http://www.madehow.

com/
How Products Are Made :: Volume 1

Ceramic Tile

Ads by Google
Sembach Tech Ceramics - Silicate ceramics innovative ceramic applications. -
www.sembach.com

Pre-Seal Polished - Porcelain Tiles at the Factory for Stain Protection & Easier Cleaning -
www.enduroshield.com

Ball Mills & Classifiers - Fine grinding mills, air classifier Powder processing equipment -
www.airclassify.com

Roll Forming Machine - China professional manufacturer. Focused on

design&quality.Order now - www.hbfxywj.com

Background
Wall and floor tile used for interior and exterior decoration belongs to a class of ceramics
known as whitewares. The production of tile dates back to ancient times and peoples,
including the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians. For instance, the Step Pyramid
for the Pharoah Djoser, built in ancient Egypt around 2600 B.C., contained colorful glazed
tile. Later, ceramic tile was manufactured in virtually every major European country and in
the United States. By the beginning of the twentieth century, tile was manufactured on an
industrial scale. The invention of the tunnel kiln around 1910 increased the automation of tile
manufacture. Today, tile manufacture is highly automated.

The American National Standards Institute separates tiles into several classifications.
Ceramic mosaic tile may be either porcelain or of natural clay composition of size less than
39 cm2 (6 in.2). Decorative wall tile is glazed tile with a thin body used for interior
decoration of residential walls. Paver tile is glazed or unglazed porcelain or natural clay tile
of size 39 cm2 (6 in.2) or more. Porcelain tile is ceramic mosaic tile or paver tile that is made
by a certain method called dry pressing. Quarry tile is glazed or unglazed tile of the same size
as paver tile, but made by a different forming method.

Europe, Latin America, and the Far East are the largest producers of tile, with Italy the leader
at 16.6 million ft.2/day as of 1989. Following Italy (at 24.6 percent of the world market) are
Spain (12.6 percent), Brazil and Germany (both at 11.2 percent), and the United States (4.5
percent). The total market for floor and wall tile in 1990 according to one estimate was $2.4
billion.

The United States has approximately 100 plants that manufacture ceramic tile, which shipped
about 507 million ft.2 in 1990 according to the U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. imports,
by volume, accounted for approximately 60 percent of consumption in 1990, valued at
around $500 million. Italy accounts for almost half of all imports, with Mexico and Spain
following. U.S. exports have seen some growth, from $12 million in 1988 to about $20
million in 1990.

Because the tile industry is a relatively mature market and dependent on the building
industry, growth will be slow. The United States Department of Commerce estimates a three
to four percent increase in tile consumption over the next five years. Another economic
analysis predicts that 494 million ft.2 will be shipped in 1992, a growth of about 4 percent
from the previous year. Some tile manufacturers are a bit more optimistic; an American
Ceramic Society survey showed an average growth of around 36 percent per manufacturer
over the next five years.

Raw Materials
The raw materials used to form tile consist of clay minerals mined from the earth's crust,
natural minerals such as feldspar that are used to lower the firing temperature, and chemical
additives required for the shaping process. The minerals are often refined or beneficiated near
the mine before shipment to the ceramic plant.

The raw materials must be pulverized and classified according to particle size. Primary
crushers are used to reduce large lumps of material. Either a jaw crusher or gyratory crusher
is used, which operate using a horizontal

The initial step in ceramic tile manufacture involves mixing the ingredients. Sometimes,
water is then added and the ingredients are wet milled or ground in a ball mill. If wet milling
is used, the excess water is removed using filter pressing followed by spray drying. The
resulting powder is then pressed into the desired tile body shape.
squeezing motion between steel plates or rotating motion between steel cones, respectively.

Secondary crushing reduces smaller lumps to particles. Hammer or muller mills are often
used. A muller mill uses steel wheels in a shallow rotating pan, while a hammer mill uses
rapidly moving steel hammers to crush the material. Roller or cone type crushers can also be
used.

