SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

THE PETROPHYSICS OF DRILLING

FLUIDS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON LOG DATA

Geoffrey Page, Stephen Vickers

Baker Hughes Incorporated
Copyright 2011, held jointly by the Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log mud, and its effects on logs and formations. A correctly
Analysts (SPWLA) and the submitting authors
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging formulated drilling fluid consists of a base brine or oil
Symposium held in Colorado Springs, Co, USA, May 14-18, 2011. with added chemicals, and should
Promote mechanical and chemical stability of the
ABSTRACT open wellbore
Remove cuttings from the hole
Drilling fluids are carefully formulated to enable safe Cool and lubricate the bit
and efficient drilling of subsurface formations and to Control subsurface pressures
minimize formation damage within reservoir sections. Suspend solids when circulation stops
Although the effects of these fluids on log data might Isolate the formation from the fluids
have been identified, they are generally accepted as an Support part of the weight of the drillstring and
unavoidable consequence of achieving cost-effective casing
and productive wellbores. Release cuttings at surface
The effects of drilling fluid chemicals on log data are Maximise penetration rates
generally considered to be minimal, as tool-specific Transmit hydraulic horsepower to bit
corrections are applied to account for the fluid effects Minimise corrosion rates
within the borehole. These borehole corrections, Have minimal adverse interaction with the
however, only adjust tool responses to true reservoir
measurements of the bulk formation properties, and do Allow recovery of information from the hole
not account for the effects of invading fluids on the (Mud pulse telemetry)
final petrophysical interpretation. With the introduction Comply with environmental regulations
of more complex drilling fluid chemistry, accounting Although not always considered, one other
for the invading fluid properties becomes more requirement/consideration should also be To allow the
complex and even more significant than when the acquisition of accurate petrophysical information . As
drilling fluids are simple water-based or invert-oil part of pre-well planning, the optimal drilling mud
emulsions. To retain interpretation accuracy, the log formulation should also be reviewed for its suitability
analyst might require performing complex modeling of towards the required data acquisition strategy,
the effects of formate and bromide base brines which especially for exploration wells where the primary
induce different log responses than other aqueous reason for drilling the well is to gather high quality
fluids. data.
The formulation of drilling fluids for drilling purposes The physical properties of the drilling fluids are
has been widely documented; however the effects that reported on a daily basis and should be reviewed by the
many common, and not so common, drilling fluid petrophysicist, who should be aware of any major
components have on petrophysical measurements are changes, particularly while penetrating the reservoir.
not well documented. Even the physical properties of The reported properties, however, tend to be limited
common make-up brine and standard base oils that may only to those that are important to drilling: density,
affect basic log data responses have not been viscosity, and chemicals used. Additional properties
completely catalogued. Other components such as also important to the acquisition of high-quality log
precipitating salts and paramagnetic particles may also data are often difficult to ascertain, particularly at a
influence the measurements of some logging tools. later date.
This paper is intended as an overview of the primary The mud properties affecting the data acquisition
effects of drilling fluid chemicals on petrophysical log include:
data. References are provided to assist in additional Density of the whole mud and of the filtrate
research on individual mud systems. Viscosity, which affects wireline tool logging
speed and LWD pulsing capability
INTRODUCTION Filtration control and expected depth of invasion
Chemical composition of the make-up brine, for
One of the components of petrophysical analysis least salinity, conductivity, and reactivity
understood by petrophysicists is the drilling fluid or
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SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

