Did Islam Spread by The Sword II PDF

2 | How Islam Spread Throughout the World
Author Biography
Hassam Munir is currently pursuing an MA in Mediterranean and Middle East
History at the University of Toronto. His current primary research interests are
Islamic intellectual history and the use of digital technology (and virtual reality in
particular) as a pedagogical tool for the study of Islamic history. He has experience
in the fields of journalism and public history, and was recognized as an Emerging
Historian at the 2017 Heritage Toronto Awards.
Disclaimer: The views, opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in these

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endorse any of the personal views of the authors on any platform. Our team is
diverse on all fronts, allowing for constant, enriching dialogue that helps us
produce high-quality research.
Copyright © 2018. Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research

Abstract
Historians have widely discredited the narrative that the prevalence of Islam in the
world today can be explained as a result of forced conversions. Without denying
that there may have been some exceptional cases of forced conversion―in blatant
violation of clear Islamic directives―this article describes some of the prominent
factors in the Islamization of different regions of the world in history, including
daʿwah, trade, intermarriage, migration, influencers, Islam’s emphasis on justice
and unity, and the universality of Islam. The examples used in this article are not
exhaustive, but they help us develop an appreciation of the complex nature of the
spread of Islam, a process which certainly cannot be oversimplified into a slogan
such as “Islam was spread by the sword.”
Introduction
In 1993, the historian Richard Eaton claimed that “Islam was history’s first truly
1
global civilization.” While the present status of the Muslim ummah (community)
as a functional “civilization” is up for discussion, the scope referenced by Eaton is
more accurate today than ever: Islam today is undeniably a global dīn (way of life),
2
professed by an estimated 1.8 billion people as of 2015. For some, the prevalence
of one of the world’s youngest religions can only be explained by the “fact” that
historically, Islam “spread by the sword”―that is, through systematic forced
conversion. As discussed in the first article in this series, this is a very shallow
assertion. However, the previous analysis does raise another important question: if
Islam was not spread by the sword, what are the factors that have led to its
prevalence across the world today?
1
Richard M. Eaton, “Islamic history as global history,” in Michael Adas, ed., Islamic and European Expansion: The
Forging of a Global Order (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 12.
2
Michael Lipka, “Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world,” Pew Research Center, 9
August 2017,
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world
/.
The current article discusses these factors and their role in Islam’s historical
trajectory in different regions of the world. This analysis is organized in the
following way. The first section covers five prominent factors that explain how
non-Muslims were exposed to the message of Islam: daʿwah, trade, intermarriage,
migration and influencers. The second section covers three prominent factors
which primarily explain why non-Muslims embraced this message after they were
exposed to it: Islam’s emphasis on justice and unity, and the universality of Islam.
It is important to note that this is not an exhaustive list―in fact, every individual
convert had his or her own particular experiences that led them to embrace the
faith. However, to discuss each case would be redundant, even if it were possible.
It is therefore necessary to generalize the discussion on the spread of Islam for the
sake of a meaningful analysis, but not in such a way as to lose sight of the reality:
there have been virtually countless different means used to deliver the message of
Islam, and countless different reasons for accepting it.
I: The Spread of the Message

