default Width with -xl Option
array of char Declared length of the array Declared length of the array
boolean Length of true or false 15
char 1 1
double 21 21
enumerated Length of type 15
hexadecimal 10 10
integer 10 10
integer16 10 10
integer32 10 10
longreal 21 21
octal 10 10
real 21 13
shortreal 13 13
single 13 13
string constant Number of characters in string Number of characters in string
variable-length string Current length of the string Current length of the string

Built-In Procedures and Functions 199

 6

Example

The Pascal program, octal.p program octal_example(output);

{ This program writes a number in octal

and hexadecimal format. }

var
x: integer16;

begin
write('Enter an integer: ');
readln(x);
writeln(x: 5, ' is ', x oct, ' in octal.');
writeln(x: 5, ' is ', x hex, ' in hexadecimal.')
end. { octal_example }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc octal.p

execute octal.p hostname% a.out
Enter an integer: 10
10 is 12 in octal.
10 is A in hexadecimal.

xor
The xor function returns the exclusive or of two integer values.

Syntax
xor(int1, int2)

Arguments
int1 and int2 are integer expressions.

200 Pascal Language Reference

 6

Return Value
xor returns an integer value.

Comments
Pascal uses Table 6-16 to return the bitwise exclusive or of int1 and int2.

Table 6-16 xor Truth

Value of Bit in int1 Value of Bit in int2 Value of Bit in result

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

If int1 and int2 are different size integers, Pascal converts the smaller integer to
the larger integer before it performs the xor operation.

xor is a bitwise operator similar to &, !, and ~. Do not confuse it with the
boolean operators, and, or, and not.

Example
See the example in the land listing on page 142.

Built-In Procedures and Functions 201

 6

202 Pascal Language Reference

 Input and Output 7

This chapter describes the Pascal input and output environments, with
emphasis on interactive programming. It contains the following sections:

Input and Output Routines page 203

eof and eoln Functions page 204
More About eoln page 208
External Files and Pascal File Variables page 210
input, output, and errout Variables page 211
Pascal I/O Library page 213
Buffering of File Output page 213
I/O Error Recovery page 214

Input and Output Routines

Pascal supports all standard input and output routines, plus the extensions
listed in Table 7-1. For a complete description of the routines, refer to
Chapter 6, “Built-In Procedures and Functions.”

203
 7

Table 7-1 Extensions to Input/Output Routines

Routine Description
append Opens a file for writing at its end.
close Closes a file.
filesize Returns the current size of a file.
flush Writes the output buffer for the specified Pascal file into the
associated operating system file.
getfile Returns a pointer to the C standard I/O descriptor
associated with the specified Pascal file.
linelimit Terminates program execution after a specified number of
lines has been written into a text file.
message Writes the specified information to stderr.
open Associates an external file with a file variable.
read and readln Read in boolean, integer and floating-point variables,
fixed- and variable-length strings, enumerated types, and
pointers.
remove Removes the specified file.
reset and rewrite Accepts an optional second argument.
seek Resets the current position of a file for random access I/O.
tell Returns the current position of a file.
write and writeln Outputs boolean integer and floating-point variables,
fixed- and variable-length strings, enumerated types, and
pointers; output expressions in octal or hexadecimal; allows
negative field widths.

eof and eoln Functions

A common problem encountered by new users of Pascal, especially in the
interactive environment of the operating system, relates to eof and eoln.
These functions are supposed to be defined at the beginning of execution of a
Pascal program, indicating whether the input device is at the end of a line
(eoln) or the end of a file (eof).

204 Pascal Language Reference

 7
Setting eof or eoln actually corresponds to an implicit read in which the
input is inspected, but not “used up.” In fact, the system cannot detect
whether the input is at the end of a file or the end of a line unless it attempts to
read a line from it.

If the input is from a previously created file, then this reading can take place
without runtime action by you. However, if the input is from a terminal, then
the input is what you type. If the system does an initial read automatically at
the beginning of program execution, and if the input is a terminal, you must
type some input before execution can begin. This makes it impossible for the
program to begin by prompting for input.

Pascal has been designed so that an initial read is not necessary. At any given
time, Pascal may or may not know whether the end-of-file and end-of-line
conditions are true.

Thus, internally, these functions can have three values: true, false, and,
“I don't know yet; if you ask me I'll have to find out.” All files remain in this
last, indeterminate state until the program requires a value for eof or eoln,
either explicitly or implicitly; for example, in a call to read. If you force Pascal
to determine whether the input is at the end of the file or the end of the line, it
must attempt to read from the input.

Consider the following example:

Input and Output 205

 7

The Pascal program, program eof_example1;

eof_example1.p, which shows
the improper use of the eof var
function i: integer;

begin
while not eof do begin
write('Number, please? ');
read(i);
writeln('That was a ', i: 2, '.');
writeln
end
end. { eof_example1 }

At first glance, this may appear to be a correct program for requesting, reading,
and echoing numbers. However, the while loop asks whether eof is true
before the request is printed. Thus, this system is forced to decide whether the
input is at the end of the file. It gives no messages; it simply waits for the user
to type a line, as follows:

The commands to compile and hostname% pc eof_example1.p

execute eof_example1.p hostname% a.out
23
Number, please? That was a 23.

Number, please? ^D
standard input: Tried to read past end of file
a.out terminated by signal 5: SIGTRAP
Traceback being written to a.out.trace
Abort (core dumped)

The following code avoids this problem by prompting before testing eof:

206 Pascal Language Reference

 7

The Pascal program, program eof_example2;

eof_example2.p, which also
shows the improper use of the var
eof function. i: integer;

begin
write('Number, please? ');
while not eof do begin
read(i);
writeln('That was a ', i: 2, '.');
writeln;
write('Number, please? ')
end
end. { eof_example2 }

You must still type a line before the while test is completed, but the prompt
asks for it. This example, however, is still not correct, because it is first
necessary to know that there is an end-of-line character at the end of each line
in a Pascal text file. Each time you test for the end of the file, eof finds the
end-of-line character. Then, when read attempts to read a character, it skips
past the end-of-line character, and finds the end of the file, which is illegal.

Thus, the modified code still results in the following error message at the end
of a session:

The commands to compile and hostname% pc eof_example2.p

execute eof_example2.p hostname% a.out
Number, please? 23
That was a 23.

Number, please? ^D
standard input: Tried to read past end of file
Traceback being written to a.out.trace
Abort (core dumped)

The simplest way to correct the problem in this example is to use the procedure
readln instead of read. readln also reads the end-of-line character, and
eof finds the end of the file:

Input and Output 207

 7

The Pascal program, program eof_example3;

eof_example3.p, which shows
the proper use of the eof var
function. i: integer;

begin
write('Number, please? ');
while not eof do begin
readln(i);
writeln('That was a ', i: 2, '.');
writeln;
write('Number, please? ')
end
end. { eof_example3 }

The commands to compile and hostname% pc eof_example3.p

execute eof_example3.p hostname% a.out
Number, please? 23
That was a 23.

Number, please? ^D

In general, unless you test the end-of-file condition both before and after calls
to read or readln, there may be input that causes your program to attempt to
read past the end-of-file.

More About eoln

To have a good understanding of when eoln is true, remember that in any
file text, there is a special character indicating end-of-line. In effect, Pascal
always reads one character ahead of the read command.

For instance, in response to read(ch), Pascal sets ch to the current input

character and gets the next input character. If the current input character is the
last character of the line, then the next input character from the file is the
newline character, the normal operating system line separator.

208 Pascal Language Reference

 7
When the read routine gets the newline character, it replaces that character by
a blank (causing every line to end with a blank) and sets eoln to true. eoln
is true as soon as you read the last character of the line and before you read
the blank character corresponding to the end of line. Thus, it is almost always
a mistake to write a program that deals with input in the following way:

This code shows the improper read(ch);

use of the eoln function. if eoln then
Done with line
else
Normal processing

This program almost always has the effect of ignoring the last character in the
line. The read(ch) belongs as part of the normal processing. In Pascal terms,
read(ch) corresponds to ch := input^; get(input).

This code shows the proper read(ch);

use of eoln. if eoln then
Done with line
else begin
read(ch);
Normal processing
end

Given this framework, the function of a readln call is defined as follows:

while not eoln do

get(input);
get(input);

This code advances the file until the blank corresponding to the end of line is
the current input symbol and then discards this blank. The next character
available from read is the first character of the next line, if one exists.