Chemical composition of the base oil, and A large fraction of the volume of investigation of most
comparison to predicted native hydrocarbons petrophysical measurements is within a few inches of
Chemical composition of solids components, the wellbore, and they are therefore affected by filtrate
especially if any form of mineral logging is being properties. Perhaps confusingly, the depth of
undertaken investigation of resistivity logs is defined as 50% of
Measurements of additional properties can be their response radial function, whereas it is 90% for
performed at the rigsite with suitable equipment, but in nuclear measurements. A density measurement is
general are not required. Instead, regular mud samples usually quoted as having a depth of investigation of
can be retrieved (once a day or when a major change around eight inches (however 50% of the signal comes
occurs) for future laboratory analysis, when mud from within three inches) and neutron measurement
formulation has the potential to affect the formation investigation is deeper at approximately 12 inches.
evaluation data. This difference should be considered when combining
Corrections for mud properties have a similar purpose density and neutron as they may be investigating
to detailed core analysis; they generally do not change different fluids. Acoustic measurements follow the
the overall picture of a quicklook analysis, but can help shortest travel path, and invading fluids may force the
refine the data at a later date. measurement deeper or shallower depending on
slowness contrasts between filtrate and formation
INVASION fluids, but they generally stay within a foot of the
borehole. Magnetic resonance has a precisely defined
An important consideration is how deeply liquids or depth of investigation between one and four inches.
solids invade the rock, relative to the depth of The resistivity logs are designed to either see a lot
investigation of the petrophysical measurements. There deeper, up to 10 feet or more, or to measure very
are two parts to this: shallow to define the flushed zone resistivity Rxo.
How deep do the drilling fluids and solids invade? Frequently, a range of depths of investigation is
How deep do the instruments measure? recorded to define the invading fluid depth profile.
Additionally, there may be a directional consideration Resistivity image logs are considered to be very
for deviated or horizontal wells where the invasion shallow reading, which the individual buttons are;
varies azimuthally around the wellbore, due to however, combined on a pad, the system as a whole
permeability anisotropy and gravity. responds to a deeper background resistivity between 15
Correctly sized solids should never invade more than a and 20 inch, providing a mix of Rxo and Rt responses.
few pores depth from the wellbore. This requires the Understanding and quantifying the invasion depth is
correct mix of small and larger particles in the mud, very important when invading fluids have a significant
sized relative to the expected pore diameters (Figure effect on formation properties. Resistivity is one of the
1). Mud filtrate invasion is dependent on time, borehole key measurements for estimating invasion depth. Many
(over)pressure, permeability, and mud cake programs and methods exist to derive an apparent depth
development. For LWD data recorded shortly after of invasion from at least three resistivity radial depths;
drilling this may only be a few inches, or may be ideally, one of these should be a shallow Rxo pad type
considerably deeper for wireline if not recorded until device reading within the first few inches. Although
several days or weeks later. Rxo and depth of invasion can be derived from
mandrel-type tools, their shallowest raw data are
approximately 10-inch deep, which is beyond the
important first few inches of the porosity logs depth of
investigation.
Alternative methods for defining apparent invasion
depths include using the photoelectric effect (PE) for
fluids with a high PE such as caesium formate brines,
magnetic resonance fluid analysis in the 2 to 4 inch
depth range, and acoustic velocities variations in the
first few feet away from the wellbore. It should be
noted, however, that acoustic velocities may also be
affected by stress variations around the wellbore caused
by mud over-pressure, wellbore deviation, or natural
stresses. This could mask invasion affects unless there
Figure 1. Correctly sized solids should not enter the
is a large contrast between invading and native fluid
formation, where they could cause damage and affect
velocities.
log responses.

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 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

DATA CORRECTION minimize borehole chloride / salinity corrections

(essentially a sigma correction). Formation salinity
Correcting petrophysical measurements for mud corrections are small but also available. Some mud
chemistry consists of two consecutive parts: filtrate components that have a very high sigma, such as
1. Borehole corrections for hole size and mud caesium, require additional special corrections.
properties are applied to correct measurements Mud radioactivity, for example from potassium content,
back to calibration conditions, usually a 7-7/8 inch can significantly increase the natural gamma ray
borehole filled with fresh water. This provides a reading, and distort spectral measurements. The
property being radioactivity, however, is rarely high enough to have
measured, free from wellbore artifacts. any noticeable effect on density measurements. If the
2. Borehole-corrected logs are corrected for invading filtrate is radioactive, formation permeability may
fluids (or solids) effects. This includes fluid influence the apparent formation gamma ray signal.
properties for porosity and saturation, wettability, Spectral gamma ray measurements are useful to
permeability, and any mineralogical changes. identify and correct these responses.
Temperature and pressure may be different in the Whole mud resistivity dictates the choice of optimal
wellbore and in the formation. Borehole parameters resistivity logging tools; it may also restrict NMR
should be used when applying borehole corrections and acquisition capabilities in highly conductive muds. Mud
formation parameters for correcting filtrate effects. The filtrate samples should be pressed and their resistivity
virgin formation properties will be determined only measured; filtrate resistivity is used to calculate flushed
after correcting for borehole and invasion effects. Many zone saturation and correct many other measurements
of the advanced formate and silicate mud systems for invasion.
permit to drill high-quality bit-size wellbores, and thus Magnetic or paramagnetic minerals used as weighting
to acquire high-quality data. The challenge remains material may affect orientation measurement devices.
however, to understand and interpret that data. There have been cases of mud cake magnetized by
NMR tools resulting in bad orientation data recorded on
AFFECTED MEASUREMENTS subsequent runs such as borehole imaging. If the mud
contains any paramagnetic materials, or milling has left
Drilling fluid bulk density and gamma rays absorption swarf in the wellbore, one should consider running
have a small effect on formation density measurements NMR after any services measuring tool orientation.
due to GR backscatter within the borehole, which also Surfactants used to mix and hold in suspension the
reduces the total natural gamma ray (GR) count. water phase in an oil-base mud (OBM) may affect the
Additionally, high PE components such as barite and wettability of the flushed zone, and the irreducible
caesium preferentially absorb the lower GR energies, flushed zone fluid saturation. This may also affect the
distort the energy spectrums, and considerably increase data recorded by NMR tools, which generally read
the PE reading. Mud cake density, controlled by the within the flushed zone. NMR core measurements,
drilling fluids solids, is compensated by multi-detector currently rarely done, can identify the magnitude of any
tool design, but may also introduce high PE effects. The such effects.
liquid components that penetrate the formation as Loss control materials (LCM) contain polymers,
filtrate also enter in the density porosity calculation. asphalt, or other materials designed to block pores and
The gamma density response of fluids is slightly fractures. These may not be removable under flowing
different from the true density, but a correction can be conditions, and can affect pressure pretests
estimated as per Appendix 1. communication, permeability estimates and sampling
Acoustic measurements are compensated for borehole from formation testing tools. These materials may also
fluid slowness; however acoustic porosity calculations reduce acoustic Stoneley permeability estimates.
require correction for invading filtrate slowness. Some mud systems have a high pH, which can be
Some mud system components may considerably corrosive to logging tools elastomers and seals. Special
reduce the hydrogen index (HI) of the mud. This will compounds resistant to these conditions are available.
affect the neutron borehole corrections and porosity These are particularly important for LWD equipment
measurements. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) that is exposed for a long time to the downhole fluids,
measurements will also be affected by the low HI in a and formation testing tools that contain a large quantity
similar way to the neutron porosity, with additional of pressure seals.
changes to the T1, T2, and diffusivity spectra. The HI When taking formation tester fluid samples , contrast
of fluids can be estimated as per Appendix 2. between filtrate properties and native fluids will ensure
The mud sigma, or macroscopic thermal neutron that filtrate contamination levels can be identified and
capture cross-section, affects both the neutron borehole reduced. This may be a consideration when designing
corrections and porosity. Modern tools are designed to