Daʿwah
Daʿw ah, or the act of inviting others to engage with the message of Islam, follows
naturally from the Muslim’s obligatory concern for humanity’s success and
salvation. “Invite (udʿū) all to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and kind advice”
3
(16:125) is a clear Qurʾānic directive to Muslims. Allāh also informs Prophet
Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬of his mission in the Qurʾān (33:45-6): “O Prophet! We have
sent you as a witness, and a deliverer of good news, and a warner, and a caller
(dāʿī) to [the Way of] Allāh by His command, and a beacon of light.” After the
Prophet ‫ﷺ‬, every member of the Muslim ummah s hares in the responsibility of
daʿwah to the extent they are able.
3
All quotations from the Qurʾān in this article are taken from Mustafa Khattab, The Clear Quran: A Thematic
English Translation of the Message of the Final Revelation (Lombard, IL: Book of Signs Foundation, 2016).
An early dāʿī was Muʿādh ibn Jabal, sent by the Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬to give daʿwah in
Yemen and Hadramawt. The importance of this task is indicated in a letter sent by
the Prophet to his contacts in Yemen after dispatching Muʿādh, in which he said, “I
4
have sent you my best man.” According to the historian Ibn Ishāq, the Prophet
‫ﷺ‬also instructed Muʿādh on the manner of daʿwah before he left, including the
5
following: “Be tolerant, not harsh; spread the word, and do not alienate them.”
Bukhārī and Muslim also recorded a version of this narration.6
Muʿādh was constantly on the move throughout the region, not settling in one
7
place for too long, so as to maximize the reach of his daʿw
ah. It is noteworthy that
this same region soon became the point of departure for traveling scholars and
merchants who introduced Islam to many parts of the world, such as Madagascar,
8
parts of Southeast Asia (as discussed below), and elsewhere. As one scholar has
noted, “there exists archeological evidence pointing to a Yemeni mosque—what
exactly that means is open to debate—in Quangzhou from the eleventh century,
and to a tombstone from Mogadishu dated 1358.”9
The role of the daʿwah efforts of Sufi Muslims in the spread of Islam is widely
recognized. An archeological study of the oldest surviving Islamic monuments in
present-day western Kazakhstan concluded that these were “built under the
influence of the Sufi strand of Islam, which retained its influence in the Kazakh
steppes until the early fifteenth century,”10 indicating that Sufism played an
4
Abd al Wahid Dhanun Taha, “The Historical Process of the Spread of Islam,” in The Different Aspects of Islamic
Culture, Volume Three: The Spread of Islam throughout the World, eds. Idris El Hareir and El Hadji Ravane
M’Baye (Paris: UNESCO, 2011), 134.
5
Abū Muhammad ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Hishām, As-Sīra an-Nabawiyya, Vol. II, ed. Mustafa as-Saqqa et al. (Cairo:
Matbaʿat Mustafā al-Bābī al-Halabī, 1936), 590.
6
They narrate that Abu Burda reported: “The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, sent Mu’adh and himself to
Yemen and he said, ‘Make things easy and do not make things difficult. Give glad tidings and do not repel people.
Cooperate with each other and do not become divided.’” (Sah ̣ ̣ al-Bukhārī 2873, Sah
̣ īh ̣ īh
̣ ̣ Muslim 1733; see Abu
Amina Elias, “Hadith on Da’wah: Give glad tidings, make it easy, and remain united,” <link>).
7
Taha, “The Historical Process of the Spread of Islam”, 134.
8
S. von Sicard, “Malagasy Islam: Tracing the History and Cultural Influences of Islam in Madagascar,” Journal of
Muslim Minority Affairs 31, no. 1 (2011): 102; Vincent J.H. Houben, “Southeast Asia and Islam,” The Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science 5 88 (2003): 153.
9
Ulrike Freitag, “Reflections on the Longevity of the Hadhrami Diaspora in the Indian Ocean,” in The Hadhrami
Diaspora in Southeast Asia: Identity Maintainance or Assimilation?, eds. Ahmed Ibrahim Abushouk and Hassan
Ahmed Ibrahim (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 22.
10
Rakhym Beknazarov, “Analysing the Spread of Islam in Western Kazakhstan through Architectural Monuments,”
Anthropology of the Middle East 3, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 35.
important role in the initial spread of Islam in this region. This reinforces earlier
suggestions of the influence of traveling Sufis such as Abū’l-Hasan al-Kalamātī
and Abū’l-Hasan al-Usbānīkathī (both fl. 10th century) in the spread of Islam in
Central Asia, particularly during the period of Sāmānid rule (819-999).11
Similarly, Sufism played a leading role in the Islamization of Kashmir, a disputed
territory in the foothills of the Himalayas with a population that is currently
12
upwards of 95% Muslim. It is difficult to pinpoint the beginning of the
Islamization of Kashmir, but there are records of a Syrian Muslim military general
13
arriving there, possibly as a prisoner of war, as early as 711. There are also
records of Kashmir’s Hindu kings requesting Islamic scholars to be sent to their
courts, ordering the Qur’an to be translated into the Kashmiri language, and
14
employing Muslims in their court administration and army.
However, the more precisely traceable history of Islam in Kashmir dates to 1323,
when the Buddhist ruler of Kashmir, Lha (also known as Rinchen), “subjected
himself to the teachings of the religion of Mustafa [i.e, the Prophet ‫]ﷺ‬, and the
right principles of the truthful path of Murtaza [i.e., ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib], and
15
embraced the Islamic religion with sincerity and conviction.” Lha (after
conversion, Mālik Sadr al-Dīn) was an “inquisitive and alert” young man, “fond of
the company of learned men,” and he had been inspired during a meeting with a
travelling Sufi scholar known as Bulbul Shah (d. 1327), reportedly because he
found that Islam was “simple, free from useless ceremonies, caste and priesthood.”
16
11
D.G. Tor, “The Islamization of Central Asia during the Sāmānid era and the reshaping of the Muslim world,”
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 7 2, no. 2 (2009): 288-9.
12
Rekha Chowdhary, Jammu and Kashmir: Politics of Identity and Separatism (New York: Routledge, 2014), 162;
Muslims are reported to make up 97.16% of Indian-held Kashmir’s population, according to this source;
Pakistan-held Kashmir is estimated to be 99% Muslim.
13
Sayyed M. F. Bukhari, Kashmir Main Islam: Manzar Aur Pasmanzar [Islam in Kashmir: Historical Context],
(Srinagar: Maktaba ʿIlm-o-Adab, 1998), 18.
14
Yoginder Sikand, “Hazrat Bulbul Shah: The First Known Muslim Missionary in Kashmir,” Journal of Muslim
Minority Affairs 20, no. 4 (2000): 363.
15
Baharistān-i-Shahī [The Royal Garden] (Calcutta: Firma KLM), 22; this is a Persian chronicle written by an
anonymous author, published c. 1614, and translated into English in Kashinath Pundit, Baharistan-i-Shahi: A
Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir ( Srinagar: Gulshan Books, 2013).
16
Mohibbul Hasan, Kashmir under the Sultans (Srinagar: Ali Mohammad and Sons, 1974), 39.
Mālik died shortly after his conversion, but not before he helped Bulbul Shah
establish a khanqah ( a Sufi school) and a langar khāna (community kitchen) that
fed the poor of all backgrounds twice a day. Many Kashmiris converted at the
17
hands of Bulbul Shah. One of his students, Ahmad, later became the chief Islamic
scholar of Kashmir under Shah Mīr, Mālik’s former chief minister and also a
18
Muslim, who came to power in 1339. Thus began the Shah Mīrī (or Swati)
dynasty; his descendants ruled Kashmir for the next two centuries. It was during
this time that another Sufi scholar, Mīr Sayyid ʿAlī al-Hamdānī (d. 1385), came to
the region to teach Islam, ushering in the second wave of da‘wah to Islam in
Kashmir. In addition to Kashmir, the widely-traveling Hamdānī is known for his
da‘wah in parts of Syria, Iraq, Khawarzm, Central Asia, India, and possibly even
Sarandīp (Sri Lanka).19
A prominent example of Sufi daʿwah is that of the Ba ʿAlawi tarī q ah ( order)
started by Muhammad ibn ʿAlī al-Faqīh al-Muqaddam (d. 1255) of Hadramawt in
Yemen; hence the Ba ʿAlawis are also referred to as Hadramīs. Due in large part to
a shift in trade routes due to the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 (discussed
in detail below), starting in the 14th century, members of the Ba ʿAlawi tarīq ah
increasingly traveled to the Malay-Indonesian Archipelago via India for trade,
migration, and daʿwah. 20 As Ulrike Freitag has noted in her study of Islam in this
region, “the emergence of Sufism, and from the twelfth century onwards the Sufi
orders, offered religious practices which were attractive to non-Muslims as well.
Charismatic Sufis who knew how to read and write, who practiced medicine [...]
drew Muslims and non-Muslims alike into their circles.”21
Other reasons for why the Sufi daʿwah of the Ba ʿAlawi was so effective in this
region―given that some 250 million Muslims live in Southeast Asia today―are
outlined elsewhere in this article, though more research on their impact is needed.
17
Sikand, “Hazrat Bulbul Shah,” 366.
18
Ibid., 367.
19
Jamal J. Elias, “A second ʿAlī: the making of Sayyid ʿAlī Hamadānī in popular imagination,” Muslim World 90,
no. 3-4 (Fall 2000): 397.
20
Frode Jacobsen, Hadrami Arabs in Present-day Indonesia (New York: Routledge, 2009), 11.
21
Freitag, “Reflections on the Longevity of the Hadhrami Diaspora in the Indian Ocean,” 24.
As Syed Farid Alatas has noted, discussion of their daʿw ah has been
“conspicuously absent in the literature on the history of Islam in Southeast Asia.”22
Some indicators of the effectiveness of daʿwah in the spread of Islam are seen in
the frantic measures taken by some authorities to try to prevent Muslims from
carrying out daʿw
ah w ork. The enslaved Muslims brought by early Spanish
colonizers to the “New World,” for example, often escaped and ran away, finding
23
refuge in Native American settlements. The Spanish authorities feared both the
spread of Islam in their colonies and the prospect of joint African–Native
24
American rebellions. The depth of their anxiety was reflected in the severity of
punishments; one runaway slave who was plausibly Muslim was recaptured and
boiled to death in Costa Rica in 1540, and two Muslims were condemned (one to
death, one to life in prison) in 1560 for “having practiced and spread Islam in
25
Cuzco, Peru.” On five different occasions in the 16th century, Spanish authorities
passed legislation in efforts to limit the influx of Muslim slaves into the colonies;
they were described as an “inconvenience,” at least partially due to their daʿw
ah
26
activity.
Following in this tradition, Muslims have given daʿw ah in different ways virtually
everywhere they have gone, and it is therefore not far-fetched to claim that daʿwah
has been the most important factor in the spread of Islam. Every example of
conversion to Islam that is described in this article involves daʿwah in some form.
Trade
The Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬himself was a merchant at one stage of his life, and
trade has historically been instrumental in the spread of his message. The lands that
22
Syed Farid Alatas, “The Tariqat Al-‘Alawiyya and the Emergence of the Shi‘i School in Indonesia and Malaysia,”
paper presented at the conference ‘The Northwestern Indian Ocean as Cultural Corridor,’ Department of Social
Anthropology, University of Stockholm, Stockholm, 17–19 January 1997, p. 8.
23
Samory Rashid, “The Islamic Origins of Spanish Florida’s Ft. Musa,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 21, no.
2 (2001): 211.
24
Sylviane A. Diouf, Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas (15th Anniversary Edition) ( New
York: New York University Press, 2013), 212.
25
Ibid., 213.
26
Ibid., 212.
came under Muslim rule after the early conquests included some of the most
important trade routes (e.g., large parts of the Silk Road), commercial centers (e.g.,
Damascus), and ports (e.g., Aden) of the pre-modern world. The Muslims also
inherited the ever-lucrative spice trade flowing across the Indian Ocean. As
Muslim merchants traveled, they inevitably―and, it may assumed, often very
deliberately―exposed non-Muslims to their beliefs, values, and way of life.
The early emergence of Muslim communities on the Malabar Coast in
southwestern India is a fitting example of the role of trade in the spread of Islam.
The pre-Islamic Arabs and Persians frequently visited the ports of the Malabar
Coast to trade with merchants coming from further east. These connections were so
strong that there is a mosque, called Cheraman Jāmiʿ Masjid, that is widely
believed to have been originally built by Muslim traders in 630―during the
27
lifetime of Prophet Muhammad ‫ﷺ‬.
The narrative of the origins of this mosque is unverifiable, but it does indicate the
possibility of a very early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast. The Muslim
traders who settled in Malabar and intermixed with the local population came to
28
form the Māppila Muslim community that is prevalent in the region today. By the
10th century, according to the ʿAbbāsid historian al-Masʿūdī, a settlement called
29
Saymur (south of present-day Mumbai) was home to about 10,000 Muslims.
Many of these are likely to have been indigenous converts, the “great majority” of
30
them embracing Islam to escape their status as downtrodden, low-caste Hindus.
Looking further east, it is arguably no coincidence that China’s oldest and largest
mosque―the Great Mosque of Xi’an, thought to have been built in 742
CE―stands in the city (then known as Chang’an) that marked the easternmost
27
Mehrdad Shokoohy, “Architecture of the Sultanate of Ma’bar in Madura, and Other Muslim Monuments in South
India,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1, no. 1 (1991): 36.
28
A. D. W. Forbes, “Malabar,” in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis,
C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs.
29
Abū’l-Hasan al-Mas‘ūdī, Murūj al-Dhahab [Meadows of Gold], 2 Vols. ( Cairo, 1948), Vol. I, 170.
30
Stephen F. Dale, “Trade, Conversion and the Growth of the Islamic Community of Kerala, South India,” Studia
Islamica, no. 71 (1990): 162.
31
point of the Silk Road. In addition to Chang’an, early Persian and Arab Muslim
merchants also traveled by sea to Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Kaifeng; the
ʿAbbāsid ruler al-Mansūr (d. 775) boasted that there were no obstacles for trade
32
between his new capital, Baghdad, and these commercial centers. An estimated
120,000 “non-Chinese,” including Muslims, Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians,
were killed in Guangzhou in 877 during a rebellion, providing us with a sense of
how many Muslims (most of them merchants) traveled to and settled in Guangzhou
33
alone. Trade took Muslims as far as “al-Shīla” (Korea), where many of them had
34
settled by the late 800s.
In the case of Southeast Asia, there is evidence dating as far back as the 7th century
35
that Arab traders were active in the region, especially in Sumatra (Indonesia). A
shipwreck found off the coast of Java and dated to the year 960 included a stone
mold to make medallions that read “al-mulk lillāhi al-wāhid al-qahhār” (“All
36
Sovereignty is Allāh’s, the One and Only, the Dominator”). By the 10th century,
communities of Muslim traders had started to settle in Southeast Asia, the most
prominent of them in Champa (Vietnam), from which the present-day Cham
37
Muslims of Cambodia and Vietnam originate. By the 11th century they were
38
active in present-day Brunei and the Philippines.
A key turning point in the Islamization of Southeast Asia was the Mongol conquest
of Baghdad in 1258. Given the damage done to infrastructure and the breakdown
of authority in Iraq, the Persian Gulf and the Tigris-Euphrates river system could
no longer serve as the primary trade route for the spice trade from the Indian Ocean
31
Zvi Ben Dor Benite, “Follow the white camel: Islam in China to 1800,” in David Morgan and Anthony Reid
(eds.), The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 3: The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth
Centuries (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 413.
32
Hyunhee Park, Mapping the Chinese and Islamic Worlds: Cross-Cultural Exchange in Pre-Modern Asia (New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 32.
33
Ibid., 70.
34
Ibid., 62.
35
Geoff Wade, “An Early Age of Commerce in Southeast Asia, 900-1300 CE,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
40, no. 2 (2009): 231.
36
Michael Flecker, “A ninth century AD Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesia: First evidence for direct trade with
China,” World Archaeology 32, no. 3 (2001): 335-54.
37
S. Setudeh-Nejad, “The Cham Muslims of Southeast Asia: A Historical Note,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs
22, no. 2 (2002): 452.
38
Geoff Wade, “Early Muslim expansion in South-East Asia, eighth to fifteenth centuries,” in The New Cambridge
History of Islam, Volume 3: The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, eds. David Morgan and
Anthony Reid (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 402.
to the Mediterranean, including rising European markets. The Red Sea route rose
to prominence, including the ports of Alexandria, Cairo, Jeddah, Aden (from where
Hadramī dāʿī s often embarked, headed east), Cambay (Gujarat and Mumbai),
Calicut, and Pisai (Malacca and Aceh).39 Freitag has noted that “the presence of
high status and economically successful [Muslim] merchants seems in itself to
have provided an example which seemed well worth emulating. Conversion to the
faith of the economic elite held advantages such as the promise of becoming part of
an international commercial network.”40
By the 14th century, the spread of Islam across Southeast Asia was well underway,
peaking with the prosperity of the Sultanate of Malacca (1403-1511); notably, the
rulers of Cambay and Aceh were also Muslim by the early 15th century.41
According to the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires, who visited Malacca in 1507,
it was the most important city in the world, and whoever controlled it “shall have
his hands on the throat of Venice”―a reference to Europe’s reliance on the spice
42
trade that flowed through the city.
The spread of Islam in Eastern Europe offers another example of the central role of
trade in this process. In the late 1930s, an Arabic silver coin dating from the time
of the Umayyad ruler Marwān II (r. 744-50) was found in the village of Potoci in
43
Herzegovina. In nearby Hungary, Muslims had served as minters and
money-changers for the court, had been heavily involved in the customs system,
and had controlled the production and sale of salt, all before the Golden Bull of
44
1222 declared that no Muslim or Jew could serve in the administration. Much
earlier, King Ladislas I (r. 1077-95) had referred to certain merchants in Hungary,
called “Ishmaelites” who had nominally converted to Christianity but continued to
39
Engseng Ho, The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean (Los Angeles: University of
California Press), 48.
40
Freitag, “Reflections on the Longevity of the Hadhrami Diaspora in the Indian Ocean,” 24.
41
Ibid.
42
Armando Cortesão, The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires, 1512-1515 (Laurier Books Ltd., 1990), lxxv.
43
M. Hadzijahic and N. Šukric, Islam I Muslimani u Bosni I Hercegovini [Islam and Muslims in Bosnia and
Herzegovina] (Sarajevo: Starješinstvo Islamske Zajednice, 1977), 21.
44
Smail Balic, “Islam in Eastern and South-East Europe,” in Idris El Hareir and El Hadji Ravane M’Baye (eds.), The
Different Aspects of Islamic Culture, Volume Three: The Spread of Islam Throughout the World (Paris: UNESCO,
2011), 788.
45
profess and practice Islam. And in 2013, excavations at a cemetery in Orosháza
revealed that the bodies had been buried with their heads facing south (i.e., in the
direction of the Kaʿbah, as per Islamic practice). The village also showed an
unusual “lack of pig bones” and the presence of measuring devices, strongly
46
suggesting that its inhabitants were Muslim merchants.
Another case of trade serving as the avenue for the spread of Islam is that of East,
Central, and West Africa. Due to their proximity, Arabia and East Africa had a
long pre-Islamic history of close political and trade relations. Soon after the advent
of Islam, merchants took the lead in introducing the faith to this region. The East
Africans developed and maintained close ties with Muslim outposts in the Indian
Ocean, especially the ports of Yemen, the Persian Gulf, and India; this brought
with it so much cultural exchange that Ibn Battūtah, traveling in the 1300s, noticed
that the same food he had enjoyed in Mogadishu (Somalia), Mombasa (Kenya) and
47
Kilwa (Tanzania) was offered to him in Sarandīp (Sri Lanka). The merchants’
“delivery” of Islam was bolstered by a steady stream of refugees coming from
Arabia in the 7th-10th centuries, many of them fleeing civil wars or natural
disasters. One of them, ʿAlī ibn al-Hasan Shirāzī, later established the Kilwa
48
Sultanate, which at its peak covered the entire Swahili Coast. Despite all of this
trade and settlement, it was not until the 13th century that the Islamization of East
49
Africa started to accelerate.
The baqt in Sudan played a key role in the spread of Islam in East-Central Africa.
In 652, having completed the conquest of Egypt, Muslim forces moved south and
met Nubian forces at Dongola (Sudan). Rather than press for a fight, the two sides
agreed to a baqt, or peace agreement, which was remarkably honored for six
50
centuries. The baqt enabled Muslim scholars and traders to travel freely in the
45
Katarína Štulrajterová, “Convivenza, Convenienza and Conversion: Islam in Medieval Hungary (1000-1400 CE),”
Journal of Islamic Studies 24, no. 2 (2013): 182-3.
46
Nora Berend, “A Note on the End of Islam in Medieval Hungary: Old Mistakes and Some New Results,” Journal
of Islamic Studies 25, no. 2 (2014): 206.
47
Waines, The Odyssey of Ibn Battuta, 85-90.
48
H. Neville Chittick, “The East Coast, Madagascar and the Indian Ocean,” in Roland Oliver (ed.), The Cambridge
History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600 ( New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 201-4.
49
Hamad S. Ndee, “Islam and Islamic Culture: Earliest Foreign Influences on Physical Activity in Pre-Colonial East
Africa,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 27, no. 5 (2010): 804.
50
Martin Meredith, The Fortunes of Africa: A 5,000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor (London, UK:
Simon & Schuster, 2014), 70-79.
region, thereby introducing Islam to the Nubians. During the early 9th century,
large deposits of gold and emeralds were discovered in the desert south of Aswan.
51
This prompted Egypt’s Arab Bedouin tribes, many of whom had firmly
embraced Islam by this point, to migrate into this region, and, over time, to
penetrate deep into present-day Sudan and settle down. It is clear that the spread of
Islam in this region took centuries, and Islam could be said to have supplanted
52
Christianity in the area of Nubia only by the 14th century at the earliest.
In the Central-West African region, too, Islam was introduced by Muslim
merchants from North Africa. It is no coincidence that some of the first towns to
develop a significant Muslim population in this region were Awdaghust
(Mauritania) and Tadmekka (Mali), two of the southern termini of the famous
53
Trans-Saharan trade route. The geographer Ibn Hawqal (d. c. 988) recorded that
Kumbi Saleh, the capital of the Ghana Empire, had a neighborhood of Muslim
merchants. Around the years 1009 and 1040, respectively, the kings of Takrur
(Senegal) and Gao (Mali) had embraced Islam. By 1085, Islam was spreading
54
quickly in Kanem (Chad-Nigeria). These developments, virtually all initiated by
Muslim merchants, paved the way for powerful Afro-Muslim empires such as that
of Mansa Musa, which in turn facilitated the further spread of Islam in the region,
as described above. And, as was the case in many places, Islamization here was a
very long process, and was still observably underway when the German explorer
55
Heinrich Barth traveled through the region in the 1850s.
51
Michael Brett, “Egypt”, in Chase F. Robinson (ed.), The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The
Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010),
557.
52
Ibid.
53
Eric Ross, “A Historical Geography of the Trans-Saharan Trade,” in Graziano Krätli and Ghislaine Lydon (eds.),
The Trans-Saharan Book Trade: Manuscript Culture, Arabic Literacy and Intellectual History in Muslim Africa
(Leiden: Brill, 2011), 15.
54
Ibid., 16.
55
For an account of Barth’s travels, see Steve Kemper, A Labyrinth of Kingdoms: 10,000 Miles through Islamic
Africa (W.W. Norton & Company, 2012).
Migration
Migration, both forced (e.g., as slaves or refugees) and voluntary (e.g., economic
migration), has played an important role in the spread of Islam, especially since the
15th century. However, there are earlier examples; in fact, the earliest presence of
Muslims outside of Arabia was that of a group of Muslims who sought refuge in
56
Abyssinia during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad ‫ ﷺ‬and at his instruction.
It should be noted that though Muslims who have been forced to migrate have
given daʿwah—an example of this was given in the section on daʿw ah above, and
another example is that effective daʿw
ah o f Jaʿfar ibn Abī Tālib to the Abyssinian
ruler, the Negus—the argument here is that their mere presence in the regions to
which they were relocated can be seen as a form of the spread of Islam. In other
words, as Sylviane Diouf and others have argued, wherever these Muslims went
they commonly brought with them their embodied knowledge of Islam.
Forced migration brought the first Muslims to the “New World” by way of the
Transatlantic Slave Trade, laying the foundations for an early Muslim presence in
the Americas. It has proven difficult to reliably estimate how many slaves of
African origin were Muslim, but they must have numbered at least in the hundreds
57
of thousands. The United States makes for a useful case study, and it may have
held a higher proportion of Muslim slaves than any other region in the Americas.
24% of the African slaves brought to the Thirteen Colonies or, later, the United
58
States were from Senegambia, which makes it likely that they were Muslims. The
city of St. Augustine, Florida is the oldest continuously-occupied European city in
the mainland United States, and was originally built largely by African Muslim
59
slave laborers.
Gradually, the descendants of these forced migrants became distanced from Islam,
but they held on to enough awareness of their heritage so as to establish
56
Lings, Muhammad, 81.
57
Diouf, Servants of Allah, 70.
58
Ibid.
59
Samory Rashid, “The Islamic Origins of Spanish Florida’s Ft. Musa,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 21, no.
2 (2001): 209.
pseudo-Islamic communities in the early 20th century, such as the Moorish Science
Temple of America (MSTA) and the Nation of Islam (NOI), and to eventually
return to mainstream Islam en masse starting in the late 1970s. Today, Muslims of
60
African descent make up around 25% of the U.S. Muslim population.
A less known case of forced migration of Muslims occurred by way of the Indian
Ocean slave trade organized by the Dutch East India Company (DEIC). The first
known Muslims in present-day South Africa, the Amboyan Mardyckers from
Southeast Asia, had arrived in 1658 not as slaves but as political prisoners or
61
mercenaries for the DEIC. However, the DEIC soon began to transport slaves to
Cape Town, obtaining them from the Muslim-majority regions of East Africa,
South Asia (especially the Arakan-Bengal coast), and the Southeast Asian islands
62
by raiding the coasts. By 1731, 42% of the population of Cape Town were slaves;
63
it is noteworthy that a significant portion of these may have been Rohingya
Muslims.
Educated Muslims from Southeast Asia―especially Shaykh Yūsuf al-Maqassarī
64
(d. 1699) and Tuan Guru (d. 1807), both of them exiled political prisoners
―established the roots of Islam in South Africa. Shaykh Yūsuf’s farm at Zandvliet
became a sanctuary for fugitive slaves from Cape Town. Tuan Guru established
Cape Town’s first madrasah (Islamic seminary) in 1793, and the city’s first
65
mosque was opened in 1798. By 1850, about 40% of Cape Town’s population
was Muslim, and by 1891 their number had risen to over 11,000, in part due to the
66
arrival of indentured laborers from South Asia starting in the 1860s.
60
Dalia Mogahed and Youssef Chouhoud, American Muslim Poll 2017: Muslims at The Crossroads (Institute for
Social Policy and Understanding, 2017); retrieved from
https://www.ispu.org/american-muslim-poll-2017-key-findings/.
61
Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.) (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002),
760.
62
Markus Vink, ““The World’s Oldest Trade”: Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the
Seventeenth Century,” Journal of World History 14, no. 2 (2003): 139.
63
Ibid., 148.
64
Gerrie Lubbe, “Tuan Guru: Prince, Prisoner, Pioneer,” Religion in South Africa 7, no. 1 (1986): 25.
65
Roman Loimeier, “Africa south of the Sahara to the First World War,” in Francis Robinson (ed.), The New
Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 5: The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominance (Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2010), 293.
66
Ibid.
Examples of voluntary (or economic) migration are more numerous, especially