A third particle size reduction step may be necessary. Tumbling types of mills are used in
combination with grinding media. One of the most common types of such mills is the ball
mill, which consists of large rotating cylinders partially filled with spherical grinding media.

Screens are used to separate out particles in a specific size range. They operate in a sloped
position and are vibrated mechanically or electromechanically to improve material flow.
Screens are classified according to mesh number, which is the number of openings per lineal
inch of screen surface. The higher the mesh number, the smaller the opening size.

A glaze is a glass material designed to melt onto the surface of the tile during firing, and
which then adheres to the tile surface during cooling. Glazes are used to provide moisture
resistance and decoration, as they can be colored or can produce special textures.

The Manufacturing
Process
Once the raw materials are processed, a number of steps take place to obtain the finished
product. These steps include batching, mixing and grinding, spray-drying, forming, drying,
glazing, and firing. Many of these steps are now accomplished using automated equipment.

Batching

 1 For many ceramic products, including tile, the body composition is determined by
the amount and type of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the color of
the tile body, which can be red or white in color, depending on the amount of iron-
containing raw materials used. Therefore, it is important to mix the right amounts
together to achieve the desired properties. Batch calculations are thus required, which
must take into consideration both physical properties and chemical compositions of
the raw materials. Once the appropriate weight of each raw material is determined, the
raw materials must be mixed together.

Mixing and grinding

 2 Once the ingredients are weighed, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon
mixer, or intensive mixer. A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V,
which rotates to tumble and mix the material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and
an intensive mixer uses rapidly revolving plows. This step further grinds the
ingredients, resulting in a finer particle size that improves the subsequent forming
process (see step #4 below).

Sometimes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient

batch as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is
often performed using a ball mill. The resulting water-filled mixture is called a slurry
or slip. The water is then removed from the slurry by filter pressing (which removes
40-50 percent of the moisture), followed by dry milling.

Spray drying

 3 If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually removed via spray drying.
This involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk
or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column,
forming small, free flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming.
 Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by granulation. Granulation
uses a machine in which the mixture of previously dry-ground material is mixed with
water in order to form the particles into granules, which again form a powder ready
for forming.

Forming

 4 Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powder—
containing organic binder or a low percentage of moisture—flows from a hopper into
the forming die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is
then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating
pressures as high as 2,500 tons.

Several other methods are also used where the tile body is in a wetter, more moldable
form. Extrusion plus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner
tile faster and more economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-
pressure cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs.
These slugs are then punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic
punching presses.

Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this method, extruded slugs
of the tile body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a
hydraulic press. The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top half
of the mold to free the part from the bottom half, followed by forcing air through the
top half to free the top part. Excess material must be removed from the part and
additional finishing may be needed.

Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process
combines glazing and shaping simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried
powder form) directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages include
the elimination of glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material (called sludge)
that is produced with the conventional method.

Drying

 5 Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming,
especially if a wet method is used. Drying, which can take several days, removes the
water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers
are used that are heated using gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwave energy.
Infrared drying is better suited for thin tile, whereas microwave drying works better
for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air flowing in the
transverse direction instead of continuously in the material flow direction.

Glazing

 6 To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body. After a batch
formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled.
The milled glazes are then applied using one of the many methods available. In
centrifugal glazing or discing, the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or
 throws the glaze onto the tile. In the bell/waterfall method, a stream of glaze falls onto
the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is simply sprayed
on. For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on, under, or between tile that
have been wet glazed is used. In this process, glaze is forced through a screen by a
rubber squeegee or other device.

Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of powders, crushed
frits(glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile surface. After
firing, the glaze particles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.