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SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

mud systems for exploration wells, where successful (Figure 2). For this reason, these muds do not conduct
well testing is essential. electrical currents at the normal voltages and
Many of these effects can be identified and corrected if frequencies of resistivity logs. It is also assumed
log data are calibrated to core. However, coring is (sometimes wrongly) that only the oil continuous phase
expensive, not available in many wells and rarely over invades the formation through a mudcake. The
entire reservoir intervals. If the log data under analysis properties of this oil filtrate will therefore affect log
are calibrated to core from other wells or intervals, the measurements most.
analyst should ensure that the mud and logging
conditions were comparable to the current well.

MUD SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The following discussions on mud system components

provide a general overview of the type and magnitude
of their potential effects on petrophysical properties.
Mud formulations are constantly being updated and this
information should be used as a general guide only. For
important reservoir sections, the individual mud
properties should be researched.
Figure 2. Inverted emulsion of water in an oil-base
mud
BASE COMPONENTS
The base oil may be one of a wide variety of natural,
Water-Base Mud - Fresh water at surface temperature synthetic, or combination oils. At least 80 varieties of
and pressure has a density of 1.00 g/cc and a hydrogen base oils are known, and have widely varying
index (HI) of 1.00. Increasing temperature causes water properties.
to expand. At 200°C and 225 psi (the lowest pressure at Generally, base oil is not, as widely thought, diesel.
which it remains liquid at this temperature), fresh water Diesel contains 18 to 24% aromatic compounds that are
has a density and HI of 0.87. At 10,000 psi (and surface toxic, and many other volatile and hazardous
temperature) water density and HI increase to 1.02, a components. This makes it an unsuitable drilling fluid
smaller increase than the temperature reduction. In in most countries for health, safety and environmental
combination, downhole pressure and temperature reasons.
reduce fresh water density and HI to less than 1.0; at Many base oils are refined petroleum mineral oils with
200°C and 10,000 psi, the density and HI of fresh water aromatics and other hazardous components removed to
mud filtrate are 0.92. give them a low toxicity rating. Due to their refining
The addition of salts to water increases its density and process, these oils are sometimes referred to as
reduces its HI. Water saturated with 250 ppk of sodium synthetics, confusing them with some of the products
chloride (NaCl) has a density of 1.19 g/cc and a HI of described below.
0.90 at surface conditions. Increasing pressure and Synthetic oils have been developed to further reduce the
temperature changes these values in a similar way to toxicity rating; they are esters (derived from vegetable
fresh water. For a typical reservoir at 120°C oils), non-petroleum hydrocarbons such as linear alpha
temperature and 6,000 psi pressure, a 100 ppk NaCl olefins (LAO), iso olefins (IO) and paraffins. These
filtrate would have a density of 1.04 g/cc and an HI of synthetic oils are different arrangements of simple
0.94. If a value of 1.00 were mistakenly used for hydrocarbon chains, with no additional exotic elements.
density and HI, the porosity would be reduced from These muds were common a few years ago, but are now
20% to 19.5%. At 200°C and 10,000 psi, the same rarely seen outside of the USA.
saline filtrate has a density of 1.12g/cc and a HI of 0.91, Ester muds are sometimes referred to as ester-based
resulting in a reduced apparent porosity of 18.5% if muds (EBM). EBM tends to be more aggressive
filtrate density and HI of 1.00 were used. towards elastomers than mineral OBM. Esters are also a
wetting agent and can affect near wellbore wettability.
Oil-base Mud Oil-base mud (OBM) primarily They also generally have a slightly lower hydrogen
consists of base oil and brine, with the addition of index than mineral OBM, which may be visible as a
surfactants and emulsifiers, which allow it to form an porosity reduction on neutron or NMR measurements.
inverted emulsion of water. The oil is the continuous Esters can absorb gas at elevated temperature and
phase and the brine is present as isolated droplets pressure, and have been known to appear as a false gas
effect on density and neutron logs. They are also more
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 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