because this has been the driving force behind the spread of Islam to virtually
67
every country in the world―even those as remote as Fiji ―since the 19th century.
One example is that of the famous Afghan (and Baluchi) cameleers who “helped to
pioneer Australia,” particular the vast Outback, where they did everything from
68
exploring and conducting rescue missions to laying railway and telegraph lines.
In the process, they married European or Aborigine women and established their
own settlements, which were generally built around a small, makeshift mosque.
Another example is that of Canada, where Lebanese Muslim immigrants began to
arrive in the late 19th century, often hoping to take part in the Klondike Gold Rush
or the lucrative fur trade; some of them, such as Ali Abouchadi, became very
successful entrepreneurs and laid the foundations for Canada’s present-day Muslim
69
community.
Intermarriage
Intermarriage between Muslims and non-Muslims has been historically important
for the spread of Islam in many contexts. This is an area of research that only
recently has begun to receive attention, as most converts to Islam via this process
were women and, as Maya Shatzmiller noted in 1996, “not only was woman’s
voice on the subject [of conversions] absent, but the sources devised a
historiographical debate from which the feminine perspective was omitted all
together.”70 More than two decades after this observation, there is a significant
body of research that has explored the nexus of intermarriage and conversion in
Islamic history, but much more work needs to be done in this field.
67
Jan Ali, “Islam and Muslims in Fiji,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 24, no. 1 (2004): 141.
68
Anwarul Q. Rathur, “Muslim Encounter Down Under: Islam in Western Australia,” Institute of Muslim Minority
Affairs Journal 1, no. 1 (1979): 103.
69
Hassam Munir, “Meet Ali Abouchadi, the trailblazing Canadian Muslim,” iHistory, retrieved from
emoirs of an Arctic Arab: A Free Trader in
http://www.ihistory.co/ali-ahmed-abouchadi/; see also, Peter Baker, M
the Canadian North, The Years 1907-1927 (Yellowknife Publishing Company, 1976).
70
Maya Shatzmiller, “Marriage, Family, and the Faith: Women’s Conversion to Islam,” Journal of Family History
21, no. 3 (July 1996): 235.
Conversion through intermarriage was important to establishing the early Muslim