Input and Output 209

 7

External Files and Pascal File Variables

In Pascal, most input and output routines have an argument that is a file
variable. This system associates these variables with either a permanent or
temporary file at compile-time.

Permanent Files
Table 7-2 shows how to associate a Pascal file variable with a permanent file.

Table 7-2 Pascal File Variable with a Permanent File

Association Description
With the open function open associates a permanent file with a file
variable for reading or writing. open can also
determine if a file actually exists.
With the reset and rewrite In Pascal, reset and rewrite take an optional
functions second argument, a file name. If you specify the
file name, the compiler opens the file and associates
it with the given file variable. Any previous file
associated with the file variable is lost.
With the program header If you call reset or rewrite with a file variable
f1, which is bound to a file variable declared f2 in
the program header and do not specify the file
name, Pascal opens a file with the same name as
the variable f2. reset gives a runtime error if the
file does not exist. rewrite creates the file if it
does not exist.

210 Pascal Language Reference

 7

Temporary Files
Table 7-3 shows how to associate a Pascal file variable with a temporary file.

Table 7-3 Pascal File Variable with a Temporary File

Association Description
With the procedure: file_variable must not be declared in the program
rewrite(file_variable) statement. This procedure creates a temporary file
called #tmp.suffix, where suffix is unique to that
temporary file. When the program exits or leaves the
scope in which file_variable is declared, the file is
deleted.
With the procedure: The procedure creates the temporary file called
rewrite(output) #tmp.suffix, where suffix is unique to that temporary file.
This file is not deleted after program execution.

input, output, and errout Variables

The input, output, and errout variables are special predefined file
variables.
• input is equivalent to the operating system standard input file, stdin.
• output is equivalent to the operating system standard output file, stdout.
• errout is equivalent to the operating system standard error file, stderr.

Properties of input, output, and errout Variables

The input, output, and errout variables are of the type text and have
the following special properties:
• input, output, and errout are optional in the program header.
• You can redirect input, output, and errout to files or pipe them to other
programs.
• You can redefine input, output, and errout.
• You do not have to name input and output as explicit arguments to the
read, readln, write, and writeln procedures.

Input and Output 211

 7
• In the initial state of input, eoln is true and eof is false. input↑ is
not initially defined when it is associated with stdin until the first read or
readln. For output, eoln is initially undefined, and eof is true.

Associating input with a File Other Than stdin

To associate input with a file other than stdin, call reset(input, filename).
Pascal opens filename and associates it with input. read and readln read
from that file. For example, this line opens the file, some/existing/file,
and associates it with input:
reset(input,'some/existing/file');

You must supply a file name for the association to work.

Associating output with a File Other Than stdout

To associate output with a file other than stdout, call rewrite(output,
filename). Pascal opens filename and associates it with output. For example,
this line associates /home/willow/test with output:
rewrite(output, '/home/willow/test');

Now, whenever you direct write or writeln to output, the output is sent to
/home/willow/test. This includes the default case, when you write
without giving a file variable.

If you call rewrite on output and you haven't associated output with an
external file, the program creates a file with a name of the form #tmp.suffix,
where suffix is unique to that file. Pascal does not delete this file after the
program exits.

Associating errout with a File Other Than stderr

To associate errout with a file other than stderr, call:
rewrite (errout, '/some/new/file');

Subsequently, whenever you direct write or writeln to errout, the output

is sent to /some/new/file. You obtain the same results when you write a
string to errout implicitly, using the message function. See “message” on
page 155 for details.

212 Pascal Language Reference

 7

Pascal I/O Library

Each file variable in Pascal is associated with a data structure. The data
structure defines the physical Solaris 2.x operating system file with which the
variable is associated. It also contains flags that indicate whether the file
variable is in an eoln or eof state.

The data structure also includes the buffer. The buffer normally contains a
single component that is the same type as the type of the file. For example, a
file of char has one character buffer, and a file of integer has one
integer buffer.

Buffering of File Output

It is extremely inefficient for Pascal to send each character to a terminal as it
generates it for output. It is even less efficient if the output is the input of
another program, such as the line printer daemon, lpr(1).

To gain efficiency, Pascal buffers output characters; it saves the characters in

memory until the buffer is full and then outputs the entire buffer in one system
interaction.

For interactive prompting to work, Pascal must print the prompt before
waiting for the response. For this reason, Pascal normally prints all the output
that has been generated for output whenever one of the following conditions
occurs:
• The program calls a writeln.
• The program reads from the terminal.
• The program calls either the message or flush procedure.

In the following code sequence, the output integer does not print until the
writeln occurs:

Input and Output 213

 7

for i := 1 to 5 do begin
write(i);
Compute a lot with no output
end;
writeln;

Pascal performs line buffering by default. To change the default, you can
compile your program with –b option. When you specify the –b option on the
command-line, the compiler turns on block-buffering with a block size of 1,024.
You can specify this option in a program comment using one of these formats:

{$b0} No buffering.
{$b1} Line buffering. This is the default.
{$b2} Block buffering. The block size is 1,024. Any number greater
than 2, for example, {$b5}, is treated as {$b2}.

This option only has an effect in the main program. The value of the option in
effect at the end statement of the main program is used for the entire program.

I/O Error Recovery

When an I/O routine encounters an error, it normally does the following:

1. Generates an error message.

2. Flushes its buffers.

3. Terminates with a SIGTRAP.

Although you can set up a signal handler to trap this signal, you cannot
determine which routine called the signal or the reason it was called.

With Pascal, you can set I/O trap handlers dynamically in your program. The
handler is a user-defined Pascal function.

When an I/O error occurs, Pascal runtime library checks if there is a current
active I/O handler. If one does not exist, Pascal prints an error message,
invokes a SIGTRAP signal, and terminates.

214 Pascal Language Reference

 7
If a handler is present, the handler is passed the values err_code and filep
as in parameters. The parameter err_code is bound to the error value that
caused the I/O routine to fail. The parameter filep is bound to the I/O
descriptor that getfile returned for the file in which the error occurred. If
filep equals nil, no file was associated with the file variable when the error
occurred.

The handler returns a boolean value. If the value is false, the program
terminates. If the value is true, program execution continues with the
statement immediately following the I/O routine that called the trap. The
results of the I/O call remain undefined.

You can set the handler to nil to return it to its default state.

The scope of the active handler is determined dynamically. Pascal has

restrictions as to the lexical scoping when you declare the handler. The
compiler assumes that the handler is a function declared at the outermost level.
Providing a nested function as the handler may cause unexpected results. The
compiler issues a warning if it attempts to take the address of a nested
procedure.

To set an I/O trap handler, you must include the file ioerr.h in your Pascal
source file. ioerr.h consists of an enumeration type of all possible I/O error
values, a type declaration of an io_handler procedure pointer type, and an
external declaration of the set_io_handler routine.

This file resides in the following directory:

/opt/SUNWspro/SC4.2/include/pascal

If the compiler is installed in a non-default location, change /opt/SUNWspro

to the location where the compiler is installed.

