THERMODYNAMICS

LAB MANUAL
Thermodynamics
Lab Manual

Fourth Edition

Shariq Khan, 2019

Georgian College
1 Georgian Drive
Barrie. ON
L4M 3X9

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
An In-Formal Lab 3

Lab #1: One-Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction Simulation 4

Lab #2: One-Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction Experiment 8

Lab #3: Steady State Radial Heat Conduction Experiment 11

Lab #4: Heat Convection 13

Lab #5: Two-Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction Simulation 17

Lab #6: One-Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction Simulation 24

Lab #7: Internal Combustion Engine 28

Lab #8: Refrigeration: Analysis 33

Lab #9: Air Conditioning: Analysis 37

2
 IN-FORMAL LAB

Writing a formal lab is an important skill, but so too is writing an informal lab. An informal
lab presents all relevant information to the reader on a single page. Writing such a lab
requires a number of skills, including:
- how to write concisely, and eliminate unnecessary content
- how to organize information in a clear and logical manner
- how and when to present information graphically
To this end, the first six lab reports in this course should be one page in length, single
sided. They should answer the questions asked in the ‘Exercises’ section of each lab, and
do so in an organized, concise and logical manner. The remaining labs require a data
sheet to be handed in at the end of the lab.
Please also note that reasonable decimal places in final answers, correct units,
appropriate titles and labelled axes in graphs are required.

Labs in this course can be done individually, or in a group of up to three people. When
labs are done in groups, the entire lab must be done together. You are not permitted to
each complete only part of the lab. That being said, this also means that if one of the
group members commits an act of academic misconduct, all the group members are
responsible, and subject to disciplinary action.

Please note that attendance and participation at the lab is mandatory in order to receive
a mark for the lab. Your work in the lab will be observed, if you do not put in sufficient
effort, you will be deemed not to have attended the lab. All labs are due the following lab
class, before the lab begins.

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 LAB #1
ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION
SIMULATION
PURPOSE: To become familiar with the capabilities of a spreadsheet by solving a one-
dimensional steady state heat conduction problem.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are very powerful tools that have been developed to solve engineering problems.
From programming languages, such as Fortran and C++, to complete design and analysis
packages, such as SolidWorks, Inventor, IDEAS, ANSYS and Uni-Graphics. One of the
more accessible and easy to use tools for engineers, though originally designed for
accountants, is a spreadsheet such as Excel.

The objective of the present lab is to solve a one-dimensional heat transfer problem using
a spreadsheet. It is hoped that this lab will not only demonstrate how useful this simple
tool can be, but also demonstrate the flexibility of spreadsheets and show how they can
reduce the time and energy required when doing repetitive calculations.

2.0 CALCULATIONS ON SPREADSHEETS

Instead of using letters to specify certain values, as is done in algebra, spreadsheets use
cell locations. Every cell has a designated alpha-numeric location. For example, ‘B6’ is the
cell located in the 6th row of column B.

Though spreadsheets typically have many math tools built into them, which can solve
simple trigonometry to complex goal searching operations, for this lab we will only be
using basic functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Thus, we will not
explore many of the other useful features of spreadsheets; this exercise is left to the
individual student.

The operators for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are, ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘*’, and ‘/’,
respectively. In addition, we will often use brackets () in our equations. Thus, if we wanted
to multiply two numbers, located at B2 and B3, we could simply write, ‘=B2*B3’ (note that
every equation must begin with either ‘=’ or ‘+’)

3.0 PROCEDURE

For demonstration purposes, we will solve an example from the workbook. Students will
be required to solve another example and print their solutions, along with answers to the
questions below, and hand it in to their instructor.

4
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10 mm contains water at 90ºC when the atmospheric
temperature is 15ºC. The thermal conductivity of mild steel (λ) is 50 W/mK, and the heat
transfer coefficients (A and B) for the inside and outside of the tank are 2800 W/m2K
and 11 W/m2K, respectively. Calculate:
i. the heat transfer per unit area;
ii. the temperature of the inside surface of the tank (T1);
iii. and the temperature of the outside surface of the tank (T2).

First, we solve for the heat flux, q̇ . The steps to solving this problem are as follows:
1) Read the example problem to be solved.