community Spain. In around 785, Pope Hadrian in Rome wrote a letter expressing
his concern that some Catholics in Hispania seemed only too willing to marry into
Arab Muslim families, and Christian-Muslim unions were condemned at a council
in Cordoba in 836.71 One prominent case was that of Sarah, daughter of Alamund
of the Visigothic royal family. She was married twice to prominent Muslims, and
in later centuries her descendants formed some of the leading Muslim families of
Seville, including the Banū Hajjāj and Banū Maslamah.72 One of her descendants
was the famous scholar of history, fiqh (jurisprudence) and hadīth (Prophetic
narrations), Ibn al-Quṭiya (d. 971), who prominently mentioned the role of his
great-grandmother in his discussion on the early history of Islam in al-Andalus.73 A
similar case is that of the daughter of the Visigothic nobleman Theodomir (d. 743),
who married one ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Khaṭṭāb. The descendants of this couple came
to be known as the Banū Khaṭṭāb and formed an influential family of Islamic
scholars that lasted until the end of Islamic rule in Murcia in the 13th century.74
The early modern Ottoman Empire also offers many examples of intermarriage
involving conversion. A case in point is that of Beatrice Michiel of Venice who, in
1591, “opted for conversion without coercion or compulsion” and changed her
name to Fatima Hatun.75 Having been raised a Christian and married twice, she
escaped her difficult second marriage by fleeing to Constantinople, where she
converted to Islam and married one ʿAlī Agha. Her son from her first marriage,
Giacomo, followed his mother into Islam nearly a decade later.76 A similar case
was that of the wife, unnamed in the sources, of Ferenc Csiszar, a man from
16th-century Várad (present-day Oradea, Romania). She reportedly went to Buda
(Budapest) to marry a “Turk,” which in all likelihood involved a conversion to
71
Eduardo Manzano Moreno, “The Iberian Peninsula and North Africa,” in Chase F. Robinson (ed.), The New
Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 587.
72
See, for details, Simon Barton, “Marriage across frontiers: sexual mixing, power and identity in medieval Iberia,”
Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 3, no. 1 (2011): 1-25.
73
David James, Early Islamic Spain: The H istory of Ibn al-Quṭ iya (New York: Routledge, 2009), 50-51.
74
Moreno, “The Iberian Peninsula and North Africa,” 586-7.
75
Eric Dursteler, “Fatima Hatun née Beatrice Michiel: Renegade Women in the Early Modern Mediterranean,” The
Medieval History Journal 1 2, no. 2 (2009): 375.
76
Ibid., 372.
Islam despite this not being a condition for the marriage.77 This trend was noted by
the Jesuits involved in missionary work in Ottoman-ruled Hungary. It was also
common enough for King Matthias Hunyadi (r. 1458-90) to feel compelled to write
to the Pope requesting that the Christian men—and in some cases, women—whose
spouse had left to convert to Islam should be allowed to remarry rather than hope
for their spouse’s eventual return or worse yet, go searching for their spouse in
Ottoman territory and potentially convert to Islam themselves in the process.78
In British-ruled India, several dalit women (i.e., those from the downtrodden
Hindu caste of “untouchables”) converted to Islam as part of intermarriage with
Muslims. There are at least nine reported cases between 1924 and 1946, though
four of these occurred between March and May in 1926 alone.79 Considering that
these were only the cases that were registered by the colonial police force in the
province of Uttar Pradesh (UP) because they sparked significant unrest, the actual
rate of conversion may have been much higher. It has been noted that although
there were active daʿw
ah efforts among the dalits of UP, “in many cases of
individual conversion, particularly by lower castes, the reason [for intermarriage]
was neither proselytism nor doctrinal conviction, but romance,” though romantic
motivations were “possibly aided by greater mobility.”80
Intermarriage has continued to play an important role in conversion to Islam in
more recent times. One case is that of immigrant Muslims marrying Latina women
in the United States in the mid-20th century. A 1947 study of Palestinian
immigrants in Chicago revealed that one man had married a Mexican-American
woman and had children with her.81 Similarly, and from around the same time,
there are records of Yemeni Muslim men in southern California marrying
Mexican-Americans and South Asian Muslims in Harlem marrying Puerto
77
Gabriella Erdélyi, “Turning Turk as a Rational Decision in the Hungarian-Ottoman Frontier Zone,” The
Hungarian Historical Review 4, no. 2 (2015): 333.
78
Ibid., 323.
79
Charu Gupta, “Intimate Desires: Dalit Women and Religious Conversions in Colonial India,” The Journal for
Asian Studies 73, no. 3 (August 2014): 678.
80
Ibid.
81
Lawrence Oschinsky, “Islam in Chicago: Being a Study of the Acculturation of a Muslim Palestinian Community
in that City,” MA thesis (University of Chicago, 1947), 35.
Rican-Americans.82 By the early 1990s there were an estimated 100 Latino

