BALONZO, ANGIELICA W.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Design of highways basically covers the geometry of the horizontal and vertical
alignments, geotechnical aspects, pavement design, provision of drainage facilities and other
civil structures, but the traffic engineers’ main concern is the safety aspect of the design.
Several factors must be considered when designing a highway that is safe and pleasant to
drive on. One of these factors is the maximum speed that certain geometry may allow. Take
the horizontal curvature of the road, for instance. Without appropriate banking or
superelevation, an overspeeding vehicle will likely run out of highway due to the centrifugal
force that pulls it away from the road. Another is the sight distance available to the drivers.
The driver must be able to see ahead in order to brake safely before hitting an object on its
path. Or when negotiating an overtaking maneuver, a driver must be able to pass a slow-
moving vehicle on the opposite direction. When driving at night, the headlight beam can only
reach up to a certain distance. The vertical and horizontal curves must be designed so as not
to cause undue reduction in speed of vehicles.

6.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAYS

6.2.1 Design Speed

The elements of a highway are designed according to certain standards. One of these
standards is the design speed, which is defined as the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favourable that the
design features of the highway govern. It is the basis that will literally put shape to the
different elements of the highway. A very smooth curve will require a very high design
speed. In general, poor alignments are normally a result of wrong choice in design speed.
Nowadays, however, design speeds are designated for different types of roadways,
from high-speed expressways to low-speed feeder or barangay roads. The International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) provides guidelines on the use of appropriate
design speed for various terrain and traffic volume. Table 6.1 shows this guideline.
 Whenever possible, a certain design speed must be maintained all throughout the
highway. However, if terrain condition or some obstructions would not allow it, the design
speed may be reduced by 10-20 kph at adjacent sections.

6.2.2 Sight Distances

When designing for the alignment of the road, two types of sight distance are
normally checked for adequacy: stopping sight distance (SSD) and passing sight distance
(PSD).

Stopping sight distance

Stopping sigh distance is the shortest distance required for a vehicle traveling at the
assumed running speed to stop safely before reaching a stationary object in its path.

As shown in figure 6.1, SSD is composed of two distances:

a. d1, distance traversed during perception plus brake reaction time. Brake reaction time
consists of perception time of about 1.5 seconds and action time of 1.0 second.

b. d2, distance required for stopping after brakes are applied. Short distance is required when
negotiating an uphill. This is taken care of by the sign of the gradient G.

where :
v – running speed, kph
t – reaction time, sec
g – 9.8 m/sec2
f – Coefficient of friction (0.29-0.40)
G – gradient (+ for uphill; - for downhill)
 Minimum stopping sight distance is normally computed for wet pavement condition.
Table 6.2 serves as guide for computation of SSD for different design speeds. For design speeds
greater than or equal to 80 kph, the running speed is taken as 85 percent of the design speed. For
design speeds less than or equal to 30 kph, full value of design speed is assumed for running
speed.

Table 6.2 SSD and f-values for different design speeds

Passing sight distance

For two-lane highways, passing sight distance is the shortest distance required for a
vehicle to safely pull out of a traffic lane, pass a vehicle traveling in the same direction, and
return to the correct lane without interfering either with the overtaken vehicle or opposing traffic.
Along curves, this is the length of the road that must be visibly free of obstructions in order to
permit a vehicle moving at the design speed to pass a slower moving vehicle.

Figure 6.2 Passing or overtaking maneuver

As shown in figure 6.2, PSD is composed of four distances:

a. d1, distance travelled during perception and reaction time and during the initial acceleration
to the point on encroachment on the left lane

(6.3)
 b. d2, distance travelled while overtaking vehicle occupies any part of the left lane (opposing
lane)

(6.4)
c. d3, distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle.

(6.5)

d. d4, distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing vehicle
occupies the left lane

(6.6)
In many cases, it is very difficult to meet the full PSD requirement. Table 6.3 shows the
summary of PSD values for various design speeds. Minimum PSD is often taken as the sum of

Comparing these values with SSD, the requirement for passing sight distance is about two to
three times that of SSD. While it is absolute to provide SSD all the time, it will be very
expensive to provide PSD all the time as this would mean very gentle horizontal and vertical
curves. In practice, PSD should be provided in long sections of roads so that drivers will have the
opportunity to overtake one-third of the time.
Intersection sight distance
This is defined as length of the cross road. that must be clearly visible for the driver of
crossing or turning vehicle to be able to decide or complete maneuvers without any conflict with
other vehicles, approaching the intersection from the cross road.