2) In the top left section of your spreadsheet (column A, starting from row 1) enter
the given variables, then enter the numeric values of these variables in column B,
for example:

A B C
1 x= 0.01 m
2 Ta = 90 °C
3 Tb = 15 °C
4 Lamda = 50 W/mK
5 AlphaA = 2800 W/m2K
6 AlphaB = 11 W/m2K
7
8

3) Calculate the resistances RA, R1, and RB. We know,

1 x 1
RA  , R1  , RB  ,
A  B
Note: when solving for heat flux and the area (A) is eliminated.

4) In Excel, these equations become,

A B C
1 x= 0.01 m
2 Ta = 90 °C
3 Tb = 15 °C
4 Lamda = 50 W/mK
5 AlphaA = 2800 W/m2K
6 AlphaB = 11 W/m2K
7 Ra = =1/B5 m2K/W
8 R1 = =B1/B4 m2K/W
9 Rb = =1/B6 m2K/W

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 5) Now we can solve for q̇ as follows,

TA  TB TA  TB
q  
RA  R1  RB 
.
R
Or in Excel,

A B C
1 x= 0.01 m
2 Ta = 90 °C
3 Tb = 15 °C
4 Lamda = 50 W/mK
5 AlphaA = 2800 W/m2K
6 AlphaB = 11 W/m2K
7 Ra = =1/B5 m2K/W
8 R1 = =B1/B4 m2K/W
9 Rb = =1/B6 m2K/W
10 sumR = =sum(B7:B9) m2K/W
11 qdot = =(B2-B3)/B10 W/m2

6) Next, from Newton’s Law of Cooling, we know that

T1  TA  RAq .
7) From Fourier’s Law of Conduction, we know that
T2  T1  R1q .
8) Entering these equations in the Excel sheet, we have

A B C
1 x= 0.01 m
2 Ta = 90 °C
3 Tb = 15 °C
4 Lamda = 50 W/mK
5 AlphaA = 2800 W/m2K
6 AlphaB = 11 W/m2K
7 Ra = =1/B5 m2K/W
8 R1 = =B1/B4 m2K/W
9 Rb = =1/B6 m2K/W
10 sumR = =sum(B7:B9) m2K/W
11 qdot = =(B2-B3)/B10 W/m2
12 T1 = =B2-B7*B11 °C
13 T2 = =B12-B8*B11 °C

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 9) Change some of the variables in the spreadsheet and observe the effect on the
tank inside and outside wall temperatures, for example, does increasing the
thermal conductivity of the tank wall, Lamda, increase or decrease the tank
outside temperature?

4.0 EXERCISES

1) Solve the example below using Excel. Present your solution in a clear and
aesthetic manner.
a. A furnace wall consists of 125 mm wide refractory brick (λ = 1.6 W/mK) and
125 mm wide insulating firebrick (λ = 0.3 W/mK). The two brick walls are
separated by an air gap (R = 0.18 m2K/W). The outside wall is covered with
12 mm thick plaster (λ = 0.14 W/mK). The inner surface of the wall (T1) is
1100ºC and the room temperature (TB) is 25ºC. The heat transfer
coefficient from the outside wall surface to the air in the room (αB) is 17
W/m2K.Find:
i. The heat flux, q̇ = Q̇ /A;
ii. the temperature at each interface (T2, T3, T4), and
iii. the temperature of the outside wall (T5).
2) Using your spreadsheet’s graphing function, graph the temperature profile
through the wall in the example.

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 LAB #2
ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION
EXPERIMENT
PURPOSE: To find the thermal conductivity (λ) of a material undergoing one-dimensional
steady state heat conduction.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Knowing the thermal conductivity of a material is important because it allows us to

understand how a material’s temperature will change based on external temperature
changes. In our current lab we will calculate the thermal conductivity of a given material
using, (1) the temperature drop across a bar and (2) an Excel simulation.

2.0 APPARATUS

1) TecQuipment TD1002A Linear Heat Conduction Experiment

2) Personal Computer with Microsoft Excel

3.0 PROCEDURE

TEST 1
1) Use the linear heat conduction experiment apparatus to apply one-dimensional
heat to a bar of a given material.
a. Ensure the insert used is the same material as the rest of the bar.
2) Apply 30W of heat to the bar, and record this.
3) Once the bar has reached stead state, record the temperature at the
thermocouple locations (there is a 20 mm distance between the thermocouples,
and the bar has a diameter of 30 mm).
4) Use Excel to plot Temperatures v. Location. Find the best-fit line and the slope of
this line using the Trendline function in Excel.
a. Use the thermal conductivity equation introduced in class:

AT1  T7 

Q  A(m) ,
x
where m is the slope of the best-fit line.