converts to Islam in southern California alone, mostly women who had married
Muslims since the mid-1970s.83 A noticeable trend in their conversions was that
“the conversion of one woman would lead to a string of conversions within her
family.”84 After having converted, these Latina Muslims led the effort to perform
daʿwah i n Latino communities in the U.S.
Another recent case is that of Chinese and Filipina women in Hong Kong
converting to Islam through their marriages to South Asian Muslims. Muslims
from British-ruled India first arrived in Hong Kong in significant numbers in the
early 20th century as employees of the British administration. During the Japanese
occupation of Hong Kong during the Second World War, many disadvantaged
Chinese women married these Muslims.85 Beginning in the early 1990s, Filipina
domestic workers in Hong Kong, mostly devout Catholics aged 21-35, increasingly
began to convert to Islam and to marry Pakistani Muslims. In the Wan Chai district
alone, there were 100 Filipino converts between 1993 and 1996, making up for
about 70% of all converts to Islam, and this trend continued strongly into the early
years of the 21st century.86
Influencers
The conversion of social, political, and/or personal influencers to Islam has
historically played an important role in drawing their followers, admirers, subjects,
and/or acquaintances closer to the message of Islam.
82
Jonathan Friedlander, “The Yemenis of Delano: A Profile of a Rural Islamic Community,” in Muslim
Communities in North America, eds. Y.Y. Haddad and J. I. Smith (Albany: State University of New York Press,
1994), 441.
83
Patrick D. Bowen, “U.S. Latina/o Muslims Since 1920: From ‘Moors’ to ‘Latino Muslims,’” Journal of Religious
History 37, no. 2 (June 2013): 181.
84
Ibid.
85
Anita M. Weiss, “South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: creation of ‘local boy’ identity,” Modern Asian Studies,
25, no. 3 (1991): 432.
86
Sithi Hawwa, “From Cross to Crescent: religious conversion of Filipina domestic workers in Hong Kong,” Islam
and Christian-Muslim Relations 11, no. 3 (2000): 353.
In the life of the Prophet ‫ﷺ‬, a prominent example of an influencer was Saʾd ibn
Muʿādh. Saʾd was a chieftain of one of the clans of the Banu Aws tribe of Yathrib.
The Prophet had sent Musʿab ibn ʿUmayr to teach the converts in the city and to
invite others to Islam, but Saʾd strongly disapproved of this and confronted
Musʿab. After a conversation, Saʾd embraced Islam, and then convened his clan
and asked them how they felt about him. They replied that he was their chief,
excellent in judgment, and committed to their best interests. He then informed
them that he had embraced Islam, and by nightfall his entire clan had followed
87
him.
The Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬also sent letters to rulers in the vicinity of Arabia, implicitly
acknowledging their role as social influencers and inviting them—and, through
them, their followers—to Islam. These included the rulers of Abyssinia,
Byzantium, and Persia, and the governors of Ghassān (an Arab Christian client
state of Byzantium), Yamāmah (an Arab kingdom in present-day central Saudi
88
Arabia), and Alexandria.
Part of the wisdom behind the Prophet’s decision to send these letters is revealed in
the fact that in many parts of the world, the conversion of an influential political
leader to Islam was an important milestone in the spread of Islam in that region.
The case of the Umayyad leader ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān (r. 685-705) is
illustrative, especially because it implicitly reveals that this process (i.e.,
conversion by influence) played a role even in the Islamization, even of regions
that had been conquered by Muslim forces. (Shām was the first region outside of
89
Arabia to fully come under Muslim rule). However, as Thomas Carlson has
argued, the Islamization of Syria was “a multi-faceted social and cultural process”
that could not be considered complete even in 1516, when the Ottomans conquered
90
the region―nearly a thousand years after it fell under Muslim rule.
87
Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1991),
109-10.
88
Zafar Bangash, Power Manifestations of the Sīrah: Examining the Letters and Treaties of the Messenger of Allah (
‫ ( )ﷺ‬Richmond Hill: Institute of Contemporary Islamic Thought, 2011), 225-6.
89
Hugh Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In
(Philadelphia: Da Capo Press, 2007), 93.
90
Thomas A. Carlson, “The Geography of Islamization in Syria, 600-1500,” Journal of the American Oriental
Society 135, no. 4 (2015): 791.
Many factors played a role in the Islamization of Shām. One of them was Shām’s
centrality to the early Muslim empire, as the Umayyad dynasty (r. 661-750) chose
Damascus as its capital. The Umayyads sought religious legitimacy as a means to
justifying their rule, and Syria was the first region in which efforts toward that end
91
took shape. ʿAbd al-Malik publicized Islam in Shām as a matter of policy: he
made Arabic the official language of the empire’s administration, minted distinctly
Islamic coins for the first time, had milestones featuring the basmalah set up to
help travellers find directions, and had the iconic Dome of the Rock constructed in
92
Jerusalem.
By institutionalizing Islam in Shām, ʿAbd al-Malik and other influencers in the
region after him―including leaders such as the famous Salāh ad-Dīn (Saladin, d.
1193) and prominent Islamic scholars such as Ibn ʿAsākir, al-Nawawī, Ibn
Taymiyyah, Ibn al-Qayyim, Ibn Kathīr, and al-Dhahabī (all fl. c. 13th
century)―inevitably enabled non-Muslims to engage closely with Islamic beliefs,
practices, and worldviews. From there, many non-Muslims chose to embrace the
faith, some rejected it, and others may have even borrowed from it.
A social influencer involved in the spread of Islam in parts of Southeast Asia was
the famous Chinese Muslim admiral Cheng Ho (d. 1433). Between 1405 and 1433,
Ho led seven maritime expeditions for the Ming dynasty, which took him to the
major ports of the Indian Ocean and as far away as Mombasa (Kenya). Curiously,
many of Ho’s crew were Hui Muslims like himself, and some performed hajj
93
during the voyages. Ho, his Muslim shipmates and the Chinese Muslim envoys
who followed them to Java and other parts of Southeast Asia all helped Islam
94
spread in this region, primarily by establishing mosques. Their pioneering efforts
can be appreciated through the fact that, today, there are over 105 million Javanese
Muslims, making them the fourth-largest ethnic group among Muslims (behind
91
David Cook, “The Beginnings of Islam in Syria during the Umayyad Period,” PhD diss., University of Chicago,
2002, p. 280.
92
Chase F. Robinson, ʿAbd al-Malik (London: Oneworld Publications, 2012), ch. 6.
93
Tan Ta Sen, Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009), 171.
94
For a detailed discussion about these contributions, see Kong Yuanzhi, “On the Relationship between Cheng Ho
and Islam in Southeast Asia,” Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia 10 (2008),
https://kyotoreview.org/issue-10/on-the-relationship-between-cheng-ho-and-islam-in-southeast-asia/.
95
only Arabs, Bengalis and Punjabis). To this day, many mosques in the region are
named after the mariner, such as the Cheng Ho Mosque in Palembang, Indonesia.
A more recent example of a social influencer’s role in the spread of Islam is that of
Warith Deen Muhammad, the Supreme Minister (1975-6) of the pseudo-Islamic,
US-based movement known as Nation of Islam (NOI). Having embraced Sunni
Islam privately, he gradually reformed the NOI to conform to the orthodox Islamic
96
tradition, and called on his followers to do the same. In what may be considered
the largest mass conversion to Islam in US history, an estimated 70,000 NOI
97
members followed W. D. Muhammad into the fold of orthodox Islam.
It is important to note that influencers were not always in privileged positions
within society; “grassroots Islamization” led by personal influencers also occurred.
This was the case, for example, in the Lindi and Mtwara regions of southeastern
Tanzania in the early 20th century. In the late 1800s, most people in the region
were not Muslim, but today Muslims form a large majority of the population.
Many conversions took place between 1910 and 1950 through a process in which
ordinary villagers served as “crucial mediators.”98 Muslim traders and Sufi scholars
had long been present on the Tanzanian stretch of the Swahili Coast, but they had
not been able to deliver the message of Islam in the rural areas that were further
inland. At the same time as the peak of an anti-colonial struggle (culminating in the
Maji Maji war of 1905-7), “ordinary villagers who had spent some time on the
coast began to work as Qur’an teachers, while local networks of lineage elders
endorsed the construction of mosques.”99 German officials described these men as
schamba-waalimu (“field-teachers”). They were “otherwise undistinguished
villagers, respected for their learning and commitment, but neither particularly
95
This is based on the CIA Factbook’s estimate for the 2014.
96
Dawn-Marie Gibson, A History of the Nation of Islam: Race, Islam and the Quest for Freedom (Santa Barbara:
Praeger, 2012), 77.
97
Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New World Order (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2010), 288.
98
Felicitas Becker, “Commoners in the process of Islamization: reassessing their role in the light of evidence from
southeastern Tanzania,” Journal of World History 3 (2008): 236.
99
Ibid., 239.
wealthy nor of high ritual or social status,” but they are remembered for taking the
initiative to “fetch” Islam from the coast and spread it across the region.100
Another case of conversion via influencers who were not in particularly privileged
positions in society occurred in the early centuries of Islamic history in the form of
the mawālī system of patronage. The Arabic word mawla may be used to refer to a
“client” in a patron-client relationship. During the early period of Muslim rule in
what is today known as the Middle East, non-Muslims would commonly become
“clients,” or mawālī, of the emerging Arab Muslim elite as a way to protect and
pursue their own interests. As Patricia Crone has noted, this did not necessarily
require the client’s conversion to Islam.101 However, the opportunity to engage
with their Muslim patrons is likely to have influenced many clients to convert.
Soon, many of the mawālī h ad mawālī of their own, thus creating a “snowball
effect” of conversions to Islam through personal networks of influence, especially
in the first four centuries of Islamic history.102
Lastly, on the topic of the spread of Islam via influencers, it is important to briefly
revisit the pioneering thesis of Richard Bulliet in this field of research. Through a
quantitative analysis of the names listed in biographical dictionaries from the early
centuries of Islamic history, Bulliet showed that Islam spread very slowly as
evidenced by the slow rate of the change, for example, from names that were
identifiably Christian to those that were clearly Muslim.103 Looking primarily at the
Middle East, North Africa, and Spain, Bulliet also showed that the regional
“conversion curves” of this period are ‘S’-shaped, accelerating as more and more
of the population converted before leveling off, thus implying that people primarily
chose to convert due to their personal interactions with Muslims.
Bulliet helpfully compared the spread of Islam to the model of diffusion for a new
technology or technique, a process which generally also follows an ‘S’ curve: “a
few innovators would first adopt the new technique, then it would catch on with a
100
Ibid.
101
Patricia Crone, Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1980), 237 n. 358.
102
John Nawas, “A Client’s Client: The Process of Islamization in Early and Classical Islam,” Journal of Abbasid
Studies 1 (2014): 144.
103
Alwyn Harrison, “Behind the Curve: Bulliet and Conversion to Islam in al-Andalus Revisited,” Al-Masāq 24, no.
1 (2012): 39.
bandwagon effect causing the steep rise in the middle of the curve, and finally
there would be a steadily diminishing number of new adopters as the potential
market for the new technique became saturated.”104 Thus, Bulliet posited that the
more Muslims a non-Muslim was surrounded by and personally interacting with,
the more likely they were to convert to Islam, until most non-Muslims in the region
had converted.
II: The Acceptance of the Message

