Science second term final revision sheet

Unit one
1st Definitions:
Chemical reaction Breaking bonds in reactants and forming new bonds in products
Thermal Chemical reaction in which the compound by heat into its elements
decomposition or simpler compounds
reaction
Chemical activity Descending arrangement of elements according to their chemical
series activity
Simple substitution Reaction in which more active element replaces another less active
reaction one in its compound
Double substitution Chemical reaction in which double substitution occurs between
reaction ions of different compounds, to give two new compounds
Neutralization Reaction between acid and base to give salt and water
Oxidation Process in which amount of oxygen increases, or amount of
hydrogen decreases
Process of losing of electrons
reduction Process in which amount of oxygen decreases, or amount of
hydrogen increases
Process of gaining of electrons
Oxidizing agent Substance in which amount of oxygen decreases (gives oxygen),
(factor) or amount of hydrogen increases (takes hydrogen)
Substance that gains electrons during the chemical reaction
The substance that reduced
Reducing agent Substance in which amount of oxygen increases (takes oxygen), or
(factor) amount of hydrogen decreases (gives hydrogen)
Substance that loses electrons during the chemical reaction
The substance that oxidized
Speed of chemical Change in concentration of reactants and products in unit time
reaction
Catalyst Chemical substance that changes the speed of chemical reaction
Positive catalyst Chemical substance that increases the speed of chemical reaction
Negative catalyst Chemical substance that decreases the speed of chemical reaction
Positive catalytic Chemical reaction in which the catalyst increases its speed
reaction
Negative catalytic Chemical reaction in which the catalyst decreases its speed
reaction
Enzymes Chemical substances produced by the body of the living
organisms and acts as a catalyst
 2nd Names and symbols of some compounds:
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Mercury Hg Mercuric oxide HgO
Copper Cu Copper oxide CuO
Sodium Na Copper hydroxide Cu(OH)2
Chlorine Cl2 Copper carbonate CuCO3
Silver Ag Copper sulphate CuSO4
Sulphur trioxide SO3 Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Carbon dioxide CO2 Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Water H2O Sodium sulphate Na2SO4
Hydrochloric acid HCl Sodium nitrate NaNO3
Oxygen O2 Sodium nitrite NaNO2
Nitrogen N2 Silver nitrate AgNO3
Hydrogen H2 Silver chloride AgCl
Manganese dioxide MnO2 Sodium chloride NaCl
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 Zinc chloride ZnCl2
Nitrogen pentoxide N2O5 Aluminum chloride AlCl3
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Iron chloride FeCl2
Sodium azid NaN3 Magnesium chloride MgCl2
Aluminum oxide Al2O3 Magnesium sulphate MgSO4

3rd Colors of some elements and compounds:

Copper Cu Red Mercury Hg Silver

Copper oxide CuO Black Mercuric Oxide HgO Red
Copper hydroxide Cu(OH)2 Blue Sodium nitrate NaNO3 White
Copper sulphate CuSO4 Blue Sodium nitrite NaNO2 Yellowish
White
Copper carbonate CuCO3 Green Silver chloride AgCl White

The gas The property

Oxygen gas Increase the glow of burning match

Hydrogen gas Burns with a pop sound

Carbon dioxide Turbid lime water

 4th Chemical equations:

1st Thermal decomposition reactions:

Δ
1. Metal oxide metal + oxygen
Δ
2 HgO 2 Hg + O2
Δ
2. Metal hydroxide metal oxide + water vapour
Δ
Cu(OH)2 CuO + H2O
Δ
3. Metal carbonate metal oxide + carbon dioxide
Δ
CuCO3 CuO + CO2
Δ
4. Metal sulphate metal oxide + sulphur trioxide
Δ
CuSO4 CuO + SO3
Δ
5. Metal nitrate metal nitrite + oxygen
Δ
2 NaNO3 2 NaNO2 + O2

2nd simple substitution reactions: (Element + Compound)

A + BC AC + B (if A is more active than B, it can replace it)

A + BC No reaction (if A is less active than B, it can’t replace it)

Examples on simple substitution reaction:

a. Metal substitutes hydrogen of water:

2Na + 2H2O → NaOH + H2 ↑ + heat.

b. Metal substitutes hydrogen of acid:

Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 ↑

2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + H2 ↑

Cu + HCl → No reaction

c. Metal substitutes another metal in its salt solution:

Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu ↓
3rd Double substitution reaction: (Compound + compound)

A+B- + C+D- A+D- + C+B-

Examples on double substitution:

1- Reaction between acid & alkali (neutralization)

Acid + base → salt + water
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

2- Reaction between acid & salt

Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

3- Salt solution with another salt solution.