compressible than mineral oils, which sometimes - Acoustic measurements are generally not possible
appears like a gas effect on formation tester pretests. as they require borehole fluid to couple the signals
For more detailed additional information on ester muds in and out of the formations
refer to: Amin et al, 2010; Badruzzaman et al, 2005; - Borehole corrections for density and neutron
and Lugol et al, 2000. measurements will be larger than for regular mud
The physical properties of these base oils vary widely, systems. The lack of a radiation absorbing medium
with densities typically between 0.75 and 0.85 g/cc and surrounding the instruments will result in higher
HI approximately 1.0. The lower the density of the base count rates and lower densities and neutron
oil, the more solid weighting materials need to be used porosities. Wireline instruments are likely to be
to achieve the same mud weight. Some examples are affected more than LWD due to the smaller
shown in Table 1. fraction of the borehole they occupy.
At surface conditions, a typical base oil has a density of - Formation tester pretests will exhibit draw-ups, as
0.8 g/cc and HI of 1.01; it will expand with increasing formation pressure will be higher than hydrostatic.
temperature and contract under pressure. The This may require reprogramming the analysis logic
temperature expansion is of similar magnitude to that of to interpret when pressures have stabilized, and for
water; however the pressure contraction is, unlike determining permeability. The higher formation
water, of a similar magnitude to the temperature pressure will also push the sealing pad off the wall,
expansion, but in opposite direction. This results in resulting in more lost seals.
downhole properties similar to those at surface. The - Induction and propagation resistivity logs should
example oil with 0.8 g/cc density and 1.01 HI at surface work effectively, however shallow and lateral-type
would have a density of 0.78 g/cc and a HI of 0.99 at logs may not work, due to increased mud
120°C and 6000 psi. These values assume no resistivities, and it may be necessary to use an oil-
absorption of gas. An oil of this density at these base imager tool even in water-base fluids.
downhole conditions can absorb up to a GOR of 1700
ft3/bbl, resulting in a density of only 0.6 g/cc and a HI CHEMICALS - LIQUIDS
of 0.89, although only a small amount of formation gas
is generally absorbed by filtrate. Brines - Many different salt brines are used in addition
to NaCl solutions, allowing different density base water
to be created, from 1.0g/cc up to more than 2.0g/cc for
the pure liquid phase alone (without solids) (Table 2).
As these brines get denser, their HI also decreases.
Saturated sodium bromide brine, for example, has a
density of 1.52 g/cc and a HI of only 0.8 (at surface
conditions). This is due to the high weight fraction of
salts displacing hydrogen in the dissolving water
fraction.

Table 1. Physical properties of some common OBM

base oils

Underbalanced Drilling Mud Low-density

underbalanced drilling mud is created using either a
standard mud aerated with air or nitrogen, or using
specific lightweight chemical foams. Most logging
tools can be run in them, however with some specific
problems and exceptions, identified below:
- LWD data pulsing relies on a low compressibility
fluid column to transmit pressure pulses of data to
the surface, and will not be effective in these mud Table 2. Physical properties of some common water -
systems. Electromagnetic transmission systems are based mud brines
available as a replacement data route

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SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

The heavier brines and formates may undergo gravity

segregation, with formation fluids showing unusual
invasion profiles.
One of the most common brines uses potassium
chloride, which helps to stabilize clay structures and
prevent swelling. When clay structures contain an
interlayer of calcium or magnesium ions, they can bind
several layers of water molecules within the structure
(Figure 3). Sodium is particularly harmful and can bind
up to 10 water layers, causing clay swelling and
borehole collapse.

Figure 4. Clay stabilization with the addition of

potassium (K) ions

When calculating resistivities of salt solutions, the

charts used are frequently those for sodium chloride
brine; however, salts other than NaCl can have a
significantly different resistivity response. Charts exist
to convert other salt and ion concentrations to NaCl-
equivalent values (Figure 5). At very high temperatures
(over 200°C), the resistivities may also start to deviate
from the standard (Arps type) formulas, and above
Figure 3. Clay ionic hydration when calcium (Ca),
300°C may actually start to increase with increasing
magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na) ions are present
temperature (Ucok et al, 1979).
Potassium, in contrast, can form stable interlayers
without water, resulting in a stable clay structure
(Figure 4). As a result, potassium in the mud is used
up, and additional potassium needs to be added
Multiplier, K

constantly to the mud system to maintain salinities.