Isolating for λ, we get:


Q

A(m)

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TEST 2
1. Use the linear heat conduction experiment apparatus to apply one-dimensional
heat to a bar of a given material.
a. Use an insert of a different material.
2. Record the rate of heat being supplied to the bar.
3. Once the bar has reached stead state, record the temperature of the bar at the
thermocouple locations.
4. Calculate the thermal conductivity (λ) of the material in the insert.
a. In order to do this, we need the temperature at either side of the insert. We
recorded the temperatures at 40mm and 80mm, but these are not the
temperatures on either side of the insert. The insert, which his 20mm
thick, is located between 50mm and 70mm. How to we find these?
b. We can use the first three recorded temperatures, and Excel’s Trendline
function, to predict the temperature at 50mm (the left side of the insert).
c. We can use the last three recorded temperatures to predict the
temperature at 70mm (the right side of the insert material).
d. We can then calculate the thermal conductivity of the insert material from:
 x
Q

AT50mm  T70mm 

4.0 OBSERVATIONS

TEST1

Power supplied:

T1 (°C) T2 (°C) T3 (°C) T4 (°C) T5 (°C) T6 (°C) T7 (°C)

Temperatures
Distance from 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
T1 (mm)

TEST2

Power supplied:

T1 T2 T3 T50 T4 T70 T5 T6 T7
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)

Temperatures
Distance from 0 20 40 50 60 70 80 100 120
T1 (mm)

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5.0 EXERCISES
1. In a clear and organized manner, present the following on an Excel sheet from
Test 1:
a. the observations,
b. the graph (with the trendline),
c. the calculated slope,
d. and the calculated thermal conductivity of the bar.
Test 2:
a. the observations,
b. the equations of the trendlines,
c. the calculated temperatures at 50mm and 70mm,
d. and the thermal conductivity of the insert material.

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 LAB #3
RADIAL HEAT CONDUCTION EXPERIMENT
PURPOSE: To observe radial heat conduction, and compare the results with an equivalent
simulation.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is important to have confidence in the equations we use in heat transfer. In our current
lab we will observe radial heat transfer and compare our results to the theoretical values
by creating a simulation using equations introduced in class.

2.0 APPARATUS

1) TecQuipment TD1002B Radial Heat Conduction Experiment

2) Personal Computer with Microsoft Excel

3.0 PROCEDURE

1) Use the radial heat conduction apparatus to apply 50 W of heat to the sample.
2) Turn on the cooling water.
3) Once the sample has reached stead state, record the temperature at the
thermocouple locations (there is a 10 mm distance between the thermocouples).
a. Note, T1 will be on the inside, since the heat flows from the inside out.
4) Create an Excel simulation to calculate the same temperatures.
a. The material thermal conductivity (λ) is 100 W/mK
b. Use the thermal conductivity equation introduced in class:

  2lT1  T2 
Q
lnr2 r1 

c. Use T1 from your experimental results in your theoretical solution.

5) Compare and comment on the results.

4.0 OBSERVATIONS

Power supplied:
T1 (°C) T2 (°C) T3 (°C) T4 (°C) T5 (°C) T6 (°C) T7 (°C)
Measured
Temperatures
Calculated
Temperatures
Radius from
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
centre (mm)

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5.0 EXERCISES
1. Present your observations from the experiment, and the results of your Excel
simulation, in a table and a graph.
2. Calculate the differences between the experimental and calculated temperatures
and comment.

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 LAB #4
HEAT CONVECTION
PURPOSE: To become familiar with the concept of natural and forced convection by
calculating the heat transfer coefficient and heat flow rate from a cylinder.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The primary means of heat transfer in industrial heat exchangers, computer chip cooling,
automotive engine cooling, and many other applications, is by convection. Heat transfer
by convection is of two types, natural and forced. As convective heat transfer is not easily
quantified, equations predicting the heat transfer coefficient are typically formulated from
experimental data.