Salt + Salt → ppt
NaCl + AgNO3 → NaNO3 + AgCl ↓

Silver chloride
white precipitate

4th Oxidation & reduction:

Oxidation & reduction are concurrent processes. (i.e. they occur together)
Note: oxidizing and reducing agents are from the reactants
process substance oxygen Hydrogen electrons

oxidation Reducing increase decrease decrease

agent

reduction Oxidizing decrease increase increase

agent

Example:

According to percentage of oxygen and hydrogen

Other chemical equations:

2N2O5 → 4NO2 + O2
Nitrogen Nitrogen oxygen
Pentoxide dioxide
2 NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2 (air bags)
sodium azid sodium nitrogen
Fe + 2HCl → Fe Cl2 + H2
iron hydrochloric iron hydrogen
acid chloride
Na OH + CuSO4 → Na2SO4 + Cu (OH)2 ↓
Sodium Copper sulphate Sodium sulphate Copper hydroxide
hydroxide (Blue) (colourless) (Blue ppt)

Manganese dioxide (catalyst)

MnO2
2H2O2 2H2O + O2↑
Hydrogen peroxide water oxygen
 5th various questions:
What is the importance of chemical reactions?
1. Burning of car fuel generates power which makes car move
2. Plants make their food through photosynthesis which depends on the
reaction between carbon dioxide and water
3. Making medicines, fertilizers and artificial fibers

Air bags:
It is an inflatable bag folded inside the steering wheel in modern cars
Importance: The most important safety means in cars at emergencies
Idea of operation: the air bag contains sodium azid (NaN3), On the occurrence of
car accident, an electric spark is generated that decompose the sodium azid into
sodium and nitrogen

The catalytic convertor:

 Metallic can exists in most modern cars to treat the harmful gases emitted
from the car engine
 It is composed of ceramic cells covered with a thin layer of catalytic
expensive metal as platinum, or palladium or iridium
 The ceramic cells (as bee cells) increases the surface area of the catalytic
metal (to economize its use)
 The catalytic metal increases the speed of the chemical reaction

The usage of sodium bicarbonate in our life:

1. In the vacuum cleaner to get rid of the smell of dust
2. In the waste basket to prevent the bad smell
3. In kitchen’s sink to make the drainage faster
4. With legumes to decrease the bloating
5. In polishing of silver, copper and platinum
6. In gardens to get rid of ants
Speed of chemical reactions:
1. Very fast (very short time) as fireworks
2. Relatively slow (short time) as the reaction of oil with caustic soda (NaOH)
to form soap
3. Very slow (months) as rusting of iron
4. Too slow (millions of years) as oil formation inside the earth

Factors affect the speed (rate) of chemical reaction:

1. The nature of reactants
a. Types of bonds in reactants
(Ionic compounds are faster than covalent compounds)
b. Surface area of reactants
(The speed of the reaction increases by increasing the reactants surface area)
2. The concentration of reactants
(The speed of the reaction increases by increasing the reactants concentration)
3. The temperature of reactants
(The speed of the reaction increases by increasing the reactants temperature)
4. Catalysts
(The speed of the chemical reaction increases by the positive catalyst, and
decreases by the negative catalyst)
Example: positive manganese dioxide (MnO2) catalyst, is used to increase the
rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water and oxygen
The oxidase enzyme of the sweet potato has the same effect of manganese
dioxide

The properties of the catalyst:

1. They change the speed of the reaction without affecting its beginning or
stopping
2. They are used in few amounts
3. They decreases the needed energy for the reaction
4. No chemical change or decrease in mass occurs to catalyst
5. They bond the reactants during the reaction, and separate from them rapidly
after the formation of products
 6th Give reason:
1. Be careful when performing the reaction between oxygen and water?
Because it leads to explosion and burning, so sodium kept under kerosene

2. Magnesium can replace copper in its salt?

Because magnesium is more active than copper

3. Silver can’t replace copper in its salt?

Because silver is less active than copper

4. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, while copper doesn’t react?