Intermediate sight distance

This is defined as twice the stopping right distance.
when overtaking sight distance can not be provided, intermediate sight distance is provided to
give limited overtaking opportunities to fast vehicles.
Parrocha, Jea C. BSCE2-LEP

6.2.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature

Smooth-flowing curves are often desired when designing highways. However, the cost of
providing such curves may be too prohibitive. Existing structures or terrain may prevent
the designer from providing gentle curves. It is therefore necessary to determine the
minimum radius of curvature that may be required for any given desired speed.

Figure 6.3
Vehicle negotiating a curve and forces acting on it
Considering all the forces acting on the vehicle when negotiating a horizontal curve (figure
6.3), it can be shown that the required minimum radius of curvature is given by

Where: v – design speed, kph,

e – superelevation
f – side friction

(6.7)

Table 6.4 provides the values of f for different design speeds. Values may be interpolated
depending on the design sped used.

Table 6.4
Values of side friction f

Determination of Minimum Horizontal Curve Radius

  The minimum curve radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given design speed.
 In the design of horizontal alignment, smaller than the calculated boundary value of
minimum curve radius cannot be used. Thus, the minimum radius of curvature is a
significant value in alignment design.
 An important issue to be addressed in order to increase road safety and comfort in the
design of horizontal curves is determination of the minimum curve radius affected by many
factors.
 For a given speed, the curve with the smallest radius is also the curve that requires the
most centripetal force.
 Minimum curve radius must be selected very well for safe and comfortable driving in the
alignment design.
 Minimum curve radius can be calculated to take into account various parameters.
- Design Speed - Lateral Acceleration
- Side Friction Factor - Lateral Jerk
- Superelevation

6.2.4 Superelevation
Banking or superelevation is necessary to counteract the centrifugal force that is acting on
the vehicle. The value of maximum superelevation e may range from 6 percent to 12
percent.Depending on the terrain of the area where the highways will traverse,
superelevation can be attained by any of the following methods (figure 6.4):

a. pavement revolved about the centreline

b. pavement revolved about the inner edge of the pavement

c. pavement revolved about the outside edge

Figure 6.4
Methods of attaining superelevation
Superelevation or Banking of Road:
When a vehicle travels in a circular path or curved path, it is subjected to an outward force
which makes a vehicle to overturn and skid due to Centrifugal force. To overcome this
force and for safe travel of a vehicle, the outer edge of the road is raised above the inner
edge. This is known as superelevation or banking of road.
Advantages of providing Super elevation:
1. Super elevation is provided to achieve the higher speed of vehicles. It increases the
stability of fast-moving vehicles when they pass through a horizontal curve, and it also
decreases the stresses on the foundation.
2. In the absence of super elevation on the road along curves, potholes are likely to occur at
the outer edge of the road.
3. The Indian road congress (IRC) has prescribed the max value of superelevation is 1 in 15.

Superelevation is the transverse slope provided to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and
reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn and to skid laterally outwards by raising the pavement
outer edge with respect to inner edge. superelevation is represented by “ e ”.

Superelevation in Highway
Engineering
Analysis of superelevation

Let us say :
Design speed = V (m/s)
Radius = R (m)

Various forces acting on the vehicle:

Where: e = rate of superelevation in %

f = lateral friction factor = 0.15
V = velocity of vehicle in m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity =
9.81 m/s2
R = radius of circular curve in
meters.

Limits for maximum superelevation:

According to IRC the Maximum Superelevation
in Areas
Which Are Bound by Snow fall – 7%
Which are not bounded by Snowfall – 10%

Limits for minimum superelevation

Minimum superelevation = camber or cross
slope

Camber: Slope provide in the transverse

direction to drain off rain water quickly is known as Camber or Cross slope. This will also
prevents slipping and skidding of vehicles.
Asejo, Ma. Kriselda Mae P.

6.2.5 Design Volume

In designing roads, the 30th highest peak hour volume has been found to be the most
reasonable hourly volume that provides the best result (see figure 6.5). The 30th hourly volume
is exceeded only twenty-nine times in a year. Beyond this value on the right, the distribution of
hourly volumes is relatively flat. Another characteristic of this 30th hourly volume is that its
value as a percentage of AADT does not vary much over the years. Depending on the type of
highways, the value of K may range from 7 percent to 15 percent.