Firing

 7 After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the
desired porosity. Two types of ovens, or

After forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to
prevent cracking and shrinkage. Next, the glaze is applied, and then the tile is fired in
a furnace or kiln. Although some types of tile require a two-step firing process, wet-
milled tile is fired only once, at temperatures of 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit or more.
After firing, the tile is packaged and shipped.

kilns, are used for firing tile. Wall tile, or tile that is prepared by dry grinding instead
of wet milling (see #2 and #3 above), usually requires a two-step process. In this
process, the tile goes through a low-temperature firing called bisque firing before
glazing. This step removes the volatiles from the material and most or all of the
shrinkage. The body and glaze are then fired together in a process called glost firing.
Both firing processes take place in a tunnel or continuous kiln, which consists of a
chamber through which the ware is slowly moved on a conveyor on refractory batts—
shelves built of materials that are resistant to high temperatures—or in containers
called saggers. Firing in a tunnel kiln can take two to three days, with firing
temperatures around 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit (1,300 degrees Celsius).
 For tile that only requires a single firing—usually tile that is prepared by wet milling
—roller kilns are generally used. These kilns move the wares on a roller conveyor and
do not require kiln furnitures such as batts or saggers. Firing times in roller kilns can
be as low as 60 minutes, with firing temperatures around 2,102 degrees Fahrenheit
(1,150 degrees Celsius) or more.

 8 After firing and testing, the tile is ready to be packaged and shipped.

Byproducts
A variety of pollutants are generated during the various manufacturing steps; these emissions
must be controlled to meet air control standards. Among the pollutants produced in tile
manufacture are fluorine and lead compounds, which are produced during firing and glazing.
Lead compounds have been significantly reduced with the recent development of no-lead or
low-lead glazes. Fluorine emissions can be controlled with scrubbers, devices that basically
spray the gases with water to remove harmful pollutants. They can also be controlled with dry
processes, such as fabric filters coated with lime. This lime can then be recycled as a raw
material for future tile.

The tile industry is also developing processes to recycle wastewater and sludge produced
during milling, glazing, and spray-drying. Already some plants recycle the excess powder
generated during dry-pressing as well as the overspray produced during glazing. Waste glaze
and rejected tile are also returned to the body preparation process for reuse.

Quality Control
Most tile manufacturers now use statistical process control (SPC) for each step of the
manufacturing process. Many also work closely with their raw material suppliers to ensure
that specifications are met before the material is used. Statistical process control consists of
charts that are used to monitor various processing parameters, such as particle size, milling
time, drying temperature and time, compaction pressure, dimensions after pressing, density,
firing temperature and time, and the like. These charts identify problems with equipment, out
of spec conditions, and help to improve yields before the final product is finished.

The final product must meet certain specifications regarding physical and chemical
properties. These properties are determined by standard tests established by the American
Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM). Properties measured include mechanical strength,
abrasion resistance, chemical resistance, water absorption, dimensional stability, frost
resistance, and linear coefficient of thermal expansion. More recently, the slip resistance,
which can be determined by measuring the coefficient of friction, has become a concern.
However, no standard has yet been established because other factors (such as proper floor
design and care) can make results meaningless.

The Future
In order to maintain market growth, tile manufacturers will concentrate on developing and
promoting new tile products, including modular or cladding tile, larger-sized tile, slip- and
abrasion-resistant tile, and tile with a polished, granite or marble finish. This is being
accomplished through the development of different body formulations, new glazes, and glaze
applications, and by new and improved processing equipment and techniques. Automation
will continue to play an important role in an effort to increase production, lower costs, and
improve quality. In addition, changes in production technology due to environmental and
energy resource issues will continue.

Where To Learn More

Books

Bender, W. and F. Handle, eds. Brick and Tile Making: Procedures and Operating Practices
in the Heavy Clay Industries. Bauverlag GmbH, 1982.

Jones, J. T. and M. F. Berard. Ceramics: Industrial Processing and Testing. Iowa State
University Press, 1972.

Pellacani, G. and T. Manfredini. Engineered Materials Handbook. ASM International, 1991,

pp. 925-929.