Because zinc is more active than hydrogen but copper is less active than hydrogen

5. The occurrence of effervescence on putting a piece of aluminum in dilute

hydrochloric acid?
Due to the evolving of hydrogen gas, because aluminum is more active than
hydrogen so it can replace it

6. Most metals are strong reducing agents, while most non-metals are strong
oxidizing agent?
Because metals lose electrons, while nonmetals gain electrons

7. Oxidation and reduction are concurrent processes?

Because number of lost electrons in oxidation equals to the number of gained
electrons in the reduction

8. Reaction between ionic compounds is fast, while the reaction between

covalent compounds is slow?
Because reaction in ionic compounds takes place through ions, while reaction in
covalent compounds takes place through molecules

9. The speed of the chemical reaction increases when the surface area
increases?
Because the number of the molecules exposed to the reaction increases
10. The reaction of iron filings with hydrochloric acid is faster than iron
block?
Because when the surface area increases the speed of the reaction
increases
11. When the concentration of the reactants increases, the speed of the
reaction increases?
Because the number of the collisions between molecules increases
12. When the temperature increases, the speed of the reaction increases?
Because the number of collision between molecules increases
13. The freezer (fridge) used in preserving food?
To decrease the speed of the reaction of bacteria because when the
temperature decreases the speed of the reaction decreases
14. Catalyst is used in the chemical reactions?
To change the speed of the chemical reactions
15. Adding manganese dioxide to hydrogen peroxide?
Because it is a catalyst that increase the speed of the decomposing of
hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water
16. Adding a piece of sweet potato to hydrogen peroxide?
Because it contains oxidase enzyme that increase the speed of the
decomposing of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water
17. Although aluminum comes before zinc in (C.A.S.) but it delays after it
in the reactions?
Because aluminum is covered with a layer of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) that
takes time to separate from it
18. Don’t keep silver nitrate solution in aluminum containers?
Because aluminum is more active than silver so it can replace it; leading to
erosion of aluminum container

19. A red precipitate is formed when magnesium is added to copper

sulphate solution?
Bec. Copper is formed. Mg + CuSO4 Mg SO4 + Cu
20. The formation of silvery colour on heating red mercuric oxide?
 Bec. Mercury is formed. 2HgO 2Hg + O2

21. A white precipitate is formed on adding silver nitrate solution to sodium

chloride solution?
 Bec. Silver chloride is formed. NaCl + AgNO3 NaNO3 + AgCl

7th comparison:

Reactants Products “resultants”

The concentration = 100% at the The concentration = zero% at the

beginning of the reaction beginning of the reaction

By passing time the concentration By passing time the concentration

decreases increases

The concentration = zero% at the end The concentration = 100% at the end
of the reaction of the reaction
 Unit 2
1st Definitions:
Electric current It is the flow of the electric charges (electrons) through the wire
Electric current I = Q / t ……………. I is Q when t = 1
intensity It is the quantity of charges that flow (pass) in the wire in one second
Ampere I = Q / t ………… Ampere is I when Q = 1 and t = 1
It is the current intensity when the quantity of charges of one coloumb
flow in time one second
Coloumb Q= I x t ….(I = Q / t) ………Coloumb is Q when I = 1, and t = 1
It is quantity of charges that flow when current intensity is one ampere, in
time one second
Ammeter Apparatus used to measure the electric current intensity, and it is
connected in series
Electric potential It is the state of the conductor that shows the transfer of electricity from
of a conductor or to it when it was connected to another conductor
Potential V = W / Q ………………….. V is W when Q = 1
difference It is the work done to transfer quantity of charges of one coloumb
between the two poles of the conductor
Electromotive It is the potential difference between the two poles of the battery when
force the electric circuit is opened
volt V = W / Q ………………… Volt is V when W=1 and Q = 1
It is the potential difference when the work done to transfer quantity of
charges of one coloumb is one joule
Voltmeter Apparatus used to measure the potential difference (in closed circuit)
and electromotive force (in opened circuit), and it is connected in parallel
The electric It is the oppositions that faces the electric current during its passing
resistance through the conductor
R = V/ I
It is the ratio between the potential difference and the current intensity
Variable It is the resistance that you can change its value to adjust (control) the
resistance value of current intensity and potential difference
“sliding
rheostat”