The preceding discussion focused on how the message of Islam spread. The
question of why it was accepted by individuals is more difficult to explore, simply
because we are unable to determine their exact motivations. Some converts, such
as Malcolm X, wrote about their journey to Islam, thus giving us a glimpse into the
reasons behind their decision. However, for the overwhelming majority of cases in
Islamic history, we can only speculate broadly on three of the motivations that
were arguably most prominent. These motivations have already been discussed in
relation to the examples offered above, but are elaborated on in this section.
The Islamic emphasis on justice

The historian Bahjat ʿAbd al-Latif has pointed out that, “[f]rom its very inception,
the message of Islam showed great concern for the poor and the disadvantaged
who often comprise the majority of the population, and it aimed to liberate them
and raise their standing. This was perhaps one of the strongest incentives for
105
accepting the call to Islam…” Richard Eaton has described this as the “religion
106
of social liberation” thesis.
This thesis is rooted in the Islamic emphasis on the pursuit of justice, in contrast to
other faith traditions which allowed for (if not encouraged) passivity and promised
104
Richard W. Bulliet, Conversion to Islam In the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1979), 28.
105
Bahjat Kamil Abd al-Latif, “The Prophet Muhammad and the Universal Message of Islam,” in Idris El Hareir and
El Hadji Ravane M’Baye (eds.), The Different Aspects of Islamic Culture, Volume Three: The Spread of Islam
Throughout the World (Paris: UNESCO, 2011), 39.
106
Richard M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1993), 127.
only otherworldly salvation. Discussing the origins of Islam and the very reason
for Prophet Muhammad’s personal retreats to the Cave of Ḥirāʾ leading up to the
first revelation, Ahmed Afzaal has argued that “[s]ooner or later, the crisis of
meaning caused by a sensitive person's encounter with the brutal fact of injustice
has to be addressed in the realm of social and material reality. While one’s ideal
interest lies in developing an appropriate theodicy and a hope for salvation in the
hereafter, the problem of injustice can only be adequately addressed by pursuing
the fulfilment of the material interest of the weak, poor, and the marginalized.”107
Thus it has been widely noted that many of earliest of the ṣaḥābah (companions) of
the Prophet ‫ ﷺ‬were those who were disadvantaged in Makkan society.108
It should be noted that the cases in this category, which may readily appear to be
mere “conversions of convenience,” were not necessarily devoid of conviction on
part of the converts. Many disadvantaged converts, such as the companions Yāsir
al-ʿAnsī and Sumayyah bint Khayyat, did not convert to Islam merely because it
promised to change their material reality; if that had been the case, they likely
would have relapsed under the severe torture which led to their martyrdom.109
Rather, it is plausible to assume that they had conviction in the truth of the Islamic
worldview, the appeal of which included—but was not limited to—its emphasis on
social and economic justice. Of course, this is not a denial that some conversions
probably were nominal, but a reminder that convenience should not simply be
presumed to have been the primary motivation.
One common example of the appeal of Islam’s “social liberation” is the spread of
Islam in South Asia. Hinduism’s caste system, one of the most enduring forms of
social stratification in history, relegates the lower castes such as shudras (laborers)
or dalits ( “untouchables”) to a severely disadvantaged position, with little to no
hope of upward social mobility. Thus, early Muslims in South Asia “endeavoured
to carry Islam to numerous Indian castes that were despised, rejected and
discriminated against. These castes accepted Islam once they became aware that it
107
Ahmed Afzaal, “The Origin of Islam as a Social Movement,” Islamic Studies 42, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 225.
108
See, for example, Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Cambridge: The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), 41.
109
Ismā‘īl ibn Kathīr, Trevor Le Gassick (trans.), and Ahmed Fareed (ed.), The Life of the Prophet Muhammad,
Volume I: Al-Sīra al-Nabawiyya (Reading, UK: Garnet Publishing, 1998), 358.
110
was based upon justice, equality and solidarity among human beings.” British
officials observed this process underway as late as the early 1900s, and Indian
111
historians such as Niharranjan Ray have also attested to it.
In the context of the early modern Ottoman Empire, many Christian women chose
to convert to Islam because it offered them a more favorable situation. Lady
Elizabeth Craven (d. 1828) of England remarked that “the Turks in their conduct
towards our sex are an example to all other nations.”112 Muslim women in the
Ottoman Empire—who were considered legal subjects at puberty—had access to
many legal privileges, including the right to own and control property without male
interference and the right to register their complaints in court.113 Non-Muslim
Ottoman women could also access these Islamic courts for judgment and often did,
preferring them over their own Christian or Jewish community courts. They were
particularly interested in the relative freedom that Muslim women enjoyed to
obtain a divorce to escape an unfulfilling marriage.114 Many of them went a step
further and converted to Islam.
Another example is found in the context of the Second World War. In the months
following the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, many Jews tried to escape
persecution by converting to Islam. Between April and October, at least 20% of
115
Sarajevo’s Jews embraced Islam or Catholicism. The Ustaša regime (the Nazi’s
local Croatian fascist ally) was so alarmed by this that they quickly banned
conversions. Nevertheless, Fehim Spaho, the Grand Mufti of Yugoslavia, urged
Ustaša officials to protect the Jewish converts to Islam and instructed the ʿulamā
110
Abdallah Salem al-Zelitny, “Islam in Afghanistan,” in Idris El Hareir and El Hadji Ravane M’Baye (eds.), The
Different Aspects of Islamic Culture, Volume Three: The Spread of Islam throughout the World (Paris: UNESCO,
2011), 595-6.
111
Peter Hardy, “Modern European and Muslim Explanations of Conversion to Islam in South Asia: A Preliminary
Survey of the Literature,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 2 (1977): 188;
Niharranjan Ray, “Medieval Bengali Culture,” Visva Bharati Quarterly 11, no. 2 (1945): 49.
112
Guity Nashat, “Women in the Middle East, 8,000 BCE to 1700 CE,” in Teresa A. Meade and Merry E.
Wiesner-Hanks (eds.), A Companion to Gender History (Oxford: Wiley, 2004), 245-6.
113
Dursteler, “Fatima Hatun,” 363.
114
Ibid.
115
David Motadel, Islam and Nazi Germany’s War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014), 213.
(scholars) to offer them shelter, and many were saved from the Holocaust in this
116
way.
Even today, this trend can be seen in the rates of conversion to Islam in prisons,
particularly in the United States, which has the highest incarceration rate of any
country in the world. Up to 40,000 prisoners convert to Islam in the US annually,
117
making up about 80% of all religious conversions in the prison system. Prisoners
convert for a variety of reasons, including protection (especially from the prisons’
gang and/or drug cultures), as a form of repentance and spiritual renewal, or
because of the emphasis on social justice that they see as central to the Islamic
118
tradition. This last aspect is not an overstatement; Muslims have been at the
forefront of the movement for all prisoners’ rights in the U.S. since the 1960s, and
119
even today they are “arguably the most proactive litigants” in the prison system.
The Islamic emphasis on unity