Normally, highways do not have balanced flow in both directions during peak hours. One
direction is usually heavier than the other. It is therefore necessary to consider the direction of
heavier flow for design. The directional distribution D, is defined as the percentage of the
heavier volume over the total highway volume. This directional distribution is relevant only
when designing or analysing highways with two or more lanes in one direction. For two-lane or
three-lane, two-way highways, the directional distribution are not considered. In the case of two
lane, two-way highways, the heavier movement will tend to use the other direction for
overtaking. For three-lane, two-way highways, the heavier movement will tend to occupy the
extra third lane.
6: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
Given the AADT, the design hourly volume is computed as follows:

DDHV = AADT*K*D (for multilane highways) (6.8)

or
DHV = AADT*K (for 2-lane or 3-lane, 2-way highways) (6.9)
Where:
DDHV – directional design hour volume
- The directional design hour volume (DDHV) is the one-way volume in the
predominant direction of travel in the design hour, expressed as a percentage of the
two-way DHV. For rural and suburban roads, the directional distribution factor (D)
ranges from 55 to 80 percent. A factor of approximately 50 percent is used for urban
highways.
DHV – design hourly volume
- Traffic volume used for design calculations
- Typically, the 30th highest volume hour of the year
- The DHV is a two-way traffic volume that is determined by multiplying the ADT by
a percentage called the K-factor. Values for K typically range from 8 to 12% for
urban facilities and 12 to 18% for rural facilities
AADT – average annual daily traffic
- that is the total number of vehicles passing the site in a year divided by 365

K – proportion of daily traffic occurring during peak hour, expressed as a decimal

- For design purposes, K represents the proportion of AADT occurring during the
thirtieth highest peak hour of the year.

D – proportion of peak-hour traffic travelling in the peak direction, expressed as a decimal

- Often there is much more traffic in one direction than the other

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

1. Consider a rural highway with a projected 20-year AADT of 40,000 vpd. For the type of
highway and region in question, it is known that peak-hour traffic currently is
approximately 20% of the AADT, and that the peak direction generally carries 65% of
the peak-hour traffic. What is the DDHV?
 An approximate DDHV could be estimated as DDHV = AADT*K*D. K is the
percentage of the AADT that occurs in the peak hour and D is the directional distribution
percentage.

Therefore, DDHV = 40,000*0.20*0.65 = 4000 vph

6.2.6 Number of Lanes

The basic task in designing highways is the determination of the number of lanes needed to meet
the given design volume under a specified level of service. The procedure may follow a trial and
error one. Initially the number of lanes is assumed. With this assumption, the corresponding
capacity is obtained from lookup tables. If the desired level of service (LOS) is known, then its
corresponding volume/capacity ratio will be known. This v/c ratio should be greater than the
value of the ratio of the design hourly volume over the estimated capacity. If the inequality is
satisfied, then the assumed number of lanes is okay; otherwise it is modified depending on the
result of the initial computations. In some cases, correction factors are applied that would reduce
the capacity if some substandard values (width of lane, presence of gradient, etc.) deviate from
the ideal ones. The Philippine Highway Planning Manual provides a guide on basic capacity for
various road types in tables 6.5a and 6.5b.

Table 6.5a Basic capacities for highways and urban streets

Where:
Roadside Friction impact on road capacity:
None: Few or no buildings along the roadside;
Light: Buildings and/or road intersections along and close to the road, 100-200 meters between
these objects, pedestrians and non-motorized traffic observed occasionally;
Medium: Scattered roadside development, 50-10 meters between buildings and/or road
intersections, pedestrians and non- motorized traffic observed frequently;
Heavy: Continuous roadside development with less than 50 meters between buildings and/or
road intersections, pedestrians and non-motorized traffic tend to disrupt the motor vehicle traffic
and reduce level speed to below 35 km/hr even at low traffic volume.
Hourly capacity is influenced by the following factors: Number of lanes, Carriageway width,
Shoulder width etc.

For multilane highways in flat terrain, such as expressways, the lane capacities (if lane width is
at least 3.5 m) are estimated as follows:

Example 6.1
A proposed highway is to be designed with adequate shoulder and clearance in a level terrain
with the following: AADT = 40,000 pcu/day D% = 65% K = 9% Estimate the number of
lanes that will provide LOS B.