Equations to calculate the theoretical heat transfer coefficient, α, for natural and forced
convection from a cylinder are well known, and yet can still vary depending on the
application. The dimensionless heat transfer coefficient, Nusselt Number (Nu), can be
determined by other dimensionless numbers (Reynold’s Number (Re), Prandtl Number (Pr)
and the Rayleigh Number (Ra)).

In the present lab, the average heat transfer coefficient from a cylinder will be investigated
for natural and forced convection conditions.

CONVECTION
The rate of heat transfer, Q̇ in (W), natural or forced convection from a cylinder of a given
area, A in (m2), which has a uniform surface temperature, T1 in (°C), can be found by,

  AT1  TB  ,
Q
where TB is the temperature of the ambient air in (°C) and α is the heat transfer coefficient
between the cylinder and the air in (W/m2K).

We will find Q̇ in two ways. One, we will read the power that is being supplied to the heater
in W, this is the Q̇ value being supplied to the heater, and should closely match the heat
flowing from the cylinder to the air. Two, will calculate the heat transfer coefficient (α)
using the dimensionless numbers mentioned above, then calculate the rate of heat flow
(Q̇ ) using the equation above.

2.0 APPARATUS

The Hampden Model H-6856-CDL Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger

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3.0 PROCEDURE

NOTE: Do not allow the cylinder to exceed 110°C

NATURAL CONVECTION
1) Turn on the apparatus, setting the fan speed to zero and the heater power to 5 W.
2) Wait until the surface temperature of the cylinder stabilizes.
3) Record the surface temperature of the cylinder and he ambient air temperature.
4) Calculate the Rayleigh Number using the equation below. Remember to use air
properties (ρ, Pr, and μ) at the film temperature (Tf = (T1+TB)/2). Also, note that
the diameter of the cylinder (d) is 16 mm and β = 1/Tf (which must be in 1/K).

g2T1  TB d3
Ra  Pr
2

5) Calculate the Nusselt Number (Nu) using the equation below.

2
 0.387Ra1 6 
Nu   0.6  

 1  0.559 Pr   
9 / 16 8 / 27 

6) Calculate the heat transfer coefficient (α) using the equation below. Again,
remember to use thermal conductivity (λ) at the film temperature.

Nu

d

7) Calculate the heat flow from the cylinder (Q̇ ) using the equation below. Note, the
length of the cylinder is 100 mm.

  AT1  TB 
Q
8) Compare with the power being supplied to the cylinder.

FORCED CONVECTION

1) Turn on the apparatus, setting the fan speed to 50% and the heater power to 20
W.
2) Wait until the surface temperature of the cylinder stabilizes.
3) Record the surface temperature of the cylinder and he ambient air temperature.
4) Record the difference in the pitot tube manometer heights (Δh).
5) Convert the difference in the pitot tube manometer heights (Δh) from inches of
water to m of water using the conversation factor: 1 m = 39.37 inches.

14
6) Find the velocity of the air from the difference in the pitot tube manometer
heights using the equation below. Use room air temperature to find the densities.

v
2ghwater  air 
air

7) Calculate Reynold’s Number using the equation below. Remember to use air
properties (ρ, Pr, and μ) at the film temperature (Tf = (T1+TB)/2). Also, note that
the diameter of the cylinder (d) is 16 mm.

vd
Re 


8) Calculate the Nusselt Number (Nu) using the equation below.

Nu  0.193Re0.618 Pr 1 / 3

9) Calculate the heat transfer coefficient (α) using the equation below. Again,
remember to use thermal conductivity (λ) at the film temperature.

Nu

d

10) Calculate the heat flow from the cylinder (Q̇ ) using the equation below. Note, the
length of the cylinder is 100 mm.

  AT1  TB 
Q
11) Compare with the power being supplied to the cylinder.

15
4.0 OBSERVATIONS

Natural Convection Forced Convection

Fan Speed 0 Fan Speed 50%
Heater Power 5W Heater Power 20 W
T1 (°C) T1 (°C)
TB (°C) TB (°C)
Tf (°C) Tf (°C)
ρ ρ
μ μ
Pr Pr
λ λ
β (1/K) Δh (inches)
d (m) Δh (m)
l (m) v (m/s)
A (m2) A (m2)
Ra Re
Nu Nu
α (W/m2K) α (W/m2K)
Q̇ (W) Q̇ (W)

5.0 EXERCISES

1. Present all the calculations you did to find the heat flow rate, Q̇ . Use Word, and the
equation creator in Word, to present the above in a clear and concise manner.
2. Calculate the percentage difference between the power supplied to the heater, and
the Q̇ you calculated, for both natural and forced convection, comment.