ohm R = V/ I ……………… ohm is R when V = 1 and I = 1

it is the resistance when potential difference of one volt produces a
current intensity of one ampere
ohmmeter Apparatus used to measure the electric resistance
Ohm’s law The electric current intensity is directly proportional to the potential
difference at a constant temperature
Ampere R = V/ I ………………… Ampere is I when R =1, V = 1
It is the current intensity when the resistance equals one ohm, and
potential difference equals one volt
Volt R = V/ I ……………. Volt is potential difference when R = 1, I = 1
It is the potential difference when resistance equals one ohm and current
intensity equals one ampere
Electrochemical They are cells in which the chemical energy is converted to electric
cell energy
Electric Device in which the mechanical (kinetic) energy is converted to electric
generator energy
(dynamo)
Direct electric It is the electric current which has a constant intensity and flows in one
current (D.C.) direction in the electric circuit
Alternating It is the electric current which has a variable intensity and flows in two
electric current opposite directions in the electric circuit
(A.C.)

2nd important points:

What is the importance of electricity?

1. It is the cleanest source of energy as it doesn’t pollute the environment
2. Lightning houses, factories, streets, …..
3. Operating some machines as radios, televisions, washing machines, …….

What are the components of the electric circuit?

1. Electric lamp (it indicates the flow of electric current)
2. Electric key (open and close the circuit)
3. Connecting wires (connect all the components of the electric circuit together)
4. Battery (the source of the electric current)

What is the way of connection of the ammeter and voltmeter?

1. Ammeter is connected in series, while voltmeter is connected in parallel
2. Ammeter is not connected directly to the battery because this may damage it.
3. The positive (red) pole of both of them is connected with the positive pole of the battery
4. The negative (black) pole of both of them is connected with the negative pole of the battery

What is the uncut electric charger device (UPS)?

It is used to store the electric energy; to provide the electric device with a current when there is no
current at home

What is the electric transformer?

It is a device that reduce the electric potential of the current to be suitable for some devices as mobile
 3rd Comparisons:

The current Direct current “D.C.” Alternating current “A.C.”

The source Electrochemical cells such as dry Electric generators such as dynamo
cells and batteries
The current intensity Constant variable
The direction One direction Two opposite directions
The transferred Short long
distance
Change to another Cannot be converted to alternating Can be converted to direct current
type current
Uses 1. Electroplating 1. Lightning houses and streets
2. Operating some electric 2. Operating electric appliances
appliances
Graphical
representation

Points of
series connection parallel connection
comparison
The negative pole is connected to The positive poles are connected
Connection the positive pole of the 2nd cell & so together, while the negative poles are
on. connected together.
E.M.F E =n E1 E =E1
Light intensity of a Increases when number of cells Doesn’t change when number of
lamp (batteries) increases cells (batteries) increases
uses It is used to obtain high e.m.f It is used to obtain low e.m.f
4th Laws:

(I) is direct with (q) and inverse with (t)

(V) is direct with (w) and inverse with (q)
(R) is inverse with (v) and (I) and direct with the length

The factor The symbol The measuring unit The measuring

apparatus
Current intensity I Ampere ammeter
Potential difference v Volt Voltmeter
Resistance R Ohm ohmmeter
Quantity of charges q Coloumb
Work w joule
Time t Second

What happens?
To (I) when (q) increased to double and (t) is constant
Hint to solve these question replace the symbols by numbers, and the constant
one replace it by number 1
Answer:
I = q/t (q=2, t=1)
I = 2/1 = 2 (it will increase to double)

To (v) when (q) decreased to half and (w) is constant

Answer:
V = w/q (q=0.5, w=1)
V= 1/0.5 = 2 (it will increase to double)

Note:
By increasing the resistance; the current intensity and the potential difference
will decrease
5th Give reason:
1. The e.m.f. in series connection is greater than in parallel connection?
 Bec. In series connection total e.m.f. = sum e.m.f. of each cell,
But in parallel connection total e.m.f. = e.m.f. one cell.
2. The electric energy is the cleanest source of energy?
 Bec. It does not pollute the environment.
3. It is better to use the alternating current rather than the direct current?
 Bec. A.C. can be transmitted for a long distance and can be changed into D.C.
4. Electric current produced from electric generators is used in lighting and
operating electric appliances?
 Bec. The alternating current can be transmitted for a long distance.
5. The ammeter is connected in series in the electric circuit?
To measure the current intensity
6. The voltmeter is connected across the two ends of a conductor?
To measure the potential difference
7. The voltmeter is connected across the two poles of a battery?
 To measure the e.m.f of the battery
8. The rheostat is connected in series in an electric circuit.
 To control the current intensity and the potential difference in the circuit
9. When the current intensity increases, the potential difference increases?
Because there is a direct relation between them
10. The electric charges transform from a conductor to another?
Due to the potential difference between them