Solution:
Table 3.2

It must be noted in the previous example that the design volume (AADT) is already given in
terms of pcu. If the traffic volume provided is in mixed type, passenger car equivalent factors
(PCEFs) have to be applied to obtain the volume pcu. The reader is advised to refer to the PHPM
for the details of these PCEFs. Also, the procedure discussed in the PHPM (which was used in
the previous example) is slightly different from the procedure in the US HCM. Both methods
have capacities in pcu but in the PHPM, the design volume in mixed vehicles is converted to pcu
for the calculation of v/c ration while in the US HCM, mixed vehicles are retained but the value
of capacity is modified or converted to mixed vehicles by applying reduction factor due to heavy
vehicles. The v/c ratio, therefore, is computed based on volume and capacity having the same
unit of mixed vehicles.
Pano, Ara

6.3 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features of a highway design. Its proper design
can result in high performance regarding speed, safety, efficiency, and comfort. In addition, it
may result in the saving of economy and increase the highway capacity. The design of horizontal
alignments requires the understanding of design speed and horizontal curves. Horizontal
alignment includes of a road comprise a series of straight lines known as tangents with the
provision of curves to change direction. It also includes the design of super elevation, extra
widening, set back distance, curve design etc.
Horizontal curves are provided in each and every point of intersection of two straight alignments
of highways in order to change the direction. The direction change should be gradual to ensure
safety and comfort to the passengers. The necessity of curve arises due to some reasons:
 Providing access to certain locality.
 Restrictions by certain religious, monumental or some other structures.
 Making use of existing right of way.
The application of horizontal curves enhances comfort to the passengers by avoiding the sudden
change in direction and reduces mental strain by travelling monotonously along the straight
route. In addition, it makes the driver more alert while travelling along the curved path which
helps to reduce road accidents. This also plays an important role in speed control and compels
the driver to the maintain the speed of vehicle within a reasonable limit.
6.3.1 Circular Curves
For large radius (as in railroad practice), distances along the arc are considered to be the same as
along the chords.
For highways usually the distances are considered to be along the arcs, and the corresponding
chord lengths are computed for measurement in the field.
Sharpness of the curve is expressed in any of the three ways:
1. Degree of Curve (Arc Basis) – is the angle at the center subtended by an arc of 20m is
the Metric system or 100ft in the English system. This is the method generally used in
Highway practice.

𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟔
𝑫=
𝑹
 2. Degree of curve (Chord Basis) – is the angle subtended by a chord of 20 m in Metric
system or 100ft in English system.
𝟏𝟎
𝑹= 𝑫
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐
3. Radius – length of radius is stated.
𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟔
𝑹=
𝑫
Stationing
In Metric system, the length used is 20m for both arc and chord definitions. In English system,
the length used is 100ft for both arc and chord definitions.

Simple Curve – defined as a circular arc

between two tangents.
Elements of a Simple Curve:
PI = Point of Intersection of two tangents
PC = Point of curvature or beginning of
curve
PT = Point of tangency of end of curve
T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and
from PI to PT. It is known as subtangent
R = Radius
Lc = Length of chord from PC to PT
L = Length of curve from PC to PT
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve
m = Middle ordinate the distance from the midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.
I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It is the angle of
intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and PT at 0 is also equal to I, where 0 is
the center of the circular curve.
 1. Tangent Distance
𝑰
𝑻 = 𝑹 𝒕𝒂𝒏
𝟐