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 LAB #5
TWO-DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION
SIMULATION
PURPOSE: To calculate the steady state temperature profile of a plate in which there is
heat transfer in two-dimensions.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the course lectures we only looked at heat transfer in one direction (one dimensional
heat transfer), with the exception of radial heat transfer which was two-dimensional heat
flow, but calculated as one-dimensional. With Excel, we have the capability to look at
heat flowing through objects in two directions.

In the present lab we will look at what the steady state thermal profile is of a plate that
has heat transfer in two directions.

To do this, we break down the object into smaller pieces (think bricks in a wall) and
analyze what is happening to each individual piece. In general, this method is known as
the FDM, or the Finite Difference Method. In general, the more pieces we use, the more
accurate our results.

2.0 PROCEDURE

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

A flat, rectangular, steel plate is 10 cm x 15 cm. One 10 cm edge is placed on a hot plate
and held at a constant 200ºC and an adjacent side has a block of ice (constant edge
temperature of 0ºC) placed next to it. The other two sides are fully insulated.
a) Determine the temperature profile of the plate.
b) Approximate the percentage of the plate that is hotter than 125ºC.

15 cm

T = 200°C 10 cm

T = 0°C
17
DRAWING THE OBJECT

For this example, we will stipulate that all of the smaller pieces are squares, i.e. height =
width. This simplifies our equations greatly.

What we need to do is calculate a square size that would fit equally in the object. If we
chose a 2cm x 2cm cell, it would not fit equally in the 15cm direction. If we select 1cm x
1cm we could have squares that fit equally.

Once we have determined our cell spacing, what we need to do is layout our object in
Excel. To do this, determine the number of cells you need in each direction, and draw the
object.

APPLY BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Boundary conditions are the known values that surround the plate. In our example
question, the boundary conditions would be a known temperature, or an insulated edge.

For a boundary condition of a fixed temperature, you would input the temperature in the
appropriate cells outside of our object.

For an insulated wall, we need to think about our heat transfer theory.

18
We know that heat transfer by conduction is governed by the following formula:

  A (T1  T2 )
Q
x

If something is perfectly insulated, we know that there is no heat flow, so Q̇ = 0. Since λ, A

and x are all fixed, the only way to have Q̇ = 0 is to have T1-T2 = 0. Or have T1 = T2. So we
set the outside cell equal to the inside cell, so the temperatures are the same.

CALCULATE THE TEMPERATURES

If we assume steady state, equal height, width, and thickness of each cell, and
homogeneous material (and therefore homogeneous thermal conductivity), we can
derive the equation to solve for the temperature of each individual cell during 2D
conduction. Your instructor will show you in class how we get:

Tup

Tleft  Tright  Tup  Tdown

Tleft T Tright T
4

Tdown

This equation essentially tells us that the temperature of any cell is the average
temperature of the surrounding cells.

Enter this formula into the top left cell on the plate. When you do this formula, you get a
circular references error.

19
To solve the problem of circular references, here is what we need to do:

In Excel 2016, go to:

Select <File (top left of screen)>, then <Options>.

Select the formulas tab and turn on iterative calculation. This forces Excel to use an
iterative method to find the answer.

Now enter the average temperature formula we derived earlier into the remaining cells.
You will see Excel iterate to solve for the temperatures in all the cells. Imagine doing
these thousands of calculations by hand.

A more accurate temperature profile can be calculated by decreasing the grid size, or
increasing the number of cells you use. Think about how you would decide what grid
spacing to use.

We can make the results qualitative by using ‘conditional formatting’. Select the data you
want coloured. Then under ‘conditional formatting’, choose colour scales, and pick a
colour scheme.

Another function of Excel can tell us what percentage of the plate is above a certain
temperature.