What happens when:

1. Two charged conductors are connected together?
The electric current will transfer from the conductor of high potential to the
conductor of low potential
2. Two charged conductors having same potential are connected together?
No electric current will pass
 Radioactivity and nuclear energy
Nuclear binding It is the force that binds the nucleus components together, and overcome
force the repulsion force between the positive protons
Radioactivity It is the spontaneous decay of the nucleus of the atom of some
phenomenon radioactive elements to be more stable
Radioactive They are the elements which their nucleus contains number of neutrons
elements more than the number required for its stability
Artificial It is the radiation released from the nuclear reactions or nuclear bombs
radioactivity
Nuclear reactor Its radiation can be controlled and it is used in safe uses
Nuclear bomb Its radiation can’t be controlled and it is used in military uses
Radiation It is the increase of amount of radiation in environment
pollution
isotopes They are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons

What are the sources of radiation:

1. Natural sources:
a. Radioactive elements (on earth’s surface)
b. Cosmic radiation (from the space)
2. Artificial sources:
a. Nuclear reactors
b. Nuclear bombs

The peaceful uses of the nuclear energy:

1. Medical field: treatment of diseases like cancer
2. Agricultural field: kill pests and improve the plant races
3. Industrial field: convert sand to silicon that is used in manufacturing of
computer processors
4. Electricity generating field: used to heat the water to produce steam,
and the steam used to operate turbines and generate electricity
5. Space exploration field: the radioactive materials are used as a nuclear
fuel for the rockets
6. Drilling field: for drilling of petroleum and underground water
The effect of radiation due to the exposure of large dosage for short time
(day or less):

It causes damage of:

1. Spleen
2. digestive system
3. central nervous system
4. Bone marrow which is responsible for formation of red blood cells, so it
causes decrease in the number of red blood cells (The first effect)

The effect of radiation due to the exposure of small dosage for long time
(months or year):

1. Physical effect: changes appear on a living being as skin cancer

2. Genetic effect: change in composition of chromosome causing abnormal birth
3. Cellular effect: changes in the cell composition that destroy the cell, as
changing the composition of hemoglobin that make it unable to carry oxygen

Examples on radioactive elements:

Uranium, cesium, radium, rubidium, selenium, polonium, zirconium
 The measuring unit of absorbed radiation is Rem
 The maximum safe dosage mustn’t exceed 5 rem/day

Chernobyl accident:
 It is explosion occurred in Russian reactor as a result of an error in operation
 It occurs in 26th April 1986
 The nuclear explosion released many radioactive elements causing atomic cloud
 After month, rain fell and carried the radioactive elements to the soil causing
pollution for the soil and plants
 The milk and meat of cows and sheep that ate these plants were also polluted
 The elements that were found in the polluted food are iodine and cesium
isotopes (that were produced from decay of uranium)
Ways of protection from radiation:
1- Avoid exposure to radiation. The maximum dose of radiation is 5 rem daily.
2- The workers with radioactive elements should wear protective gloves, suits
& masks
3- Radioactive wastes should be stored away from underground water
resources to prevent their pollution.
4- Radioactive wastes are stored away from lands & caves to prevent the
pollution from reaching animals.
5- Radioactive wastes are stored in a stable (steady) area away from volcanoes
& earthquakes, to prevent the spreading of radioactive wastes by the effect
of volcanoes and earthquakes
6- Nuclear wastes are buried deeply in the ground and covered with a cement
layer
7- Issue laws for nuclear stations to cool the hot water before throwing in seas