2. External Distance
𝑰
𝑬 = 𝑹 𝒔𝒆𝒄 − 𝑹
𝟐

3. Middle Ordinate
𝑰
𝑴 = 𝑹 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 )
𝟐

4. Length of Chord
𝑰
𝑪 = 𝟐𝑹 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐

5. Length of Curve
𝟐𝟎 𝑰 𝝅𝑹𝑰
𝑳= ; 𝑳=
𝑫 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

6. Sub-arc (arc basis)

𝒅𝟏
= 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒄𝑫
𝟐
Computations of stationing:
Sta. PC = Sta. PI – T
Sta. PT = Sta. PC + I
6.3.2 Compound Curve
Compound curves are a series of two or
more simple circular curves with
deflections in the same direction
immediately adjacent to each other.
Compound curves are used to transition
into and from a simple curve and to avoid
control or obstacle which cannot be
relocated.
In a compound curve, the point of the
common tangent where the two curves join
is called the Point of Compound Curvature
(P.C.C.)
Elements of Compound Curve:
R1 = Radius of the curve AE
R2 = Radius of the curve EF
T1 = Tangent distance of the curve AE
T2 = Tangent distance of the curve EF
BD = T1 + T2 = Common tangent
I1 = Central angle of curve AE
I2 = Central angle of curve EF
I = Angle of intersection of tangents AC and CF
𝐈𝟏
𝐓𝟏 = 𝐑𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧
𝟐
𝐈𝟐
𝐓𝟐 = 𝐑𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧
𝟐
6.3.3 Reverse Curve
A reverse curve is a two-arc simple
curve having its centers on opposite
sides. This type of curve is usually
inadmissible on high-speed routes
because super elevation at the point
of reversal cannot be provided.
4 Types of reversed curve problems:
1. Reversed curve with equal radii
and parallel tangents.
2. Reversed curve with unequal
radii and parallel tangents.
3. Reversed curve with radii and
converging tangents.
4. Reversed curve with unequal
radii and converging tangents.
Elements of a Reversed Curve:
PC = Point of curvature
R1 and R2 = Radii of curvature
PT =Point of tangency
D1 and D2= Degree of curve
PRC =Point of reversed curvatur
V1 and V2= Points of intersection of tangents
L = L1 + L2 = Length of reversed curve
𝜃 = Angle between converging tangents
m = offset
I2- I1 = 𝜃
P = distance between parallel tangents
Ogaco, Kim Aira D.

6.3.4 Broken Back Curve

A broken back curve is characterized by a short tangent between two curves in the same
direction. This type of curve should be avoided in design since most drivers do not expect
succeeding curves to be in the same direction especially during night time.

Broken back curve

6.3.5 Easement Curve or Clothoid

An easement curve or clothoid is usually a spiral that serves as a transition path as the
vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve. This type of curve follows a natural path as the driver
turns the steering wheel.
 Clothoid or easement curve

The most well-known transition curve is the Clothoid. In its real world application the
clothoid enables a car driver to ride smoothly by turning the steering wheel with a constant
speed, defining a clothoidal spiral, a continuous and linear curvature variation.The clothoid
equations were first defined by Leonhard Euler; this is why, in general Physics the curve is often
called Euler spiral. The French physicists Augustin-Jean Fresnel and, later, Alfred Cornu,
rediscovered the curve and defined its parametric equations – hence the curve is sometimes
called Fresnel or Cornu spiral.

The name clothoid was suggested by the Italian mathematician Ernesto Cesàro. The
word clothoid comes from klothos, the Greek word for spin (wool) the shape of the curve thread
that wraps around the spindle. The same root appears in the name of Clotho (The Spinner), one
of the three Fates who holds the thread of human destiny.
One property of the clothoid is that its curvature increases in proportion to the length of
curve.
Elements of symmetrical clothoid
The following figure shows a symmetrical clothoid, i.e., a circular curve having two
clothoids at each end serving as transition paths. The two clothoids have exactly the same
properties.

Symmetrical clothoid

1. Based on travel time (enough time for reaction)

ls  3 sec travel time

2. Based on rate of change of acceleration, p:

Range of values of p:

p = 0.35 ~ 0.50 m/sec3 for expressways

p = 0.60 ~ 0.75 m/sec3 for rural and urban highways

3. Based on aesthetics

The longitudinal gradient of the superelevation runoff should not exceed 1/200.
De Ocampo, Kenny Jay P. BSCE2-LEP

Vertical Alignment
Parabolic vertical curves has been used to design the profile of highways. It has properties that
make it easy for laying out the alignment of a roadway in the field.
A parabolic curve that is applied to make a smooth and safe transition between two grades on a
roadway or a highway.
When are vertical curves applied?
 At an intersection of two slopes on a highway or a roadway
 To provide a safe and comfort ride for vehicles on a roadway.

VPC: Vertical Point of Curvature

VPI
VPI: Vertical Point of Intersection
VPT: Vertical Point of Tangency
G1, G2: Tangent grades in percent
A: Algebraic difference in grades VPC VPT
L: Length of vertical curve

Vertical curve terminology

The algebraic change in slope direction is A, where
A = g2 - g1
Example.
if g1 = + 1. 5 percent and g2 = -3.2 percent, A would be equal to (- 3.2 - 1.5) = -4.7.
Note: a vertical curve is required if A -is greater than 2.0 or less than -2.0

6.4.1 Properties of Parabolic Vertical Curves

a) The rate of change of grade on a vertical curve is constant.
Consider the general equation of the parabolic curve:
y=ax²+bx+c ;

where a, b and c are constants.