Periodicals

Burzacchini, B. "Technical Developments in Ceramic Tile Glazes and Related Applications,"

American Ceramic Society Bulletin. March, 1991, pp. 394-403.

Fugmann, K. "Rapid Changes in Tile Technology," Tile & Brick International. March, 1991,
pp. 165-166.

Gehringer, George. "Tile Glossary: A Guide to Techniques and Surface Designs," American
Ceramic Society Bulletin. December, 1990, pp. 1950-1952.

Geiger, Greg. "Developments in the Tile Industry," American Ceramic Society Bulletin.
December, 1991, pp. 1879-1885.

—L. S. Millberg

Background
Bleach is a chemical compound derived from natural sources used to whiten fabrics. Bleach
works by the process of oxidation, or the alteration of a compound by the introduction of
oxygen molecules. A stain is essentially a chemical compound, and the addition of bleach
breaks down the molecules into smaller elements so that it separates from the fabric.
Detergent and the agitation of the washing machine speed up the cleaning process. The
disinfecting properties of bleach work in the same manner—germs are broken down and
rendered harmless by the introduction of oxygen. In industry, different forms of bleach are
used to whiten materials such as paper and wood, though most bleach is used to launder
textiles.

History
Humans have been whitening fabrics for centuries; ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans
bleached materials. As early as 300 B.C., soda ash, prepared from burned seaweed, was used
to clean and whiten cloth. During the Middle Ages, the Dutch perfected the bleaching of
fabrics in a process called crofting, whereby fabrics were spread out in large fields for
maximum sunlight exposure. Textile mills as far away as Scotland shipped their material to
the Netherlands for this bleaching. The practice quickly spread throughout Europe, and
bleaching fields were documented in Great Britain as early as 1322. In 1728 a bleaching
company using Dutch methods went into business in Galloway, Scotland. In this process, the
fabrics were soaked in a lye solution for several days, then "bucked," or washed clean. The
fabrics were then spread out on the grass for weeks at a time. This process was repeated five
or six times until the desired whiteness was achieved. Next, the fabric was treated with sour
milk or buttermilk, and again bucked and crofted. This method was lengthy and tedious, and
it monopolized large tracts of land that could have been used for farming.

Late in the 18th century, scientists discovered a chemical that had the same effect as crofting,
but yielded much quicker results. In 1774, Swedish chemist Karl Wilhelm Scheele discovered
the chemical element chlorine, a highly irritating, green-yellowish gaseous halogen. In 1785,
the French scientist Claude Berthollet found that chlorine was an excellent whitening agent in
fabrics. Some mill operators attempted to expose their fabrics to chlorine gas, but the process
was so cumbersome and the fumes so strong that these attempts were soon abandoned.

Near Paris, in the town of Javel, Berthollet began a small facility for the manufacture of a
new product called "Eau de Javelle." The bleaching powder consisted of potash (soda ash)
which had absorbed chlorine gas. In 1799, another bleaching powder was invented by
Scottish chemist Charles Tennant. In the early years of the Industrial Revolution, his patented
lime powder was widely used to whiten a variety of fabrics and paper products. To make the
bleaching powder, slaked lime (lime treated with water) was spread thinly over the concrete
or lead floor of a large room. Chlorine gas was pumped into the room to be absorbed by the
lime. Though an effective whitener, the powder was chemically unstable. It was
The raw materials for making household bleach are chlorine, caustic soda, and water. The chlorine
and caustic soda are produced by putting direct current electricity through a sodium chloride salt
solution in a process called electrolysis.

commonly used until around World War I, when liquid chlorine and sodium hypochlorite solutions—
the forerunners of modern household bleach—were introduced. About this time, researchers found
that injecting salt water with electrical current broke down the salt (sodium chloride) molecules and
produced a compound called sodium hypochlorite. This discovery enabled the mass production of
sodium hypochlorite, or chlorine, bleach.