Input and Output 215

 7

The include file, ioerr.h /* Copyright 1989 Sun Microsystems, Inc. */

type
IOerror_codes = (
IOerr_no_error,
IOerr_eoln_undefined,
IOerr_read_open_for_writing,
IOerr_write_open_for_reading,
IOerr_bad_data_enum_read,
IOerr_bad_data_integer_read,
IOerr_bad_data_real_read,
IOerr_bad_data_string_read,
IOerr_bad_data_varying_read,
IOerr_close_file,
IOerr_close_null_file,
IOerr_open_null_file,
IOerr_create_file,
IOerr_open_file,
IOerr_remove_file,
IOerr_reset_file,
IOerr_seek_file,
IOerr_write_file,
IOerr_file_name_too_long,
IOerr_file_table_overflow,
IOerr_line_limit_exceeded,
IOerr_overflow_integer_read,
IOerr_inactive_file,
IOerr_read_past_eof,
IOerr_non_positive_format
);

io_handler = ^function( in err_code : IOerror_codes;

in fileptr : univ_ptr) :
boolean;

procedure set_ioerr_handler(handler : io_handler); extern c;

216 Pascal Language Reference

 7
The following program illustrates how to set an I/O trap routine.

The Pascal program ioerr.p, {$w-}

which defines the I/O trap program ioerr_example(output);
routine, test_handler. This { This program sets and uses an I/O trap routine. }
routine is called each time a
runtime error occurs during an #include "ioerr.h"
I/O operation. The #include
const
statement includes ioerr.h in
the program. NAME = 'rmc.dat';

var
f: text;
IO_ERROR: IOerror_codes;
str: array [1..10] of char := 'Testing';

function test_handler(in code: IOerror_codes;

in fileptr: univ_ptr): boolean;

begin
if code = IO_ERROR then begin
writeln('ERROR HANDLER ', code);
test_handler := true
end else
test_handler := false
end; { test_handler }

begin { main program }

set_ioerr_handler(addr(test_handler));
{ Write to an unopened file. }
IO_ERROR := IOerr_inactive_file;
write(f, 'This file is not open.');
{ Read a file open for writing. }
rewrite(f, NAME);
IO_ERROR := IOerr_read_open_for_writing;
readln(f, str);
remove(NAME);
{ Remove a nonexistent file. }
IO_ERROR := IOerr_remove_file;
remove('nonexistent.dat')
end. { ioerr_example }

Input and Output 217

 7

The commands to compile and hostname% pc -C ioerr.p

execute ioerr.p. When you use hostname% a.out
an I/O error recovery routine, you ERROR HANDLER IOerr_inactive_file
should compile your program with ERROR HANDLER IOerr_read_open_for_writing
the –C option. ERROR HANDLER IOerr_remove_file

218 Pascal Language Reference

 Overview of Pascal Extensions A

This Appendix gives an overview of the Pascal extensions to ISO/ANSI

standard Pascal.

Lexical Elements
Pascal supports the following extensions to the lexical elements of standard
Pascal:
• Uppercase- and lowercase-sensitive
• The special symbols ~, &, |, !, #, and %
• The reserved words external, otherwise, private, public, and univ
• The reserved words define, extern, module, and static
• The identifiers in Table A-1
• An underscore (_) and dollar_sign($) in identifier names
• The comment delimiters /* */. in addition to the standard (* *) and { }
• The comment delimiters " "

219
 A

Table A-1 Nonstandard Identifiers

Nonstandard Identifiers
FALSE close index lsr return
TRUE concat integer16 max rshft
addr date integer32 maxchar seed
alfa discard intset message seek
append double land min shortreal
argc exit lastof minchar single
argv expo length minint sizeof
arshft filesize linelimit next stradd
asl firstof lnot null substr
asr flush longreal open tell
assert getfile lor pack trace
bell getenv lshft random trim
card halt lsl remove univ_ptr
clock in_range

Data Types
Pascal supports the following extensions to the standard Pascal data types:
• The real data types shortreal and longreal
• The real data types single and double
• A real constant without a digit after the decimal point
• The integer data types integer16 and integer32
• An integer constant in another base
• Character constants minchar, maxchar, bell, and tab
• Fixed-length and variable-length character strings
• Array initialization using a default upper bound or a repeat count
• A set of type intset, which contains the elements 0 through 127

220 Pascal Language Reference

 A
• A pointer type to procedures and functions
• A universal pointer type that holds a pointer to a variable of any data type

Statements
Pascal extends the standard definition of statements, as follows:
• The and then and or else operators in the if statement
• The assert statement
• The otherwise statement in a case statement
• Constant ranges in a case statement
• The exit statement in a for, while, or repeat loop
• The next statement in a for, while, or repeat loop
• An identifier as the target of a goto statement
• The return statement in a procedure or function
• An alternative format of the with statement

Assignments and Operators

Pascal supports the following extensions to standard Pascal operators:
• The bitwise operators ~(not), &(and), |(or), and !(or)
• The boolean operators and then and or else
• The relational operators on sets
• The equality (=) and inequality <> ) ( operators on records and arrays
• The concatenation operator, the plus sign (+), on any combination of fixed-
and variable-length strings

Headings and Declarations

Pascal supplies the following extensions to the standard program heading and
declarations:
• Identifiers as labels

Overview of Pascal Extensions 221

 A
• A constant equal to a set expression
• public and private variable declarations
• The static, extern, and define variable attributes
• real, integer, boolean, character, set, record, array, and pointer variable
initialization in the var declaration
• The define declaration
• The label, const, type, var, and define declaration in any order and
any number of times

Procedures and Functions

Pascal supports the following extensions to the standard Pascal definition of
procedures and functions:
• public and private procedure and function declarations
• The in, in out, and out parameter types
• The univ keyword parameter type
• The extern, external, internal, variable, and nonpascal routine
options
• Functions returning structured types

Built-In Routines
Pascal supports the following nonstandard built-in routines:
• The addr function, which returns the address of a specified variable
• The append procedure, which opens a file for writing at its end
• The argc function, which returns the number of arguments passed to the
program
• The argv procedure, which assigns the specified program argument to a
string variable
• The arshft function, which does an arithmetic right shift of an integer
• The asl function, which does an arithmetic left shift of an integer

222 Pascal Language Reference

 A
• The asr function, which is identical to arshft
• The concat function, which concatenates two strings
• The card function, which returns the cardinality of a set
• The clock function, which returns the user time used by the process
• The close procedure, which closes the specified file
• The date procedure, which fetches the current date
• The discard procedure, which explicitly discards the return value of a
function
• The expo function, which calculates the exponent of a specified variable
• The filesize function, which returns the current size of a file
• The firstof function, which returns the first possible value of a type or
variable
• The flush procedure, which writes the output buffered for the specified
Pascal file into the associated operating system file
• The getenv function, which returns the value associated with an
environment name
• The getfile function, which returns a pointer to the C standard I/O
descriptor associated with the specified Pascal file
• The halt procedure, which terminates program execution
• The index function, which returns the position of the first occurrence of a
string or character within another string
• The in_range function, which determines whether a specified value is in
the defined integer subrange
• The land function, which returns the bitwise and of two integer values
• The lastof function, which returns the last possible value of a type or
variable
• The length function, which returns the length of a string
• The linelimit function, which terminates execution of a program after a
specified number of lines have been written into a text file
• The lnot function, which returns the bitwise not of an integer value

Overview of Pascal Extensions 223

 A
• The lor function, which returns the inclusive or of two integer values
• The lshft function, which does a logical left shift of an integer
• The lsl function, which is identical to lshft
• The lsr function, which is identical to rshft
• The max function, which returns the larger of two expressions
• The message procedure, which writes the specified information to stderr
• The min function, which returns the smaller of two expressions
• The null procedure, which performs no operation
• The open procedure, which associates an external file with a file variable
• The random function, which generates a random number between 0.0 and
1.0
• The read and readln procedures, which read in boolean variables, fixed-
and variable-length strings, enumerated types, and pointers from the
standard input
• The remove procedure, which removes the specified file
• The reset and rewrite procedures, which accept an optional second
argument, a Solaris 2.0 operating system file name
• The rshft function, which does a logical right shift of an integer
• The seed function, which reseeds the random number generator
• The seek procedure, which resets the current position of a file
• The sizeof function, which returns the size of a specified type, variable,
constant, or string
• The stlimit procedure, which terminates program execution if a specified
number of statements have been executed in the current loop
• The stradd procedure, which adds a string to the end of another string
• The substr function, which extracts a substring from a string
• The sysclock function, which returns the system time used by the process
• The tell function, which returns the current position of a file
• The time procedure, which retrieves the current time

224 Pascal Language Reference

 A
• The trace procedure, which prints stack traceback
• The trim function, which removes the trailing blanks in a character string
• The type_transfer function, which changes the data type of a variable or
expression
• The wallclock function, which returns the elapsed number of seconds
since 00:00:00 GMT January 1, 1970
• The write and writeln procedures, which output enumerated type values
to the standard output and allow output expressions in octal or hexadecimal
• The write and writeln procedures, which allow negative field widths
• The xor function, which returns the exclusive or of two integer values

Input and Output

Pascal supports the following extensions to standard Pascal input and output:
• Association of a Pascal file with either a permanent or temporary Solaris
operating system file
• The special predefined file variables, input and output, that need not be
specified in the program statement
• The special predefined file variable, errout
• An I/O error recovery mechanism

Program Compilation
Pascal supports the following extensions to program compilation:
• Sharing variable, procedure, and function declarations across multiple units
using include files
• Sharing variable, procedure, and function declarations across multiple units
using multiple declarations
• Sharing variable, procedure, and function declarations across multiple units
using the extern and define variable declarations
• Sharing variable, procedure, and function declarations between units of
different languages using the extern and external routine options

Overview of Pascal Extensions 225

 A

226 Pascal Language Reference

 Pascal and DOMAIN Pascal B

This Appendix describes the differences between Pascal and Apollo DOMAIN
Pascal, and how the -xl option can be used to get around most of these
differences.