The first derivative dy/dx is the change of grade. The second derivative gives the rate of change
of grade:

b) Tangents drawn from any two points on a vertical axis parabola always intersect midway
between the points of tangency.

c) Vertical offsets from a tangent to a parabola are proportional to the squares of the distances
from the point of tangency.

d) If the tangent to the parabola is drawn between the main tangents, the horizontal projection of
the intercept cut off on this new tangent by the main tangents is equal to one-half of the
horizontal projection of the long chord of the parabola.
6.4.2 Types of Vertical Curves
There are two types of vertical curves: crest and sag curves.

Crest Vertical Curves

 Minimum length of a crest vertical curve needs to satisfy the safety, comfort, and
appearance criteria.
 Minimum length of a crest vertical curve is equal 3 time the design speed.

Sag Vertical Curves

 A design of a sag vertical curves need to satisfy at least four difference criteria.
o Head light sight distance
o Passenger comfort
o Drainage control
o General appearance

6.4.3 General Equation of Vertical Curve

Consider the vertical curve of length L with gradients of G1 and G2. The beginning and
end of the curve are denoted by BVC and EVC, respectively. The point of intersection of the two
gradient lines is denoted by VPI. If the rectangular coordinates x and y are chosen arbitrarily as
shown, then EBVC is the elevation of Sta. BVC.
The equation will then be:

Elements of Vertical Curve

Diana, Daryl

6.4.4. Sight Distances at Vertical Curves

Sight distance allows the driver to assess developing situations and take actions appropriate for
the conditions. Sight distance relies on drivers being aware of and paying attention to their
surroundings and driving appropriately for conditions presented. For the purpose of design, sight
distance is considered in terms of stopping sight distance and passing sight distance.

These two sight distances have been discussed in connection with horizontal alignments.
Similarly, the two sight distances are the major factors in determining the required length of
vertical curves.

In measuring sight distances, the following heights are assumed in the development of standards:
a. For SSD, h1 pertains to the driver ’s eye height and h2 is the height of the object (hazard)
seen along the path of the vehicle.

b. For PSD, h2 is taken as the height of the roof of the vehicle coming in the opposite
direction when the first vehicle initiates its overtaking maneuver.
6.4.5. Sight Distances at Crest Vertical Curve
Crest vertical curves are curves that connect inclined sections of roadway, forming a crest, and
they are relatively easy to design. We only need to find an appropriate length for the curve that
will accommodate the correct sight distance. The stopping sight distance is usually the
controlling sight distance, but the decision sight distance or even passing sight distance could be
used if desired.

The sight distance and the length of the curve can be related to each other in one of two ways.
The first possibility is that the sight distance is less than the length of the curve. Alternatively,
the length of the curve could be less than the sight distance.

If S < L then,

If S > L then,

Where:
L = Length of crest vertical curve
S = Sight distance
A = Change in grades in percent
h1 = Height of the driver’s eyes above the ground
h2 = Height of the object above the roadway

6.4.6. Sight Distances at Sag Vertical Curve

Sag vertical curves are curves that connect descending grades, forming a bowl or a sag.
Designing them is very similar to the design of the crest curve. The sight distance is the
parameter that is normally employed to find the length of the curve.

Sag vertical curves normally present drivers with a commanding view of the roadway during the
daylight hours, but unfortunately, they truncate the forward spread of the driver’s headlights at
night. Because sight distance is restricted after dark, the headlight beams are the focus of the
sight distance calculations. For sight distance calculations, a 1⁰ upward divergence of the beam is
normally assumed.

As with the crest vertical curves, these assumptions lead to two possible configurations, one in
which the sight distance is less than the curve length, and one in which the opposite is true.

If S < L then,
If S > L then,

Where:
L = Length of crest vertical curve
S = Sight distance (normally stopping sight distance) (SSD)
B = Beam upward divergence (⁰) (normally assumed as 1⁰)
A = Change in grades in percent
H = Height of the headlights (normally assumed as 2ft/0.6m)
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
GROUP 4
BSCE – LEP2

MEMBERS:

Balonzo, Angielica W.

Parrocha, Jea C.

Asejo, Ma. Kriselda Mae P.

Pano, Ara

Ogaco, Kim Aira D.

De Ocampo, Kenny Jay P.

Diana, Daryl