Types of Bleach
Today, bleach is found in nearly every household. It whitens fabrics and removes stains by a
chemical reaction that breaks down the undesired color into smaller particles that can be
easily removed by washing. The two types of household bleach are chlorine bleach and
peroxide bleach. Peroxide bleach was introduced in the 1950s. Though it helps to remove
stains, especially in higher wash temperatures, it will not bleach most colored materials and
does not weaken fabrics, as does sodium hypochlorite bleach. Peroxide bleach does not
disinfect and is commonly added to laundry detergents which are advertised as color-safe. It
also has a longer shelf life than chlorine bleach. Peroxide bleach is more commonly used in
Europe, where washing machines are manufactured with inner heating coils that can raise the
water temperature to the boiling point.
The more common form of household bleach in the U.S. is chlorine bleach. It is most
effective in removing stains and disinfecting fabrics. Chlorine bleach is cheap to manufacture
and effective in both warm and hot wash temperatures. However, it has strong chemical
properties which can weaken textile fibers.

The disinfecting properties of chlorine bleach can also be useful outside the laundry. Chlorine
bleach disinfects drinking water where groundwater contamination has occurred, as it is a
powerful germicide. It was first used to sanitize drinking water in New York City's Croton
Reservoir in 1895, and is approved by the government for sanitizing equipment in the food
industry. In recent years, bleach has been promoted by community health activists as a low-
cost method of disinfecting the needles of intravenous drug users.

Raw Materials
The raw materials for making household bleach are chlorine, caustic soda, and water. The
chlorine and caustic soda are produced by putting direct current electricity through a sodium
chloride salt solution in a process called electrolysis. Sodium chloride, common table salt,
comes from either mines or underground wells. The salt is dissolved in hot water to form a
salt solution, which is then treated for impurities before it is reacted in the electrolytic cell.

The Manufacturing
Process
The manufacture of sodium hypochlorite bleach requires several steps. All the steps can be
carried out at one large manufacturing facility, or the chlorine and caustic soda can be
shipped from different plants to the reactor site. Both chlorine and caustic soda are hazardous
chemicals and are transported according to strict regulations.

Preparing the components

 1 Caustic soda is usually produced and shipped as a concentrated 50% solution. At its
destination, this concentrated solution is diluted with water to form a new 25% solution.
 2 Heat is created when the water dilutes the strong caustic soda solution. The diluted caustic
soda is cooled before it is reacted.

The chemical reaction

 3 Chlorine and the caustic soda solution are reacted to form sodium hypochlorite bleach.
This reaction can take place in a batch of about 14,000 gallons or in a continuous reactor. To
create sodium hypochlorite, liquid or gaseous chlorine is circulated through the caustic soda
solution. The reaction of chlorine and caustic soda is essentially instantaneous.

Cooling and purifying

 4 The bleach solution is then cooled to help prevent decomposition.

 5 Often this cooled bleach is settled or filtered to remove impurities that can discolor the
bleach or catalyze its decomposition.
Shipping

 6 The finished sodium hypochlorite bleach is shipped to a bottling plant or bottled on-site.
Household-strength bleach is typically 5.25% sodium hypochlorite in an aqueous solution.

Quality Control
In the bleach manufacturing facility, the final sodium hypochlorite solution is put through a
series of filters to extract any left-over impurities. It is also tested to make certain that it
contains exactly 5.25% sodium hypochlorite. Safety is a primary concern at manufacturing
plants because of the presence of volatile chlorine gas. When the chlorine is manufactured
outside the reactor facility, it travels in liquid form in specially designed railroad tank cars
with double walls that will not rupture in the event of a derailment. On arrival at the plant, the
liquid chlorine is pumped from the tank cars into holding vat.. As a safety measure, the tank
cars have shutoff valves that work in conjunction with a chlorine detection system. In the
event of a chlorine leak, the detection system triggers a device on the tank that automatically
stops the transmission of the liquid in 30 seconds.