The –xl Option

The –xl option to the pc command makes the language accepted by the
Pascal compiler similar to DOMAIN Pascal. Table B-1 lists the differences in
your program when you compile it with and without the –xl option.

Table B-1 Differences Between Programs Compiled with and without –xl

With –xl Without –xl

The default integer size is 16 bits. The default is 32 bits.

The default real size is 32 bits. The default is 64 bits.

The default enumerated type size is 16 bits. The default is either 8 or 16 bits, depending on the number
of elements in the enumerated set.

The source file is run through the preprocessor cppas The source file is run through the preprocessor cpp.
before it is processed by the compiler.

Pascal supports nonpascal as a routine option. nonpascal is not supported.

227
 B
Table B-1 Differences Between Programs Compiled with and without –xl (Continued)

With –xl Without –xl

The –L option, which maps all identifiers to lowercase, is –L is off by default.

on by default.

If the value of the expression in a case statement does The compiler generates an error and halts.
not match any of the case values, the program falls
through and does not generate an error. The program
continues execution in the statement immediately
following the case statement.

The writing of enumerated and boolean variables Enumerated variables default to the length of the type.
defaults to uppercase and 15-character width format. boolean variables default to the length of true or false.

Integer or real constant literals that overflow An error is generated.

implementation limits do not cause an error. The
resulting action is undefined.

No warning is generated when the argument to the addr A warning is generated.

function is a local or private variable.

Top-level variables, procedures, and functions in Variables, procedures, and functions in programs default to
programs default to private. public.

Top-level variables in modules default to private. Variables in modules default to public.

Modules compiled with –xl are not compatible with These two types of modules are not linked together.
modules compiled without –xl.

DOMAIN Pascal Features Accepted but Ignored

Pascal accepts these DOMAIN Pascal features, but otherwise ignores them,
with a warning message as appropriate:
• The volatile, device, and address extensions for attributes of variables
and types
• Routine attribute lists
• The routine options abnormal, nosave, noreturn, val_param, and
d0_return, a0_return, and c_param

228 Pascal Language Reference

 B

DOMAIN Pascal Features Not Supported

Pascal does not support the following features of DOMAIN Pascal:
• Alignment specific to the DN10000 in DOMAIN Pascal SR10
• Allocation of variables into named sections
• Calls to the DOMAIN system libraries
• Compiler directives inside comments
• The functions append, ctop, find, ptoc, replace, and undefined
• Special characters embedded in string literals
• The system programming routines, disable, enable, and set_sr

Pascal and DOMAIN Pascal 229

 B

230 Pascal Language Reference

 Implementation Restrictions C

This Appendix describes the Pascal features that are implementation-defined.

Identifiers
Pascal restricts the maximum length of an identifier to 1,024 characters. All
characters are significant.

Identifiers in a nested procedure are concatenated with the identifier of the

containing procedure. Thus, an identifier in a deeply nested procedure may
become several hundred characters when concatenated and may cause
problems with the compiler. Pascal generates an error when this situation
occurs.

Data Types
This section describes the restrictions Pascal places on the following data types:
• real
• Integer
• Character
• Record
• Array
• Set
• Alignment

231
 C

real
Table C-1 lists the minimum and maximum values Pascal assigns to the real
data types, single and double.

Table C-1 Values for single and double

Type Bits Maximum Value Minimum Value

single 32 3.402823e+38 1.401298e-45
double 64 1.79769313486231470e+308 4.94065645841246544e-324

Integer
The value Pascal assigns to the integer constants maxint and minint depends
on whether or not you compile your program with the –xl option, as shown in
Table C-2.

Table C-2 maxint and minint

Option maxint minint

-xl off 2,147,483,647 -2,147,483,648
-xl on 32,767 -32,768

Character
Pascal defines the maximum range of characters as 0 to 255.

Record
Pascal restricts the maximum size of a record to 2,147,483,647 bytes.

Array
Pascal restricts the maximum size of an array to 2,147,483,647 bytes.

232 Pascal Language Reference

 C

Set
Pascal restricts the maximum size of a set to 32,767 elements.

Alignment
The size and alignment of data types depends on whether or not you compile
your program with the –xl option. Table C-3 shows the representation of data
types without –xl, and Table C-4 shows the representation with –xl.

Implementation Restrictions 233

 C

Table C-3 Internal Representation of Data Types without –xl

Data Type Size Alignment

integer Four bytes Four bytes
integer16 Two bytes Two bytes
integer32 Four bytes Four bytes
real Eight bytes Eight bytes
single Four bytes Four bytes
shortreal Four bytes Four bytes
double Eight bytes Eight bytes
longreal Eight bytes Eight bytes
boolean One byte One byte
char One byte One byte
enumerated One or two bytes, depending on the One or two bytes
number of elements in the enumerated set
subrange One, two, or four bytes One, two, or four bytes
record Depends upon the base type of that field. Four bytes
array Requires the same space required by the Same as element type
base type of the array.
set Pascal implements vector, with one bit Two bytes if size = 2;
representing each element of a set. The otherwise, four bytes
size is determined by the size of the ordinal
value of the maximal element of the set
plus one. It is a minimum of two bytes and
always in two-byte multiples.
pointer Four bytes Four bytes

234 Pascal Language Reference

 C

Table C-4 Internal Representation of Data Types with -xl

Data Type Size Alignment

integer Two bytes Four bytes
integer16 Two bytes Two bytes
integer32 Four bytes Four bytes
real Four bytes Eight bytes
single Four bytes Four bytes
shortreal Four bytes Four bytes
double Eight bytes Eight bytes
longreal Eight bytes Eight bytes
boolean One byte One byte
char One byte One byte
enumerated Two bytes Two bytes
subrange Two or four bytes Two or four bytes
record Depends on the base type of that field. Four bytes
array Needs the same space required by the base Same as element type
type of the array.
set Pascal implements sets as a bit vector, with Two bytes if size = 2;
one bit representing each element of a set. otherwise, four bytes
The size is determined by the size of the
ordinal value of maximal element of the set
plus one. It is a minimum of two bytes and
always in two-byte multiples.
pointer Four bytes Four bytes

Nested Routines
Pascal allows a maximum of 20 levels of procedure and function nesting.

Implementation Restrictions 235

 C

Default Field Widths

The write and writeln statements assume the default values in Table C-5 if
you do not specify the minimum field length of a parameter.

Table C-5 Default Field Widths

Data Type Default Width without -xl Option Default Width with -xl Option
array of char Declared length of the array Declared length of the array
boolean Length of true or false 15
char 1 1
double 21 21
enumerated Length of type 15
hexadecimal 10 10
integer 10 10
integer16 10 10
integer32 10 10
longreal 21 21
octal 10 10
real 21 13
shortreal 13 13
single 13 13
string constant Number of characters in the string Number of characters in the string
variable-length string Current length of the string Current length of the string

236 Pascal Language Reference

 Pascal Validation Summary Report D

The Pascal Version 4.2 compiler has been validated using Version 5.5 of the
Pascal Validation Suite. It complies with FIPS PUB 109 ANSI/IEEE 770 X3.97-
1983 and BS6192/ISO7185 at both level 0 and level 1. This appendix is a
summary of the validation.

Test Conditions
The Pascal Version 4.2 compiler was validated under the Solaris 2.5 operating
system on a SPARCstation™ 10 machine.

The following compiler options were used during each validation:

• Level 1 mode
• All checks
• Runtime trace
• All other default options

The following manufacturer’s statement of compliance is included in the

Validation Summary Report for the architecture.

Manufacturer’s Statement of Compliance

The above processor complies with the requirements of both level 0 and level 1
(by means of a compiler switch) of BS 6192/ISO 7185, with no exceptions.

237
 D

Implementation-Defined Features
The implementation-defined features are as follows:

E.1 The value of each char-type corresponding to each allowed string-

character is the corresponding ISO 8859/1 (ASCII) character.