The Islamic emphasis on unity has kept Muslims connected to the religious,
demographic, and sociocultural “heartland” of the ummah irrespective of their
“distance”―both physical and metaphorical―from it. Practicing the obligatory
pillars of Islam helped keep individual Muslims and the small, emergent Muslim
communities in far-off regions united: salah (daily prayer, preferably in
congregation) helped the Muslims unify locally, and hajj (pilgrimage to Makkah at
least once in one’s lifetime, if physically and financially capable) helped them
identify as integral members of a global ummah.
It is no surprise, for example, that after becoming the first known Japanese convert
to Islam on November 1, 1909, Omar Yamaoka was disembarking in Jeddah by
116
Ibid.
117
Mark S. Hamm, “Prisoner Radicalization and Sacred Terrorism: A Life Course Perspective,” in Richard
Rosenfeld, Kenna Quinet, and Crystal Garcia (eds.), Contemporary Issues in Criminology Theory and Research:
The Role of Social Institutions (Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2012), 174.
118
SpearIt, American Prisons: A Critical Primer on Culture and Conversion to Islam (Sarasota: First Edition Design
Publishing, 2017), 13.
119
SpearIt, “Muslim Radicalization in Prison: Responding with Sound Penal Policy or the Sound of Alarm?”
Gonzaga Law Review 49, no. 1 (2014): 37.
120
December 10, on his way to perform the hajj. Immediately afterward,
Yamaoka’s next initiative was to have a mosque built in Japan, a physical unifying
121
space for Japanese Muslims; the Tokyo Mosque opened in 1938. By then many
other Japanese had embraced Islam and there was a trend of trying to perform the
hajj s oon after conversion; eight Japanese Muslims attempted to perform the hajj
122
between 1934 and 1938, five of whom sailed for Makkah at least twice.
Two descriptions of the sense of unity and affirmation that converts find as they
perform the hajj were written in the past century by Muhammad Asad and
Malcolm X.
Asad, best known for his English translation and commentary of the Qurʾān,
embraced Islam in 1926, and performed the hajj soon afterward. Describing the
Black Stone in the Kaʿbah, he said, “The Prophet was well aware that all the later
generations of the faithful would always follow his example: and when he kissed
the stone he knew that on it the lips of future pilgrims would forever meet the
memory of his lips in the symbolic embrace he thus offered, beyond time and
123
beyond death, to his entire community.” And heading to Mount ʿArafāt, he felt
as if “the wind shouts a wild paean of joy into my ears: ‘Never again, never again,
124
never again will you be a stranger!’”
Malcolm X converted to orthodox Islam due to his experience of the hajj in 1964.
He himself commented on the effect: “Islam’s conversions around the world could
double and triple if the colorfulness and the true spiritualness of the Hajj
125
pilgrimage were properly advertised and communicated to the outside world.”
The hajj can thus be said to have cemented the conversions of Yamaoka, Asad,
Malcolm X, and countless others.
120
Selçuk Esenbel, “Fukushima Yasumasa and Utsunomiya Tarō on the Edge of the Silk Road: Pan-Asian Visions
and the Network of Military Intelligence from the Ottoman and Qajar Realms into Central Asia,” in Selçuk Esenbel
(ed.), Japan on the Silk Road: Encounters and Perspectives of Politics and Culture in Eurasia (Leiden: Brill, 2018),
103.
121
Mikiya Koyagi, “The Hajj by Japanese Muslims in the Interwar Period: Japan’s Pan-Asianism and Economic
Interests in the Islamic World,” Journal of World History 24, no. 4 (2013): 859.
122
Ibid., 850.
123
Ismāʿīl Nawwāb, “A Matter of Love: Muhammad Asad and Islam,” Islamic Studies 39, no. 2 (2000): 230.
124
Ibid., 171.
125
Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X, as told to Alex Haley (New York: Ballantine Books, 1973), 396.
The hajj also served as a sort of international forum and marketplace. In

pre-modern times, the journey for hajj often took months, if not years, and many
Muslims deliberately prolonged the journey by stopping in major cities and centers
of trade and studying with scholars along the way, and by staying for extended
periods of time in Makkah and Madinah to exchange news, knowledge, and ideas,
and to trade in goods and services. This exchange not only provided a sustained
integration into the ummah for recent converts, but also opened up windows of
opportunity that could lead to even more conversions.
A case in point is the famous hajj of Mansa Musa of Mali in 1324-5. He is said to
have led a large caravan and carried so much gold, which he distributed in charity
and gifts along the way, that it caused hyperinflation and derailed the economies of
Cairo, Madinah, and Makkah for years. He became so famous for freely
distributing his wealth that he inspired curiosity about his distant kingdom and thus
126
initiated a steady stream of Muslim traders, travelers, and scholars to Mali. On
his way back, he brought back many Islamic texts as well as several scholars,
including the Andalusī poet and writer Abū Ishāq Ibrahīm al-Sāhilī, who settled in
Timbuktu and was tasked with leading the construction of the city’s famous
127
Djinguereber Mosque. He thus played an influential role in Timbuktu’s
emergence as the preeminent Islamic city in West Africa, from where Islam
gradually spread to the rest of the region.
Of course, this sense of unity extended beyond the experience of hajj as well. For
example, in 1894 the Ottoman sultan chose to send a British convert to Islam,
Abdullah Quilliam of Liverpool (also known for starting Britain’s first mosque), as
his representative to the opening ceremony of the Shitta-Bey Mosque, the first
128
major mosque in Lagos in present-day Nigeria. He was warmly received by
Muslims across West Africa, and at least one person from the region, John Thomas
126
One person who was drawn to Mali based on reports he had heard was the famous traveler Ibn Battūtah, who
visited in 1352; see David Waines, The Odyssey of Ibn Battuta: Uncommon Tales of a Medieval Adventurer
(London: I.B. Taurus, 2010), 172.
127
John Hunwick, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Saʿd ī’s Taʾrīkh al-Sūdān Down to 1613 and Other
Contemporary Documents (Leiden: Brill, 2003), lvi.
128
Brent Singleton, “That Ye May Know Each Other”: Late Victorian Interactions between British and West African
Muslims,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 29, no. 3 (2009): 374.
129
Brimah, later embraced Islam after reading Quilliam’s The Faith of Islam. In the
words of the Sierra Leone Weekly News, “The existence of Islam in Liverpool […]
130
seems to have inspired West African Mohammedans [sic] with new life.”
The universality of Islam

Dr. Umar Abd-Allah said it most eloquently: “In history, Islam showed itself to be
culturally friendly and, in that regard, has been likened to a crystal clear river. Its
waters (Islam) are pure, sweet, and life-giving but―having no color of their
own―reflect the bedrock (indigenous culture) over which they flow. In China,
Islam looked Chinese; in Mali, it looked African. Sustained cultural relevance to
distinct peoples, diverse places, and different times underlay Islam’s long success
131
as a global civilization.” This reflects an established principle of fiqh (Islamic
jurisprudence), articulated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Ibn Taymiyyah and others, that
all customs (ʿurf) are permissible by default except what is proven to be forbidden.
132
Richard Eaton has observed about Islamization in Bengal, particularly, that “what
made Islam in Bengal not only historically successful but a continuing vital social
reality has been its capacity to adapt to the land and the culture of its people, even
133
while transforming both.” The same can be said about many of the regions to
which Islam spread.
The spread of Islam has been a historic success in large part due to the fact that it
generally occurred in ways that were not overtly disruptive of local cultures and
lifestyles. This is a very important point in today’s sociopolitical climate, as much
129
Ibid., 376.
130
“Sierra Leone Mohammedan in Liverpool,” Sierra Leone Weekly News, February 3, 1894, p. 5.
131
Umar Faruq Abd-Allah, “Islam and the Cultural Imperative,” Nawawi Foundation, 2004, p. 1, retrieved via the
University of Alberta from
http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/amcdouga/Hist347/additional%20rdgs/article%20culture%20imperative.pdf.
132
Taqī al-Dīn ibn Taymīyah, in Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim (ed.), Majmū’ al-Fatāwà, v. 29
(Madīnah: Majmaʻ al-Malik Fahd li-Ṭibāʻat al-Muṣḥaf al-Sharīf, 1995), 16-17.
133
Richard M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760 (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1993), 315.
Islamophobic and anti-refugee rhetoric, particularly in Europe, is based on the