Give reason:
1. The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus?
Because the mass of the electrons is very small can be neglected
2. The atom is electrically neutral?
Because the number of the positive protons inside the nucleus equal to the
number of the negative electrons around it
3. Although there is a repulsion force between the protons, but the nucleus
is stable?
Due to the presence of the nuclear binding force of the neutrons
4. Uranium is a radioactive element?
Because it has number of neutrons more than the number required to be
stable
5. The nucleus of the radioactive element is unstable?
Because it has number of neutrons more than the number required to be
stable, so it emits radiation to get rid of the excess energy to be stable
 Unit 3 & 4
1st Definitions:
Hereditary traits Traits that are transmitted from one generation to another
Acquired traits Traits that aren’t transmitted from one generation to another
Dominant trait Trait that appears on the individuals of the first generation
Recessive trait Trait that disappears on the individuals of the first generation
Pure individual The individual that carries similar pair of genes; either pure
dominant or pure recessive
Hybrid individual The individual that carries different pair of genes; one is
dominant and other recessive; the dominant only appear
Genetics The science that study the transmission of hereditary traits
from one generation to another; by studying the similarities
and difference between parents and offspring
Genes They are parts of DNA that are responsible for the appearing
of the hereditary traits on the individual
Gametes The cells by which the hereditary traits are transmitted from
the parents to individuals
The principle of When two pure individuals carrying contrasting traits are
complete dominance crossed; the dominant trait only appears on the individuals of
the first generation
Mendel’s first law When two pure individuals carrying pair of contrasting traits
“law of segregation are crossed; the dominant trait only appears on the individuals
of factors” of the first generation, while the two traits appear in the
second generation by ratio 3(dominant):1(recessive)
Mendel’s second law When two pure individuals carrying pair or more of contrasting
“law of independent traits are crossed; the dominant trait only appears on the
assortment of individuals of the first generation, while the two traits appear in
hereditary factors” the second generation by ratio 3(dominant):1(recessive)
Human genome Genetic map that shows the complete set of genes that are
present on the human chromosomes
Hormone Chemical substance (message) that control all vital activities
Endocrine gland Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly in blood
Target cell The cells that hormone affect, and they are found away from
the endocrine gland
Hormone disorder Increase or decrease in secretion of hormone
 2nd various questions:
Write examples on hereditary and acquired traits
Hereditary as: Hair color, skin color, blood group, number of fingers
Acquired as: Playing football, swimming, walking, speaking many language
Why Mendel choose the pea plant in his experiment?
Because:
1. It is easy to be plant and grows fast
2. It has short life cycle
3. It is hermaphrodite (bisexual)
4. Can be self-pollinated and artificial pollinated also
5. It produces large number of plants in a generation
6. It has seven pairs of contrasting traits
The dominant and recessive traits of pea plant
Dominant trait Recessive trait
Yellow seed Green seed
Green pod Yellow pod
Red flower White flower
Side flower End flower
Tall stem Short stem
Smooth seed Wrinkled seed
Swollen pod Sinuous pod

The dominant and recessive traits in human

Dominant trait Recessive trait
Curly hair Smooth “straight” hair
Black hair Light color hair
Wide eyes Narrow eyes
Brown eyes Colored eyes
Free ear lobe Attached ear lobe
Ability to roll the tongue In ability to roll the tongue
Presence of dimples Absence of dimples
Absence of freckles Presence of freckles
What is the genotype and phenotype?
Genotype is the structure of the gene
Phenotype is the hereditary trait that appeared
Example:
 If genotype is RR; the phenotype is red
 If genotype is Rr; the phenotype is red
 If genotype is rr; the phenotype is white
What is the structure of the nucleus?
 The nucleus contains chromosomes
 The chromosome consists of nucleic acid (DNA) and protein
 The DNA consists of genes
 The genes consists of nucleotides
How the genes control the appearance of hereditary traits?
 The genes give enzymes
 The enzymes are responsible for chemical reaction to form protein
 The protein show the hereditary traits on the individuallls
Human genome:
 A project started in October 1990
 It aims to determine the human genes, and identifying the genes which are
responsible for some diseases like cancer and diabetes
 The project showed the similarity of the sequence of nucleotides in human is
more than 99% and the single difference in this sequence causes the
different traits like color of eyes and color of skin, height, and others
The malnutrition and the biotechnology:
The developed countries depend on rice in their food, and rice doesn’t contain
carotene (pro-vitamin A)
So they are affected by malnutrition (absence of vitamin A) causes losing their
sight
The biotechnology solved this problem by production of genetically modified rice
containing carotene
Mendel’s first law:
Mendel’s second law:

1st Pituitary gland:

Description: two small lobes in size pea seed
Location: below the brain
Importance:
1. It is called the main or master gland because it secretes hormones that
regulate the activities of all other endocrine glands
2. It activates the mammary glands to secrete milk during breast feeding
3. It secretes hormone to facilitate the delivery
4. It regulates the amount of water in the body
5. It secrete the growth hormone which controls the speed of the growth of the
body and determines the person height
Growth hormone disorder:
1. Increase in its secretion causes gigantism so the person becomes giant
2. Decrease in its secretion causes dwarfism so the person becomes dwarf
Note:
In the past the scientists tried to treat the dwarfism by injecting the dwarf
person by growth hormone extracted from dead corpses, but it wasn’t enough
But by injecting the growth hormone in DNA of bacterial cell then injecting it in
the dwarf person; the bacteria causes increasing in the growth hormone and
treatment the dwarfism
2nd Thyroid gland:
Description: two lobes linked together by a small part
Location: in front of the neck on both sides of trachea
Importance:
It secretes thyroxin and calcitonin hormones
 Calcitonin hormone: control the level of calcium in the blood
 Thyroxin hormone: food assimilation (librating energy from food)
Thyroxin hormone disorder:
 Increase in its secretion causes exophthalmic goiter (enlargement of thyroid
gland accompanied by loss of weight, tension and exophthalmoses
 Decrease in its secretion causes simple goiter (enlargement of thyroid gland
accompanied by gaining weight)
Note:
Food must contain iodine; because iodine enters in the structure of thyroxin
hormone, so the lack of iodine causes simple goiter

3rd Pancreas gland:

Location: between the stomach and the small intestine
Importance: it secretes two hormones “insulin and glucagon”
The name and the position of sugar in the body:
Sugar in the blood called glucose sugar
Sugar in the liver called glycogen
When the level of glucose sugar in the blood increases:
The pancreas gland secretes insulin hormone that converts the glucose sugar in
the blood into glycogen in the liver
When the level of glucose sugar in the blood decreases:
The pancreas secretes glucagon hormone that converts the glycogen in the liver
into glucose sugar in the blood
Diabetes:
It is a disease caused by the decrease in the secretion of insulin hormone
4th Two adrenal gland:
Location: on the top of the two kidneys
Importance: it secretes adrenalin hormone that stimulates the body organs to
respond to emergencies like fear, anger and emotions

5th reproductive glands:

Male Female
Gland Two testes glands Two ovaries glands
Hormone Testosterone hormone Estrogen and progesterone
hormones
Importance It is responsible for the Estrogen hormone:
appearance of the male It is responsible for the appearance
secondary sex of the female secondary sex
characteristics characteristics
Progesterone hormone:
It is responsible for the growth of
the endometrium “the lining of the
uterus”

Important scientists:
1. George Simon Ohm: discovered the law that shows the relation between
potential difference and current intensity “Ohm’s law”
2. Aly Mostafa Moshrafa: described by Einstein “one of the greatest
physicists in the world”, he has great theories in the field of atom and
radiation
3. Gregor Mendel: the first founder of heredity “genetics”
4. Johansen : introduced the terms “ genotype and Phenotype”
5. Watson and Crick: they made a model of DNA and it is composed of two
strands coiled around each other forming double helix shape
6. Badel and Tatum: they discovered how the genes control the appearance of
genetic traits, and they received nobel prize in 1958
 Give reason:
1. When you pollinate a pure long stem pea plant with a short stem pea plant,
it produces plants all are long stem.
 Bec. the long stem in the pea plant is dominant trait.
2. Mendel covers the stigmas of the pistils of pea flowers during studying the
character of seed’s colour.
 To avoid the pollination with another flower.
3. When a yellow pod pea plant is pollinated with a green pod pea plant, they
produce green pods.
 Bec. the yellow pod in the pea plant is dominant trait.
4. The separate ear lobe is dominant over the adhered ear lobe.
 Bec. the separate ear lobe is controlled by dominant gene, while the adhered ear
lobe is controlled by recessive gene.

5. The ability of bending the tongue is dominant trait in the human being.
 Bec. the bending of tongue is controlled by dominant gene, while the non
bending of tongue is controlled by recessive gene.

6. Pituitary gland is called the master gland.

 Because it secretes hormones that activities the other endocrine glands.
7. The height of some persons may reach less than a meter.
 Due to the decrease of growth hormones at the childhood.
8. The two adrenal glands have important role when man is exposed to
emergency.
 Bec. they secret Adrenalin that stimulates body’s organs to respond to
emergencies

9. Pancreas is a double function gland.

 Bec. it secretes the insulin and glucagon hormones; and they have two opposite
functions

10. Pancreas is a mixed gland.

 Bec. it helps in digestion, and secrets hormones to regulate the sugar.