E.2 The subset of real numbers denoted by signed-real are the values
representable in the single precision (32-bit) format of the IEC559:1982
Standard Binary Floating Point Arithmetic for Microprocessor Systems, which
is the same format as in the IEEE standard P754.

E.3 The values of char-type are the ISO 8859/1 (ASCII) character set.

E.4 The ordinal numbers of each value of char-type are the corresponding
ISO 8859/1 (ASCII) code value.

E.5 All file operations are performed at the point where they are encountered
at execution time, with the exception of get (both explicit and where
implied by reset and read), which is delayed in its execution to the
point at which the file is next referenced—a technique known as “lazy
I/O.”

E.6 The value of maxint is 2,147,483,647.

E.7 The accuracy of the approximations of the real operations and

functions is determined by the representation (see E.2) and by the
rounding of intermediate results. This gives approximately 16-decimal
digits of precision.

E.8 The default value of TotalWidth for integer-type is 10.

E.9 The default value of TotalWidth for real-type is 21.

E.10 The default value of TotalWidth for boolean-type is 5.

E.11 The value of ExpDigits is 2.

E.12 The exponent character is e.

E.13 The case in the output of the value of boolean-type is uppercase for the
initial letter, and lowercase for the remaining letters.

238 Pascal Language Reference

 D
E.14 The procedure Page causes the contents of the output buffer (if any) to
be written, and then outputs the ISO 8859/1 (ASCII) form-feed character.
The effect on any device depends on that device.

E.15 There is no binding between physical files and program parameters of

file-type. Variables of file-type are associated with physical files or
devices automatically by the processor.

E.16 The effects of reset and rewrite on the standard files input and
output depend on the binding of these files specified at the invocation
of the program. In general, reset and rewrite have the effects
described in clause 6.6.5.2 of the Pascal Standard1 when input and output
have been bound to permanent files. When the binding is to a device,
reset(input) has no effect other than discarding any partially
processed line. rewrite(output) terminates any partially complete
line but has no other effect. rewrite(input) and reset(output) are
treated as errors.

E.17 This implementation supports the alternative representation of symbols

permitted by the Standard.

Reporting of Errors
The following errors are detected prior to, or during, execution of a program:

D.1, D.3, D.7, D.9, D.10, D.11, D.14, D.15, D.16, D.17, D.18, D.23, D.26, D.29,
D.33, D.34, D.35, D.36, D.37, D.40, D.41, D.42, D.45, D.46, D.47, D.49, D.51,
D.52, D.53, D.54, D.55, D.56, D.57, D.58, D.59

The following errors are not, in general, reported:

D.2, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.8, D.12, D.13, D.19, D.20, D.21, D.22, D.24, D.25, D.27,
D.28, D.30, D.31, D.32, D.38, D.39, D.43, D.44, D.48, D.50

1. The American National Standard Pascal Computer Programming Language, ANSI/IEE 770 X3.97-1983,
published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 345 East 47th Street, New York,
NY 10017, c. 1983.

Pascal Validation Summary Report 239

 D

Implementation-Dependent Features
Implementation-dependent features F.1 to F.11 of Pascal are treated as
undetected errors.

Extensions
The processor does not contain any extensions to BS6192/ISO 7185. Such
extensions must be enabled by means of a compiling option, not the subject of
validation.

240 Pascal Language Reference

 Glossary

This glossary defines some general programming terms, as well as terms that
are specific to Pascal.

|
The bitwise or operator.

~
The bitwise not operator.

!
The bitwise or operator.

#
A programming symbol that specifies an integer value in a base other than 10,
includes a file in your program, or indicates a preprocessor command.

%
A programming symbol used with the –xl option for special cppas directives.

&
The bitwise and operator.

adb
An interactive, general-purpose, assembly-level debugger.

addr
A built-in function that returns the address of a specified variable.

241
alfa
An array of char 10 characters long.

and then
An operator similar to the standard and operator. The difference is that
and then enforces left-to-right evaluation and evaluates the right operand
only if the left operand is true.

append
A built-in procedure that opens a file for writing at its end.

argc
A built-in function that returns the number of arguments passed to the
program.

argv
A built-in procedure that assigns the specified program argument to a string
variable.

arshft
A built-in function that does an arithmetic right shift of an integer value.

asl
A built-in function that does an arithmetic left shift of an integer value.

asr
A built-in function that does an arithmetic right shift of an integer value. Same
as arshft.

assert
A statement which causes a boolean expression to be evaluated and aborts
the program if false, provided that the –C option is specified.

bell
A predeclared character constant equal to char(7), which makes the terminal
beep.

block buffering
Output buffering with a block size of 1,024.

card
A built-in function that returns the number of elements of a set variable.

clock
A built-in function that returns the user time consumed by the process.

242 Pascal Language Reference

close
A built-in procedure that closes a file.

compiler directive
A percent sign (%) followed by a name indicating an action for the cppas
preprocessor to take. Programs that contain compiler directives must be
compiled with the –xl option.

concat
A built-in function that concatenates two strings.

conditional variable
A variable, either defined or undefined, handled by the cppas preprocessor. A
conditional variable is defined when it appears in a %var directive. Programs
that contain conditional variables must be compiled with the –xl option.

%config
A compiler directive that is a special predefined conditional variable with a
value of either true or false. Programs that contain the %config directive
must be compiled with the –xl option.

cppas
The preprocessor that handles the Pascal conditional variables and compiler
directives when the -xl option is specified.

date
A built-in procedure that fetches the current date (as assigned when the
operating system was initialized) and assigns it to a string variable.

dbx
A symbolic debugger that understands Pascal, Modula-2, C, and FORTRAN
programs.

%debug
A compiler directive that works with the -cond compiler option.
-cond instructs pc, the Pascal compiler, to compile the lines in your program
that begin with %debug. Programs that contain the %debug directive must be
compiled with the –xl option.

define attribute
An attribute used to declare a variable that is allocated in the current module
and whose scope is public.

Glossary 243
define declaration
A declaration used to declare a variable that is allocated in the current module
and whose scope is public.

discard
A built-in procedure that throws away the value a function returns.

double
A real data type that represents a 64-bit floating-point number. Same as
longreal.

%else
A compiler directive that provides an alternative action to the %if directive. If
the expression in %if is false, the compiler skips over the %then part and
executes the %else part instead. Programs that contain the %else directive
must be compiled with the –xl option.

%elseif
A compiler directive that provides another alternative action to the %if
directive. If the expression in %if is false, the compiler skips over the %then
part and executes the %elseif part instead. Programs that contain the
%elseif directive must be compiled with the –xl option.

%elseifdef
A compiler directive that provides an alternative action to the %ifdef
directive. If the expression in %ifdef is false, the compiler skips over the
%then part and executes the %elseifdef part instead. Programs that contain
the %elseifdef directive must be compiled with the –xl option.

%enable
A compiler directive that sets a conditional variable to true. Programs that
contain the %enable directive must be compiled with the –xl option.

%endif
A compiler directive that indicates the end of the %if or %ifdef directive.
Programs that contain the %endif directive must be compiled with the –xl
option.

%error
A compiler directive that prints a string on the standard output and treats it as
an error. Programs that contain the %error directive must be compiled with
the –xl option.

244 Pascal Language Reference

errout
A special predefined file variable equivalent to the operating system standard
error file, stderr.

exit
A statement used in a for, while, or repeat loop to transfer program control
to the first statement after the loop.

%exit
A compiler directive that causes the compiler to stop processing the current
Pascal source file. Programs that contain the %exit directive must be
compiled with the –xl option.

expo
A built-in function that calculates the integer-valued exponent of a specified
number.

extern attribute
An attribute used to declare a variable that is not allocated in the current
program or module unit, but is a reference to a variable allocated in another
unit.

extern option
A procedure and function option that indicates the procedure or function is
defined in a separate program or module unit, and possibly in a different
source language. Same as external.

external
A procedure and function option that indicates the procedure or function is
defined in a separate program or module unit, and possibly in a different
source language. Same as extern.

filesize
A built-in function that returns the current size of a file.

firstof
A built-in function that returns the first possible value of a type or variable.

flush
A built-in procedure that writes the output buffered for the specified Pascal file
into the associated operating system file.