Inside the facility, chlorine vats are housed in an enclosed area called a car barn. This
enclosed room is equipped with air "scrubbers" to eliminate any escaped chlorine gas, which
is harmful to humans and the environment. The vacuum-like scrubber inhales any chlorine
gas from the enclosed area and injects it with caustic soda. This turns it into bleach, which is
incorporated into the manufacturing process. Despite these precautions, safety and fire drills
are scheduled regularly for plant personnel.

Special Considerations in
Packaging
Household sodium hypochlorite bleach was introduced to Americans in 1909 and sold in
steel containers, then in glass bottles. In the early 1960s, the introduction of the plastic jug
brought a cheaper, lighter, and nonbreakable packaging alternative. It reduced transportation
costs and protected the safety of workers involved in its shipping and handling. Additionally,
the thick plastic did not permit ultraviolet light to reach the bleach, which improved its
chemical stability and effectiveness. In recent years, how-ever, plastic containers have
become an environmental concern because of the time it takes the material to decompose in a
landfill. Many companies that depend on plastic packaging, including bleach manufacturers,
have begun to reduce the amount of plastic in their packaging or to use recycled plastics. In
the early 1990s, Clorox introduced post-consumer resins (PCR) in its packaging. The newer
bottles are a blend of virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and 25% recycled plastic,
primarily from clear milk jug-type bottles.

Consumer Safety
The bleach manufacturing industry came under fire during the 1970s when the public became
concerned about the effects of household chemicals on personal health. Dioxin, a
carcinogenic byproduct of chemical manufacturing, is often found in industrial products used
to bleach paper and wood. In its final bottled form, common sodium hypochlorite bleach does
not contain dioxins because chlorine must be in a gaseous state for dioxins to exist. However,
chlorine gas can form when bleach comes into contact with acid, an ingredient in some toilet-
bowl cleaners, and the labels on household bleach contain specific warnings against such
combination.

In addition to the danger of dioxins, consumers have also been concerned about the toxicity
of chlorine in sodium hypochlorite bleach. However, the laundry process deactivates the
potentially toxic chlorine and causes the formation of salt water. After the rinse water enters
the water system through the household drain, municipal water filtration plants remove the
remaining traces of chlorine.

Where To Learn More

Periodicals

Ainsworth, Susan. "Resurgence in Demand Reviving Market for Sodium Chlorite." Chemical
& Engineering News, March 22, 1993, pp. 11-12.

Grime, Keith and Allen Clauss. "Laundry Bleaches and Activators." Chemistry and Industry,
October 15, 1990, pp. 647-49.

—Carol Brennan

The manufacturing section of this entry was written with the help of Clorox Company.

User Contributions:

Bruce Hey

Jul 25, 2007 @ 1:13 pm

Excellent article on sodium hypochlorite. Thank you!

Ibrahim

Jul 26, 2007 @ 2:02 am

we dilute sodium hypochlorite 12% with water to 5.25% and we fill it in one gallon container. our
problem is after sometimes under high temperatute 40 - 45C the gallon blowing due to accumalation
of gas.
could you please help us to prevent this gas accumalation.
thanx

Io-Aurelia Duncan

Jul 27, 2007 @ 2:14 pm

Thank for this article! I ended up here after reading about the Carter Foundation helping citizens in
Darfur to make their own soap and wondered how bleach came into the process. I need to make my
own soap, so as to cut down on my expenses.

This is the sort of history that should be introduced into high school chemistry class to increase the
interest of female students. Some of my female friends did not listen to their mothers and burned
holes in their clothes trying to soak them. My mother showed me a hole burned into a cloth by
improper use. My ex-fiancee, scared of bleach from his experience in the Navy, messed up my whole
laundry. I would not step outside the house without bleached white clothing. It smells so fresh.

But anyway, an excellent article.