This means that if mud potassium content is used to
correct log data (for example the GR), mud reports
should be checked throughout the drilled interval, not
just in the final report at the time of logging.

Potassium acetate (CH3CO2K) is the potassium salt of

acetic acid, and has been used as a more
environmentally friendly version of potassium chloride, Total Solids Concentration (ppm or mg/Kg)
(it contains no chlorine). From a logging perspective, Figure 5. Equivalent NaCl concentrations from total
this is just another brine. The HI of the potassium solids concentrations
acetate is 0.14, compared to 0 for chloride, so the
filtrate HI used for analysis needs a slight increase. Formate brines - Formates are a special case brine. The
-
formate ion (HCOO ) can be combined with sodium
(Figure 6), potassium, or caesium to create very dense
brines. Some of the properties of these brines are shown
in Table 3.

Figure 6. Sodium formate

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 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

For more detailed additional information on formate

muds refer to: A-Harbi et al, 2005; Berg et al, 2007;
Cabot manual; Galford et al, 2005; Gallino et al, 1997;
Guo et al, 2002; Inanc et al, 2011; Pedersen et al, 2006.

Glycol - Glycol, also known as cloud point glycol, is a

common constituent of water-based muds, which helps
reduce invasion and improve lubricity. At low
Table 3. Formate petrophysical properties temperatures glycol is fully miscible in water. As the
temperature is increased, a point is reached where the
Due to their very high percentage (by weight) of the
formate and to their low water content, these brines separated from the water. This happens at the cloud
have significantly different log responses and require point temperature, which is designed around the
special modeling to determine the required instrument expected wellbore temperature. The glycol droplets
corrections. In particular, the low HI will significantly then coat the rock surface, block pores, and inhibit
reduce the neutron response and may look similar to a invasion. Coating cuttings with glycol also prevents
(false) gas effect on the density-neutron. their dispersion. As the cuttings laden mud returns to
The resistivities of formate solutions also do not behave surface the glycol cools again, becomes miscible again,
as other solutions. As formate concentration increases, and is released from coating the cutting (Figure 8).
the resistivity initially decreases as expected, but then at
very high concentrations the resistivity increases again
as the solution becomes so overloaded with ions that
they start to affect each other, reducing conductivity
(Figure 7). The mixing of different formate brines also
generates a non-linear mixing rule.

Figure 8. Laboratory demonstration of glycol clouding

as temperature is increased

Glycols are a hydrocarbon chain similar to alcohols but

with two or three OH groups (Figure 9). Typically,
they have a density between 1.0 and 1.1 g/cc, a HI close
to 1.0, are non-toxic, and will have minimal effects on
Figure 7. Formate brine resistivity variations with log data as they should not invade more than a few
concentration when diluted with distilled water (at pores depth. Resistivities of the whole mud may be
room temperature) different above and below the cloud point temperature,
but the invading filtrate should be only the water/brine
Consider the case of saturated formate brine invading a fraction.
fresh water-filled formation. As the saturated formate Glycols have the potential for slightly altering
dilutes by mixing with the formation water, its wettability, but the authors currently have no evidence
resistivity may decrease, contrary to expectation. of this in the wellbore.
Saturated caesium formate has a very high photoelectric
absorption (PE) of over 200 b/e, and very high log
values of 30 b/e or more may be observed. This high
photoelectric absorption may also affect gamma ray
counts as low energy gamma rays will be absorbed. The
high PE makes normal analysis of the PE curve
impossible for mineral identification; however it can be
very useful for identifying and quantifying invasion,
and used for a net sand count (Kukal et al, 1985).

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SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

Table 4. Some examples of mud-weighting solids

Of particular note from a logging perspective, are:

- barite, which is very common and has a very high
photoelectric response (267 b/e)
- galena, which has been used despite the toxicity of
lead, has a photoelectric response of 1631 b/e
Figure 9. Alcohol and glycol chemical structures
- minerals containing iron, which will be
paramagnetic.
Oil-base Mud Additives Oil-base mud (OBM) can be
In addition, mud solids will include whatever rock has
prepared with base oil, as described previously, mixed
been drilled through. Surface mud cleaning will remove
with almost any salt solution. Calcium chloride is the
larger particles and cuttings, but any fine rock flour will
most common brine as it has a low activity and is
be dispersed throughout the mud.
relatively cheap.
Surfactants and emulsifiers are used to make the oil and
Typical mud solids particle sizes are in the range of 10
brine mix. A small excess amount is usually used to
to 100 microns (Figure 10); however when high
account for any water ingress from the formation and
quantities of solids are required to generate a heavy
still maintain the emulsion. This means there is spare
mud for high-pressure formations, micro-sized particles
capacity for them to react with formation water if there
of approximately one micron are often used. These
is invasion.
smaller particles are less likely to settle out of
If smaller micro-sized particles are used (see solids
suspension, preventing mud sag and varying mud
section below), more of these chemicals are required to
densities.
wet the relatively larger surface area of small particles
compared to large.