Glossary 245
getenv
A built-in function that returns the value associated with an environment
name.

getfile
A built-in function that returns a pointer to the C standard I/O descriptor
associated with a Pascal file.

halt
A built-in procedure that terminates program execution.

%if
A compiler directive. When the compiler encounters a %if expression %then
directive, it evaluates expression. If expression is true, the compiler executes
the statements after %then. If expression is false, the compiler skips over
%then. Programs that contain the %if directive must be compiled with the –
xl option.

%ifdef
A compiler directive that determines whether or not a conditional variable in a
%var directive has been previously defined. Programs that contain the
%ifdef directive must be compiled with the –xl option.

I/O handler
A Pascal function that is passed the values err_code and filep when an I/O
error occurs. The handler returns false to terminate the program, or true to
continue program execution.

in
A parameter type indicating the parameter can only pass a value into a
procedure or function.

in out
A parameter type indicating the parameter can both take in values and pass
them back out.

in_range
A built-in function that checks if a value is in a defined subrange.

%include
A compiler directive that instructs cppas to insert the lines from the specified
file in the input stream. Programs that contain the %include directive must
be compiled with the –xl option.

246 Pascal Language Reference

include file
A file that is inserted into a source file with the %include or #include
directive.

index
A built-in function that returns the position of the first occurrence of a string or
character in another string.

input
A special predefined file variable equivalent to the standard input file, stdin.

integer16
An integer data type that represents a 16-bit value.

integer32
An integer data type that represents a 32-bit value.

internal
A procedure and function option that makes the procedure or function local to
a module.

intset
A predefined set of [0..127].

land
A built-in function that returns the bitwise and of two integers.

lastof
A built-in function that returns the last possible value of a type or variable.

length
A built-in function that returns the length of a string.

line buffering
The buffering of output line-by-line.

linelimit
A built-in procedure that terminates execution of a program after a specified
number of lines have been written into a text file.

%list
A compiler directive that enables a listing of the program. Programs that
contain the %list directive must be compiled with the –xl option.

Glossary 247
lnot
A built-in function that returns the bitwise not of an integer value.

longreal
A real data type that represents a 64-bit floating-point number. Same as
double.

lor
A built-in function that returns the inclusive or of two integer values.

lshft
A built-in function that does a logical left shift of an integer value.

lsl
A built-in function that does a logical left shift of an integer value. Same as
lshft.

lsr
A built-in function that does a logical right shift of an integer value. Same as
rshft.

max
A built-in function that evaluates two scalar expression and returns the larger
one.

maxchar
A predeclared character constant equal to char(255).

maxint
An integer constant that represents the 16-bit value 32,767 when you compile
your program with the –xl option; otherwise, maxint represents the 32-bit
value 2,147,483,647.

message
A built-in procedure that writes the specified information on stderr, usually
the terminal.

min
A built-in function that evaluates two scalar expressions and returns the
smaller one.

minchar
A predeclared character constant equal to char(0).

248 Pascal Language Reference

minint
An integer constant that represents the 16-bit value -32,768 when you compile
your program with the –xl option; otherwise, minint represents the 32-bit
value, -2,147,483,648.

module heading
A heading that contains the reserved word module followed by an identifier.
For example, module sum; is a legal module heading.

module unit
A source program that does not have a program header.

next
A statement used in a for, while, or repeat loop to skip to the next iteration
of the current loop.

%nolist
A compiler directive that disables the program listing. Programs that contain
the %nolist directive must be compiled with the –xl option.

nonpascal
A procedure and function option that declares non-Pascal routines when you
are porting Apollo DOMAIN programs written in DOMAIN Pascal,
FORTRAN, C, and C++.
null
A built-in procedure that performs no operation.

open
A built-in procedure that associates an external file with a file variable.

or else
An operator similar to the standard or operator. The difference is that
or else enforces left-to-right evaluation and evaluates the right operand only
if the left operand is false.

otherwise
A Pascal extension to the standard Pascal case statement. If the value of the
case selector is not in the case label list, Pascal executes the statements in the
otherwise clause.

out
A parameter indicating that the parameter is used to pass values out of the
routine.

Glossary 249
output
A special predefined file variable equivalent to the standard output file,
stdout.

private
A variable, procedure, or function declaration that restricts its accessibility to
the current compilation unit.

procedure and
function pointer
A pointer that has the address of a procedure or function as its value.

public
A variable, procedure, or function declaration that is visible across multiple
programs and modules.

random
A built-in function that generates a random number between 0.0 and 1.0.

remove
A built-in procedure that removes the specified file.

return
A statement used in a procedure or function to prematurely end the procedure
or function.

rshft
A built-in function that does a logical right shift of an integer value.

seed
A built-in function that reseeds the random number generator.

seek
A built-in procedure that resets the current position of a file.

shortreal
A real data type that represents a 32-bit floating point number. Same as
single.

single
A real data type that represents a 32-bit floating point number. Same as
shortreal.

250 Pascal Language Reference

sizeof
A built-in function that returns the number of bytes the program uses to store
a data object.

%slibrary
A compiler directive that directs cppas to insert the lines from the specified
file in the input stream. Same as %include. Programs that contain the
%slibrary directive must be compiled with the –xl option.

stradd
A built-in procedure that adds a string to the end of another string.

static
A variable attribute that declares the variable private in scope.

stderr
The standard operating system error file.

stdin
The standard operating system input file.

stdout
The standard operating system output file.

stlimit
A built-in procedure that terminates program execution if a specified number
of statements have been executed in the current loop.

string
An array of char 80 characters long.

substr
A built-in function that extracts a substring from a string.

sysclock
A built-in function that returns the system time consumed by the process.

tab
A predeclared character constant equal to char(9), which makes a tab
character.

tell
A built-in function that returns the current position of a file.

Glossary 251
time
A built-in procedure that retrieves the current time.

trace
A built-in procedure that prints stack traceback.

trim
A built-in function that removes trailing blanks in a character string.

type transfer function

A built-in function that changes the data type of a variable, constant, or
expression.

unit
Either a program or a module.

univ
A modifier used before data types in formal parameter lists to turn off type
checking for that parameter.

univ_ptr
See universal pointer.

universal pointer
A pointer used to compare a pointer of one type to another or to assign a
pointer of one type to another.

%var
A compiler directive that defines conditional variables for the preprocessor.
Programs that contain the %var directive must be compiled with the –xl
option.

variable attribute
An attribute that determines how to allocate the variable. Variable attributes
include static, extern, and define.

variable initialization
The initialization of a real, integer, boolean, character, set, record, array, or
pointer variable in the var declaration of the program.

variable routine option

A routine option that is used to pass a routine a smaller number of actual
arguments than the number of formal arguments defined in the routine.

252 Pascal Language Reference

variable scope
Either private or public. Visibility of a private variable is restricted to
the current compilation unit. A public variable can be referenced across
multiple programs and modules.

variable-length string
A string of variable length. A variable-length string can be assigned a string of
any length, up to the maximum length specified in the declaration. Pascal
ignores any characters specified over the maximum.

varying
A string of variable length.

wallclock
A built-in function that returns the elapsed number of seconds since
00.00.00 GMT January 1, 1970.

%warning
A compiler directive that tells the compiler to print a string on the standard
output as a warning. Programs that contain the %warning directive must be
compiled with the –xl option.

–xl option
An option of the pc command that causes the compiler to implement Pascal as
DOMAIN Pascal.
xor
A built-in function that returns the exclusive or of two integers.