134
ostensible threat of Islam to Europe’s Judeo-Christian heritage and culture.
Historically, however, early Muslim communities generally adhered to a
distinctive subculture, adopting everything they deemed acceptable in the dominant
135
(or hegemonic) culture and refraining from what they felt clearly conflicted with
their faith. The Muslims certainly exposed the non-Muslims around them to
Islamic traditions and values in culturally sensitive ways, but did not impose these
upon anyone (though there were rare exceptions to this, as discussed previously).
An example of this is the role of literature, an important component of culture, in
the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia―in particular, the corpus of the Book of One
Thousand Questions. This is purported to be a collection of 1,000 questions that
ʿAbd Allāh ibn Salām, a Jewish rabbi in Madinah, had put to Prophet Muhammad
‫ ﷺ‬before he decided to embrace Islam. Originally compiled in Arabic, it was
136
translated into Malay and Javanese. The Javanese translations in particular were
adapted to be relatable to Southeast Asians, both Muslims and non-Muslims, and
were used to demonstrate the discursive and intellectual power of Islam and, in
turn, to provide non-Muslims with a culturally-grounded text that addressed their
137
questions about the dīn.
Another illustrative case is that of the different “bodies of practice” of Islam found
on the Indian Ocean island of Mayotte, which has a population of only about
260,000 people, 97% of them identifying as Muslims. Scholars have noted that the
people of Mayotte “have long considered themselves Muslim, and their allegiance
to Islam is salient in ritual and cosmology.”138 However, though the fundis
(teachers) commonly defer to the authority of the Qurʾān and sunnah (the
Prophetic example), the relative isolation of the island has allowed for peculiar
134
See, for example, Gabriele Marranci, “Multiculturalism, Islam and the Clash of Civilizations Theory: Rethinking
Islamophobia,” Culture and Religion 5, no. 1 (2004).
135
For a discussion on the merits and shortcomings of Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony, see T. J. Jackson
Lears, “The Concept of Cultural Hegemony: Problems and Possibilities,” The American Historical Review 90, no. 3
(1985): 567-593.
136
Ronit Ricci, “Translating Conversion in South and Southeast Asia: The Islamic Book of One Thousand Questions
in Javanese, Tamil and Malay,” PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2006, p. 3.
137
Ronit Ricci, “Conversion to Islam on Java and the Book of One Thousand Questions,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-,
Land- en Volkenkunde 146, no. 1 (2009): 28-9.
138
Becker, “Commoners in the process of Islamization,” 233.
local traditions to develop which interpret the scriptural texts in different ways.
These range from a “religious dance” known as daira to a strict prohibition on the
fundis f rom indulging in politics.139
Perhaps the most remarkable example of the universality of Islam is its ability to
absorb even the Mongols after they caused unprecedented destruction in large parts
of the Muslim domain. As Ishayahu Landa has noted, “[t]his issue is of special
importance, as it provides a relatively rare case in Islamic history in which the
rulers adopted their subjects’ religion and not vice versa.”140 Of the four khanates
which were carved out of Genghis Khan’s vast empire, the Mongol leadership of
three of them embraced Islam within a century of his death. The details of this
process make for too deep a discussion to be dealt with here, but what is important
to note is that the Mongol converts were able to fully enter the fold of the Muslim
community while holding on to many of their cultural beliefs and practices. A case
in point is El-Qutlugh Khatun, a Mongol princess who performed the hajj in 1323,
soon after conversion.141 She was described by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalānī as “a good
Muslim who often gave good advice to the Muslims” and it was noted that she
gave large amounts of sadaqah (charity) while on her journey, including 30,000
dinars in Makkah and Madinah alone.142 At the same time, she was “sharp-minded
and courageous/skilled in horsemanship,” rode a horse (rather than a camel, as was
the norm), and personally led traditional Mongol ring hunts in the Arabian desert to
feed the pilgrims she was traveling with.143
Conclusion
As mentioned in the introduction to this article, the examples presented above are
not exhaustive, nor has their relation to the spread of Islam been discussed as
thoroughly as it could have been. However, they collectively serve the purpose of
this article: to illustrate that Islam could—and historically did—spread by means
139
Michael Lambek, “Certain Knowledge, Contestable Authority: Power and Practice on the Islamic Periphery,”
American Ethnologist 17, no. 1 (February 1990): 34.
140
Ishayahu Landa, “New Light on Early Mongol Islamisation: The Case of Arghun Aqa’s Family,” Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society 28, no. 1 (2018): 77.
141
Yoni Brack, “A Mongol Princess Making Hajj: The Biography of El Qutlugh Daughter of Abagha Ilkhan (r.
1265-82),” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 21, no. 3 (2011): 333.
142
Ibid., 358-9.
143
Ibid., 334.
other than “the sword” (i.e., forced conversion). The examples demonstrate the role
of daʿ wah, trade, intermarriage, migration, influencers in the communication of the
message of Islam, the role of Islam’s characteristic emphasis on justice and unity,
and the universality of Islam in the widespread acceptance of this message.
It is hoped that the many historical “moments” which make up the larger “story” of
the spread of Islam will inspire readers to explore particular moments in more
detail through their own research. This is essential for developing our appreciation
of the complexity of the spread of Islam, which is one of the most transformative
processes in human history—comparable in scale and intricacy to Christianization
or secularization—and which certainly cannot be oversimplified in a slogan such
as “Islam was spread by the sword.” It is also hoped that the discussion in this
article can inspire and inform daʿwah efforts in the present.
Lady Evelyn Cobbold (d. 1963), a Scottish noblewoman who declared “I am a
Moslem” during a private audience with the Pope,144 recorded the following in her
diary: “The more I read and the more I studied, the more convinced I became that
Islam was the most practical religion, and the one most calculated to solve the
world's many perplexing problems, and to bring humanity peace and happiness.”145
The discussion in this article has focused primarily on some of the more prominent
structural factors that have contributed to the spread of Islam, such as trade and
migration. However, it is important to note that in recent years there has been a
“cultural turn” in the historiography of conversion to Islam.146 Memoirs, diaries
and other first-hand accounts of converts, in which they describe their journeys to
Islam, are increasingly becoming available. These, along with a growing body of
psychological research on why many people convert to Islam today, offer two
important areas of further research on the subject of conversion to Islam in history.
I am grateful to Justin Parrott, Dr. Samuel Ross, and Dr. Nameera Akhtar for their
insightful feedback and suggestions.
144
The exact date of Cobbold’s conversation of the Pope is not recorded, though it must have occured before the
publication of her book, Pilgrimage to Mecca, in 1934, since she mentioned it therein.
145
Marcia Hermansen, “Roads to Mecca: Conversion Narratives of European and Euro-American Muslims,” The
Muslim World 89, no. 1 (January 1999): 60.
146
Thomas A. Carlson, “When did the Middle East become Muslim? Trends in the study of Islam's “age of
conversions”,” History Compass 16 (2018): 4-5.

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2 | How Islam Spread Throughout the World

Disclaimer: The views, opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in these

Copyright © 2018. Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research

I: The Spread of the Message

Examples of voluntary (or economic) migration are more numerous, especially

Conversion through intermarriage was important to establishing the early Muslim

Rican-Americans.82 By the early 1990s there were an estimated 100 Latino

II: The Acceptance of the Message

The Islamic emphasis on justice

The Islamic emphasis on unity

The hajj also served as a sort of international forum and marketplace. In

The universality of Islam

Islamophobic and anti-refugee rhetoric, particularly in Europe, is based on the

You might also like

Did Islam Spread by The Sword II PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Did Islam Spread by The Sword II PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

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Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

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Did Islam Spread by The Sword II PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 | How Islam Spread Throughout the World

Disclaimer: The views, opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in these

Copyright © 2018. Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research

I: The Spread of the Message

Examples of voluntary (or economic) migration are more numerous, especially

Conversion through intermarriage was important to establishing the early Muslim

Rican-Americans.82 By the early 1990s there were an estimated 100 Latino

II: The Acceptance of the Message

The Islamic emphasis on justice

The Islamic emphasis on unity

The ​hajj also served as a sort of international forum and marketplace. In

The universality of Islam

Islamophobic and anti-refugee rhetoric, particularly in Europe, is based on the

You might also like

The hajj also served as a sort of international forum and marketplace. In