CHEMICALS - SOLIDS

Solids are added primarily to increase the mud density

and provide filtration control by forming a cake. If
sized correctly, these solids should not invade the
formation (Figure 1), but may add to borehole
corrections of logging instruments.
Weighting agents are solids of high density that are
insoluble in water. Some typical examples are shown in
Table 4. Figure 10. Some examples of mud particle sizes

Filtration Control - Filtration control additives can be

either solid or dispersible in the liquid phase of the mud
(such as glycol). The most common solids are barite,
bentonite, or calcium carbonate. If sized correctly, these
solids should not invade the formation, but may add to
borehole corrections of logging instruments. Other
common chemicals include starch, carboxymethyl-
cellulose (CMC), polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and
asphaltene, especially at high temperatures. Most of

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 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

these products are long chains of carbon, oxygen and These muds may have significant effects on formation
hydrogen atoms, and will have minimal log effects testing and sampling as the permeability of the wellbore
(Figure 11). They are designed to be removable from surface is permanently damaged. Crystalline solids may
the rock surface under production or chemical treatment precipitate on moving surfaces and valves causing
to restore production permeability. Asphalt can be blockages, and seals to fail if cut. The alkaline
difficult to remove and could permanently inhibit environment is also detrimental to many elastomer seal
production. compounds. Additionally, any instruments run in these
muds should be thoroughly washed inside and out
immediately on return to the surface as the precipitate
may encase them in a thin permanent glass film,
jamming threads and moving parts.
The precipitate may affect the operation of mud
turbines and pulsers for LWD operations, and acoustic
data has been reported to be affected by either the hard
fast layer within the rock wall and/or plugging of the
instruments, shorting out the acoustic energy directly.
Shallow measurements such as resistivity and density
will also be affected, and the density correction curve
may show a dense (negative correction) mudcake.
Unusual invasion profiles may develop, which require
multiple depths of investigation resistivities to solve for
a true Rt.
For more detailed additional information on silicate
muds refer to: El Essawy et al, 2004; Van Oort et al,
1996; Ward et al, 1999.

Aluminium salts - Aluminium salts have now largely

replaced silicates. They perform a similar function in
Figure 11. Starch and cellulose molecules
precipitating and blocking pores, however the process is
reversible thus there is a lower risk of permanent
If these products are removable, they will not impede
formation damage.
formation testing and sampling, although an increased
Aluminium salts stay in solution at a pH greater than
drawdown may be seen for a short time before the mud
10. As the mud filtrate penetrates formations, the pH
cake pops off. If the barrier is permanent, permeability
drops below 10 and the aluminium precipitates. This
measurements and potentially pressure measurement
blocks the pores and prevents additional filtrate entry.
will be impeded.
The process is fully reversible by increasing the pH
again, and also unlike silicates the aluminium salts do
Silicate - Silicate muds are solutions of water-soluble
glasses. The silicate starts out as monosilicate, which not cause cuttings to accrete.
The precipitate may potentially cause some reduction in
polymerizes rapidly to form negatively charged
permeabilities at the time of acquiring formation tester
oligomers at a high pH, at which the mud is formulated.
After entering a pore network, the pH drops, the data; however at the time of writing this has not been
reported as the precipitate is not stuck to the rock in the
oligomers overcome their mutual repulsion and
same way as silicate.
coagulate, forming 3D gel networks. Within the pore
fluids and at clay surfaces, there are free polyvalent
ions (calcium and magnesium) which react NEW TECHNOLOGY
instantaneously with the oligomers to form insoluble
There is a new range of chemicals designed for
precipitates. This reaction is irreversible and occurs
removing mudcake to reduce skin and clean out
very rapidly before significant fluid loss and pressure
wellbores and wellbore equipment. They are not
invasion has occurred. These muds are run
designed to be included in drilling mud systems at the
overbalanced to encourage invasion, the net result of
current time, and are unlikely to be encountered at the
which is a permanent glass barrier within the borehole
wall, not on the surface as for most mudcakes. In time of logging; however they are included here for
completeness and potential future applications.
hydrocarbon bearing formations, there are typically less
Mesophase engineering fluids create bicontinuous
free ions available resulting in deeper invasion prior to
microemulsions, not oil-in-water or water-in-oil but
precipitation.
both simultaneously. This solubilises oils, breaks down