Glossary 253
254 Pascal Language Reference
Index

A varying, 34
addr function, 99, 222 arrays, 73
alfa data type, 34 arshft function, 97, 107, 171, 222
alignment of data types, 233 ASCII character set, 1
and operator, 2, 221 asl function, 97, 109, 222
and then operator, 69 to 70 asr function, 97, 111, 171, 223
AnswerBook, xxiii assert statement, 48, 221
Apollo DOMAIN Pascal, 227 to 229 assignment statement, 13, 18, 20, 22
append function, 102, 222 assignments, 63 to 65
compatibility rules, 64
argc
data types, 63
function, 99, 105, 222
extensions, 221
procedure, 105
null strings, 65
argv procedure, 99, 105, 222 string constants, 65
arithmetic strings, to and from, 64
left shift, 109
operators, 66
right shift, 108 B
routines, 95 –b option to pc command, 214
array data types, 34 to 37 bell character, 23, 220
alfa, 34 bit operators, 66
as function return value, 89 bitwise operators, 151
conformant, 89 and, 2, 221
data representation, 37 not, 201, 221
declaring variables, 34 or, 2, 201, 221
initializing variables, 36
block buffering, 214
string, 34
boolean
univ parameter type, 89
expression, 48

255
 operators, 66 conventions, typographical, xxii
and then, 69 to 70
or else, 71
D
boolean data types, 20 to 21
assignment compatibility rules, 63 data structure, 213
declaring constants, 21 data types
declaring variables, 20 alignment, 233
initializing variables, 20 array, 34 to 37
buffering assignments, 63
block, 214 boolean, 20 to 22
file output, 213 enumerated, 24
line, 214 extensions, 220
file, 41
built-in procedures and functions, 2
integer, 232
nonstandard, 95 to 201, 203, 222
internal representation
standard, 95, 203
with –xl, 235
without –xl, 234
C pointer, 41 to 45, 80
–C option to pc command, 48, 218 real, 231
real, 13 to 15
C programming language, 94, 204
record, 27 to 33
card function, 96, 112, 223
set, 38 to 39
case statement, 48, 51 to 52, 157, 221 size restrictions, 232
otherwise clause, 51, 58 space allocation, 232
range of constants, 52 subrange, 25
with –xl option, 51
date procedure, 99, 118, 223
character
declarations, 77 to 84
data type, 23
const, 79, 222
assignment compatibility
define, 222
rules, 63
extensions, 221
bell, 23, 220
label, 222
data representation, 23
type, 222
declaring constants, 23
var, 14, 18, 27, 80 to 83
declaring variables, 22
default field widths, 236
maxchar, 23, 220
minchar, 23, 220 define
tab, 23, 220 declaration, 83, 222
set, 1 variable, 80, 222
string routines, 97 discard procedure, 99, 120, 223
clock function, 99, 113, 223 documentation, xxiii to xxiv
close procedure, 98, 116, 204, 223 DOMAIN Pascal, 227 to 229
comments, 6, 48, 214, 219 features accepted but ignored, 227,
228
concat function, 117, 223
features not supported, 229
conformant array, 89
–xl option, 227
const declaration, 77, 79, 222

256 Pascal Language Reference

double data type, 13, 220, 232 with –s option, 41
with –V0 and –V1 options, 41
E file identifiers
input, 117
enumerated data, 23, 24 output, 117
assignment compatibility rules, 63
file variable, 210
data representation, 24
errout, 211
with read and readln
input, 211
procedures, 23
output, 211
with write and writeln
files
procedures, 23
external and Pascal file variables, 210
eof function, 135, 204 to 207
how to close, 117
eoln function, 135, 204 to 209 permanent and temporary, 210
error filesize function, 124, 223
file, stderr, 212
firstof function, 96, 126, 223
recovery of input and output, 214
flush procedure, 98, 130, 204, 213, 223
errout file variable, 211
for statement, 52, 56, 221
exit statement, 52 to 53, 221
formal parameter, 88, 92
expo function, 96, 123, 223
FORTRAN programming language, 94
extensions, 219 to 225
forward option, 91
assignments and operators, 221
built-in routines, 222 function
data types, 220 addr, 99
heading and declarations, 221 append, 102
input and output, 225 argc, 99, 105
lexical elements, 219 arshft, 97, 107, 171
procedures and functions, 222 asl, 97, 109
program compilation, 225 asr, 97, 111, 171
statements, 221 association with define
declaration, 84
extern
built-in, 95
option, 92, 222
card, 96, 112
variable, 82, 84, 222
clock, 99, 113
external option, See extern option
concat, 117
declarations, 77
F eof, 135, 204 to 207
field widths, default, 236 eoln, 135, 204 to 209
expo, 96, 123
file
extensions, 222
permanent, 210
extern option, 92
stderr, 211
external option, 92
stdin, 212
filesize, 124, 223
stdout, 211
firstof, 96, 126
temporary, 211
forward option, 92
file data type, 41 getenv, 99, 132

Index 257
 getfile, 98, 134, 204, 215 H
in_range, 138
halt procedure, 99, 136, 223
index, 97, 139
internal option, 92 headings
land, 97, 142 extensions, 221
lastof, 144 function, 84
length, 97, 145 program, 210
lnot, 97, 149
lor, 97, 150 I
lshft, 97, 152
identifiers, 2, 4, 54, 59
lsl, 97, 153
as labels, 77
lsr, 97, 153
in define declaration, 83
max, 96, 153
nonstandard predeclared, 4, 220
min, 96, 156
restrictions to, 231
nonpascal option, 94
standard predeclared, 4, 220
parameters, 85 to 88
private, 84, 92, 222 if statement, 48, 208, 221
public, 84, 222 implementation restrictions, 231 to 236
random, 96, 162 in out parameter, 85, 88
return statement, 59 to 60 in parameter, 85, 88, 215
return value, 89, 121 in_range function, 138, 223
returning structured types, 222 include directive and statement, 216
rshft, 97, 171
index function, 97, 139, 223
seed, 96, 172
sizeof, 96, 176 initializing variables, 83
substr, 97, 183 input
sysclock, 99, 114, 184 environment, 203 to 218
tell, 224 error recovery, 214
time, 185 extensions, 225
trim, 97, 191, 225 file
type transfer, 99, 193 stdin, 212
var declaration, 14, 18, 21, 23, 28 variable, 211
variable option, 92 input and output
wallclock, 99, 195 library, 212
xor, 97, 200 routines, nonstandard and
standard, 204
trap handler, 215
G integer data types, 16 to 20
getenv function, 99, 132, 223 assignment compatibility rules, 63
getfile function, 98, 134, 204, 215, 223 data representation, 19
global variable, 81 declaring constants, 18
goto statement, 48, 54, 59, 221 integer, 17
exiting current block, 54 integer16, 17, 220
use of identifier in, 54 integer32, 220
maxint, 232
minint, 19, 232

258 Pascal Language Reference

 specifying in another base, 19 mod operators, 66
unsigned integer, 17 modules
integer16, 20, 220 extern or external option, 92, 222
integer32, 17, 20, 220 extern variables, 82, 84
interactive programming, 203 public and private routines, 84
scope of variables, 80
internal option, 92, 222
ioerr.h file, 215
N
K nested routines, 235
keywords, 2 next statement, 56
nil, 79
nonpascal option, 94, 222
L nonstandard special symbols
–L option to pc command, 2, 228 !, 2, 219
label declaration, 77, 222 #, 2, 219
land function, 97, 142, 223 %, 2, 219
lastof function, 144, 223 &, 2, 219
length function, 97, 145, 223 |, 2, 219
~, 2, 219
lexical
characters, 1 not operator, 2, 201, 221
elements, 1 null procedure, 99, 157, 224
line buffering, 214 null string assignments, 65
linelimit procedure, 98, 147, 204, 223
lnot function, 97, 149, 223 O
local variable, 80, 81, 100 open procedure, 98, 117, 158, 204, 210, 224
longreal, 220 operators, 66 to 76, 79
lor function, 97, 150, 224 and, 2, 221
lowercase characters, mapping, 2 and then, 69 to 70
lshft function, 97, 151, 224 arithmetic, 66
lsl function, 97, 153 bit, 66, 68
boolean, 66, 68
lsr function, 97, 153, 224
extensions, 221
mod, 66
M not, 2, 201, 221
manuals, See documentation or, 2, 201, 221
or else, 70
mapping to lowercase characters, 2
precedence of, 76
max function, 153, 224 relational, 66, 72
maxchar, 23, 220 set, 66, 71
message procedure, 98, 155, 204, 213, 224 string, 66, 75
min function, 96, 156, 224 options for routines, 91 to 94
minchar, 23, 220 extern or external, 92, 222
internal, 92

Index 259
 nonpascal, 94, 227 assignment compatibility rules, 63
variable, 92 data representation, 45
or else operator, 70 declaring variables, 42
or operator, 2, 201, 221 initializing variables, 45
procedure and function, 43, 80
otherwise clause in case statement, 51,
univ_ptr, 42
58
universal, 80
out parameter, 85, 88
precedence of operators, 76
output
private
environment, 203 to 218
function, 84
error recovery, 214
procedure, 84
extensions, 225
variable, 81, 222
file
buffering, 213 procedure
stdout, 212 append, 222
variable, 211 argc, 105
argv, 99, 105
association with define
P declaration, 84
packed records, 30 built-in, 95
parameters, 84 to 89 close, 98, 116, 204
formal, 86, 88, 92 date, 99, 118
in, 85, 88, 215 declarations, 77
in out, 85, 88 discard, 99, 120
out, 85, 88 extensions, 222
passing conventions, 86 extern option, 92
type checking, 88 external option, 92
univ type, 88 flush, 98, 130, 204, 213
value, 86 forward option, 92
var, 86, 88 halt, 99, 136
Pascal internal option, 92
extensions in the compiler, xix linelimit, 98, 147, 204
symbols, 2 message, 98, 155, 204, 213
validation summary, 237 to 240 nonpascal option, 94
null, 99, 157
pc command
open, 98, 117, 158, 204, 210
–b option, 214
parameters, 85 to 89
–C option, 48, 218
pcexit, 99
document reference, 2
private, 92, 222
–L option, 2, 228
public, 222
–s option, 2, 3
read, 23, 98, 163, 204, 205, 207, 209,
–V0 option, 3
211
–V1 option, 3
readln, 23, 98, 135, 163, 204, 207, 209,
–xl option, 9, 17, 24, 94, 227, 234
211
pcexit procedure, 99 remove, 98, 166, 204
pointer data type, 41 to 45 reset, 98, 117, 135, 167, 204, 212

260 Pascal Language Reference

 return statement, 59 initializing
rewrite, 98, 135, 168, 204, 211 data, 27
seek, 174, 224 variables, 83
stlimit, 99, 180 representation of unpacked
stradd, 182, 224 records, 30
time, 99, 187 records, 73
trace, 225 relational operators, 66, 72
var declaration, 14, 21, 23, 28, 36, 39, remove procedure, 98, 166, 204, 224
83
repeat statement, 52, 56, 221
variable option, 92
write, 24, 98, 155, 198, 204, 211, 212 reserved words, 3
writeln, 24, 98, 155, 198, 204, 211, nonstandard extensions, 4
212 standard, 3
program reset procedure, 98, 117, 135, 167, 204,
compilation extensions, 225 212, 224
headings, 210 return statement, 59, 221
unit, 84 rewrite procedure, 98, 117, 135, 168, 204,
public 211, 225
function, 84 routine
procedure, 84 addr, 96, 99, 222
variable, 81, 84, 222 append, 98, 102
argc, 99, 105, 222
argv, 99, 105, 222
R arithmetic, 95
random function, 162, 224 arshft, 97, 108, 171, 222
read procedure, 23, 98, 163, 204, 205, 207, asl, 97, 110, 222
209, 211, 224 asr, 97, 171, 223
readln procedure, 23, 98, 135, 163, 207, built-in, 95 to 201
209, 211, 224 card, 96, 112, 223
real data types, 13 to 15 clock, 99, 114, 223
as function return value, 89 close, 98, 116, 204, 223
data representation, 15 concat, 97, 223
declaring date, 99, 118, 223
constants, 14 discard, 121, 223
variables, 13 eof, 135, 204 to 207
double, 13, 220, 232 eoln, 135, 204 to 209
longreal, 13, 220 expo, 96, 123, 223
real, 13, 15 extern option, 92
shortreal, 13, 15, 220 external option, 92
single, 13, 15, 220, 232 filesize, 98
with –xl option, 13, 17 firstof, 96, 126, 223
flush, 98, 130, 204, 213, 223
record data type, 26 to 33
forward option, 91
as function return value, 89
getenv, 99, 223
assignment compatibility rules, 63
getfile, 98, 135, 204, 215, 223
declaring variables, 26

Index 261
 halt, 99, 136, 223 var declaration, 36, 39
in_range, 96, 138, 223 variable option, 92
index, 97, 139, 140, 223 wallclock, 99, 195, 225
input and output, 203 write, 98, 155, 198, 204, 211, 212, 225
internal option, 92 writeln, 98, 155, 198, 204, 211, 212,
land, 97, 142, 223 225
lastof, 96, 144, 223 xor, 97, 200, 225
length, 97, 146, 223 routine parameters, 85 to 89
linelimit, 98, 147, 204, 223 routines, 79
lnot, 97, 149, 223 rshft function, 97, 171, 224
lor, 97, 150, 224
lshft, 97, 152, 224
lsl, 97, 153 S
lsr, 97, 153, 224 –s option to pc command, 2, 3
max, 96, 224 scope of variables
message, 98, 155, 204, 213, 224 private, 80
min, 96, 157, 224 public, 80
nonpascal option, 94
seed function, 162, 172, 224
null, 99, 157, 224
open, 98, 117, 158, 204, 210, 224 seek procedure, 174, 224
parameters, 85 to 89 set
private, 84, 92 data types, 38 to 39
public, 84 as function return value, 91
random, 96, 162, 224 assignment compatibility
read, 98, 163, 204, 205, 207, 209, 211, rules, 63
224 data representation, 39
readln, 98, 135, 163, 204, 207, 209, declaring variables, 38
211, 224 returning number of
remove, 98, 166, 204, 224 elements, 112
reset, 98, 117, 135, 167, 204, 212, 224 initializing variables, 83
return statement, 59 operators, 66, 71
rewrite, 98, 117, 135, 169, 204, 211, shortreal, 13, 15, 220
225 signal handler, 214
rshft, 97, 171, 224 single, 13, 15, 220, 232
seed, 96, 172, 224 sizeof function, 176, 224
seek, 98
space allocation of data types, 233
sizeof, 96, 176, 224
stlimit, 99, 180, 224 special symbols, nonstandard and
stradd, 97 standard, 2
substr, 97, 183, 224 standard files
sysclock, 99, 114, 184, 224 error, 212
tell, 98, 185, 224 input, 212
time, 99, 187, 224 output, 212
trace, 99, 189, 225 statements, 47 to 62
trim, 97, 191, 225 assert, 48, 221
type transfer, 99, 193, 225 case, 47, 51 to 52, 157, 221

262 Pascal Language Reference

 exit, 52 to 53, 221 U
extensions, 221
univ parameter, 85
for, 52, 56, 221
goto, 48, 54, 59, 221 univ parameter type, 88
if, 48, 208, 221 univ_ptr, 42, 100, 135
next, 56 unpacked records
repeat, 52, 56, 221 fixed, 30
return, 59, 221 variant, 30
while, 52, 56, 206, 209, 221 unsigned integer, 17
with, 47, 60, 221
static variable, 14, 18, 21, 23, 28, 37, 39,
83, 222
V
stderr, 204, 211 –V0 option to pc command, 3
stdin, 212 –V1 option to pc command, 3
stdout, 211 value parameter, 86, 88
stlimit procedure, 99, 180, 224 value parameter, 85
stradd procedure, 182, 224 var
declaration, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27, 36, 80 to
string
83, 222
assignments, 64
attributes, 80
constants, assignments, 65
initialization, 83
data type, 34
scope, 80
operators, 66, 75
parameter, 86, 88
subrange data, 17, 25 to 26
var parameter, 85
assignment compatibility rules, 63
data representation, 25 variable
declaring variables, 25 attributes, 80
with –xl option, 26 define, 81, 83, 222
extern, 81, 82, 84, 222
substr function, 97, 183, 224
global, 80
symbols, 2 initialization, 83
sysclock function, 99, 114, 184, 224 local, 80, 83, 100
option, 92, 222
T private, 80, 222
public, 80, 81, 83, 222
tab character, 23, 220 scope, 80
tell function, 185, 224 static, 81, 222
time procedure, 99, 187, 224 varying data type, 34
trace procedure, 225
trace routine, 189
W
trim function, 97, 191, 225
wallclock function, 99, 195, 225
type checking of parameters, 88
while statement, 52, 56, 206, 209, 221
type declaration, 222
with
type transfer function, 193, 225
alternate form, 60 to 62
typographical conventions, xxii statement, 48, 221

Index 263
 write procedure, 23, 98, 155, 198, 204,
211, 212, 225
writeln procedure, 23, 98, 155, 198, 204,
211, 212, 225

X
–xl option to pc command, 9, 17, 24, 227
with define attribute, 83
with nonpascal routine option, 94
xor function, 97, 200, 225

264 Pascal Language Reference

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