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SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

emulsions, unpacks and dissolves filter cake, and papers over the years, helped organise several
solubilises carbonate particles. Solids are converted to conferences, including the SPWLA 2008 symposium in
100% water wet. The result is significant reductions in Edinburgh. In his spare time, he teaches the
skin and 100% cleaning efficiency. Oil-covered petrophysics course of the Aberdeen University
wellbore equipment that has been in wells containing Integrated Petroleum Geoscience M.Sc. program.
these fluids returns to surface as if it has been polished.
These fluids are highly beneficial in completions Stephen Vickers is the Eastern
applications to improve well productivity; however if Hemisphere Technical Manager for
these fluids were included in drilling mud they could Reservoir Services for Baker
significantly alter the wettability and properties of the Hughes. He originally qualified as a
invaded formations. mining engineer but changed
disciplines and since has enjoyed 30
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS years working in the oil industry,
first as a drilling engineer and then
In most cases, mud chemicals do not cause significant in fluids and chemical engineering. Stephen is based at
problems to petrophysical evaluation; however, their the Eastern Hemisphere Technology Centre in
properties should be evaluated and effects accounted Aberdeen and has specific responsibilities for the
for in a petrophysical interpretation. Additional care application and design of reservoir fluids, also
and information is required in formate and silicate specialising in the prevention and remediation of
muds. formation damage.
Petrophysicists should pay attention to mud chemistry,
and for important wells and reservoir sections, review ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the mud components at regular intervals over the drilled
sections, not just at the end of the drilling phase, as the The authors want to thank Baker Hughes management
mud properties are not static. They should also preserve for its support and permission to publish this paper, and
regular mud samples for later analysis. all those who have contributed pieces of information
The petrophysical properties of the filtrate are as and experiences.
important as those of the whole mud, as the filtrate
invades the rocks being analysed. The exact chemical REFERENCES
composition of many of the specialist muds is
proprietary and closely guarded by the mud companies; Al-Harbi, A., Ersoz, H., AbdrabAlreda, S.H., 2005,
however, the majority bulk components can usually be ce of Sodium/Potassium Formate-Based
identified. Drilling Fluid on
Understanding the invasion profile is key to applying Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum
corrections for invading filtrate. Ultimately, the best Engineering Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20-
solution is to calibrate the log interpretation to core, 23rd June.
however the analyst should verify that the mud and Amin, R.A.M, Clapper, D.K., Norfleet, J.E., Otto, M.J.,
wellbore conditions are exactly the same when Xiang, T., Hood, C.A., Goodson, J.E., Gerrard, D.P.,
transferring data from one well to another. velopment of an Environmentally
This is a working document and the authors will Acceptable Ester-Based Drilling Fluid SPE 132693,
appreciate any feedback, additional information and Trinidad and Tobago Energy Services Conference,
experiences regarding this topic. Port of Spain, Trinidad, 27-30th June.
Badruzzaman, A., Adeyemo, A. O., Logan, J. P., and
ABOUT THE AUTHORS Sheffield, J., 2005, The Ubiquitous Neutron/Density
Tool Response in Petrofree Mud: New Insights to
Geoffrey Page studied physics at Addressing Unresolved Issues? paper KK, SPWLA
the Royal College of Science in 46th Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans,
London. He began his oilfield USA, 26-29th June.
career as a Dresser Atlas field Berg, P.C., Sandtorv, E., Lauritsen, A., Behjat, N.,
engineer 31 years ago, moved into Hagerup-Jenssen, S., Howard, S., Olsvik, G., Downs,
Petrophysics in Aberdeen 23 years
ago, and is now UK Petrophysical Completion, and Open Hole Formation Evaluation of
Advisor for Baker Hughes based in High-Angle Wells in High-Density Cesium Formate
Aberdeen. He is a former President of the Aberdeen Brine: The Kvitebjorn Experience, 2004-2006
chapter of the SPWLA (AFES) and was honoured with SPE/IADC 105733, SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
a life membership. He has written and presented several Amsterdam, Netherlands, 20-22nd February.

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 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

Cabot Specialty Fluids, Formate Technical Manual, Ucok, H., Ershaghi, I., Olhoeft, G.R., 1979 Electrical
www.formatebrines.com Resistivity of Geothermal Brines SPE 7878. SPE
El Essawy, M., bin Hamzah, R., Malik, M.M., Knox, International symposium on oilfield and geothermal
D., Monem, M.R., Oswald, R chemistry, Houston Jan 22-24th.
Application of Sodium Silicate Fluids Achieves Van Oort, E., Ripley, D., Ward, I., Chapman, J.W.,
Significant Improvement of the Drilling Efficiency -based
and Reduce the Overall Well Costs by Resolving Drilling Fluids: Competent, Cost-effective and
Borehole Stability Problems in East Africa Shale, benign Solutions to Wellbore Stability Problems
IADC/SPE 88008, IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drilling IADC/SPE 35059, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference,
Technology Conference and Exhibition, Kuala New Orleans, USA, 12-15th March.
Lumpur, Malaysia, 13-15th Ward, I., Chapman, J.W., Williamson, R., 1999,
Galford, J., Truax J., and Moake G. L., 2005, Borehole
and Formation Invasion Effects of Formate-Based on Field Experience SPE Drilling and Completion,
Mud Systems on Nuclear Logs paper LL, SPWLA Vol 14, No. 1, March.
46th Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans,
USA, 26-29th June.
Gallino, G., Guarneri, A., Maglione, R., Nunzi, P.,

Acetate and Potassium Formate Polymer Muds

Greatly Improved Drilling and Waste Disposal
Operations SPE 37471, SPE
Production Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City,
USA, 9-11th March.
Guo, P., Gilchrist, W.A. Jr., Page, G., Wills, P., Brown,

Logs in Formate-Based Drilling Fluids in a North Sea

rd Annual Logging
Symposium, Oiso, Japan, 2-5th June.
Inanc, F., Roberts, L.P., Han, X., Banzarov, B.,
Thorsen, A.K., Edwards, N.K., Bruner, M., Grant,
W., Constable, M.V., Donnadieu, S., 2011,
Nuclear Tools for CsK
Formate Drilling Fluid Environments SPWLA
Annual Logging Symposium, Colorado Springs,
USA, 16-18th May.
Kukal G.C., and Hill Improved Shaly
Sand Analysis in Heavy Drilling Muds: A Simple
Technique for Using the Photoelectric
Measurement paper U, SPWLA 26th Annual
Logging Symposium, Dallas, USA, 17-20th June.
Lugol, R.L., Dodman, C.A., Crowe, J., Louis, A., 2000,
-Base Mud System Impact on
SPE 62978, SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, USA,
1-4th October.
Pedersen, B.K., Pedersen, E.S., Morriss, S., Constable,
M.V., Vissapragada, B., Sibbit, A., Stoller, C.,
Almaguer, J., Evans, M., Shray, F., Grau, J.,
Fordham, E., Minh, C.C., Scott, H., McKeon, D.,

Cesium/Potassium Formate Fluid on Well Log

Response A Case Study of the Kristin and
Kvitebjorn Fields, Offshore Norway SPE 103067,
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
San Antonio, USA, 24-27th September.

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SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 2

GAMMA DENSITY MEASUREMENT OF FLUIDS HYDROGEN INDEX CALCULATIONS

Wireline and LWD density tools measure bulk The hydrogen index (HI) of any liquid can be estimated
formation density using a gamma ray source via if its volumetric components and density are known.
compton scattering, which measures an electron density Pure water with a density of 1.0g/cc at surface
that is converted to bulk density (g/cc) by the conditions is defined as having an HI of 1.00. For any
calibration process. other material, HI is the relative amount of hydrogen
The conversion process is calibrated for an electron to per unit volume compared to water.
nuclear mass ratio Z/A of 0.5, which is correct for most Water has two hydrogen atoms (atomic weight 1.0) and
rocks. The Z/A ratio of hydrogen, however, is 1.0, one oxygen atom (atomic weight 16), and therefore,
resulting in a water Z/A of 0.55 (There are 18 electrons consists of 2 / 18 or 0.111 g of hydrogen per cc of
and 8 protons+neutrons in H2O). If a correction was not water. A similar calculation can be used for another
applied, water would read a density of 1.1 g/cc. The pure liquid. For example, octane has eight carbon atoms
porosity corrections are built into the calibration (atomic weight 12) and 18 hydrogen atoms (atomic
systems for all tools to ensure that pure water reads weight 1), for a total hydrogen by weight of 18 / 114. If
1.0g/cc, and reduce with decreasing porosity up to the density of octane is 0.71 (at surface conditions) then
100% solid rock (no correction) defined as limestone of the hydrogen fraction of octane is 18 / 114 x 0.71 =
density 2.71 g/cc (Figure 12). Minerals with a matrix 0.112. The HI of octane is therefore 0.112 / 0.111 =
other than a pure limestone at 2.71g/cc read slightly 1.01.
incorrectly. Quartz corrections (very small) are To calculate the HI of a solution, one requires to know
available for some tools but rarely used. the percentage by weight of the solute (usually a salt)
and of the solvent (usually water), and the density of
the mixture. The hydrogen index of each component is
calculated and then combined. A saturated sodium
chloride solution of 250 ppk (by weight) has a density
of 1.2 g/cc; NaCl HI = 0 (no hydrogen) and water HI =
1.0. The HI of the solution is therefore (0.25 x 0) +
(0.75 x 1.0) x 1.2 = 0.9.

Figure 12. The correction of gamma density

measurements for the Z/A of water being 0.55is applied
linearly from 0 to 100% porosity

For other materials that contain a lot of hydrogen, i.e.,

most fluids, the Z/A ratio is also higher than 0.5, and
they require a similar correction. The Z/A ratio of long
hydrocarbon chains (CNH2N) is 0.57, and as high as
0.625 for methane (CH4). This means that even after the
automatic water correction, most oil and gas densities
still read high by 3 to 13% when measured by a gamma
density tool. Laboratory-measured fluid densities, or
those derived from formation tester gradients, cannot,
therefore, be directly used to calculate accurate
porosities. Instead of true densities, the log analyst must
use corrected densities (electronic and water
corrections), or calibrate to core.

12