We can use an ‘if statement’ and ‘average’ to find the percent area of the plate with T >
125 ºC, for example. Let’s create a second bank of 10x15 cells directly below the plate we
have modelled. In the top left cell of our new plate, we will use an ‘if statement’. The ‘if
statement’ will determine if the temperature of the top left corner of the calculated plate
is greater than 125 ºC. If it is greater than 125 ºC, assign a value of 1, otherwise a value of
0.

20
Copy this formula so that it applies to all the cells. By taking an average of the 1s and 0s
we can calculate the percentage of the plate that is greater than 125 ºC.

We can also find the average plate temperature using the average function.

LAB ASSIGNMENT

Work in a group of up to 3. You will submit one lab report per group. All members should
solve the problem, then you can compare your results. Chances are, if you got the same
results, you’re all right (assuming you weren’t just copying off each other).
Once you have chosen your groups, see the instructor to be assigned an object.

Note: All the objects below have inside corners, which present a problem. There are not
enough cells adjacent to inside corners to apply the average equation as above. To solve
this problem, we have to use cells that are not adjacent to the inside corner. See the
example below on how to solve this problem.

In a corner, like this:

T1

T2 400 400 400

500

500
we would set up the Excel sheet as follows:

- To calculate T1, we need ‘400’ in the cell below it

- To calculate T2, we need ‘500’ in the cell to the right of it
- But the cell below T1, and to the right of T2, are the same cell

To solve this problem, we have to use an alternate cell to solve for T2, as follows:

The boundary condition temperature data for T2 (whether a constant

T1 temperature, as in the example, or insulation) would have to be
T2 400 400 400
entered in an alternative cell. The equation to solve for T2 would also
have to be modified to include the alternate cell being used.
500 500

500

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3.0 EXERCISES

1) Set up and solve for the temperature profile of the object assigned to you. Present
your results in a clear and aesthetic manner.
2) Using functions in Excel, calculate:
a. The average temperature of the object.
b. The percentage of your object that is cooler than 150 ºC.

4.0 OBJECTS (THICK LINES INDICATE INSULATION)

OBJECT 1

250˚C

1.0 cm 400˚C
0.4 0.5
cm cm
1.6 cm
1.3
0.8 cm
cm
1.9 cm

60˚C

OBJECT 2
50˚C

0.2 cm 0.3 cm

0.4 cm 0.7 cm
1.6 cm

600˚C

1.3 cm

22
OBJECT 3
25˚C

0.4 cm 0.7 cm

0.4 cm
1.7 cm
400˚C

0.9 cm 500˚C

0.8 cm
OBJECT 4
0˚C

0.6 cm
0.6 cm

1.4 cm
0.7 cm

25˚C 1.1 cm
140˚C
0.3 cm 600˚C
0.3 cm
1.0 cm

OBJECT 5
1.2 cm
15˚C
0.3 cm 0.5 cm

400˚C 0.5 cm
600˚C

0.9 cm

1.1 cm

1.8 cm

23
 LAB #6
ONE-DIMENSIONAL TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
SIMULATION
1.0 INTRODUCTION

In class we did calculations of heat transfer at steady state. At steady state we have
temperature conditions that do not change, which means that our rate of heat transfer in
and out remains constant. In this lab, we introduce the concept of doing calculations
based on temperatures and heat transfer rates that change over time.

2.0 PROCEDURE

EXAMPLE
Say we have a square steel rod initially at a temperature of 20ºC. It is insulated along all
sides. What happens when we set one end next to an object maintained at 800ºC? We
want to know how the temperature of the rod changes over time. We also want to know
how long it takes for the end of the rod to reach 400ºC.

The square rod is 0.1m x 0.1m and is 1m long.

Specific Heat, Cp = 419 J/kgK

Thermal Conductivity, λ= 46.73 W/mK
Density, ρ = 7850 kg/m3

We will set up an Excel spreadsheet similar to what we did in Lab #5. We will break the
rod up into several smaller pieces. In this case, we will break the rod up into 1o pieces and
each cell will show the average temperature for a section of the rod.

In order to calculate the temperature, we need to make use of our heat conduction
equations and a new concept called specific heat, or Cp. Cp is a measure of how much
thermal energy (Q) is required to change one kilogram (m) of a material by one degree
(ΔT). The definition of Cp yields:
Q
Cp 
mT
Changing the equation into rate of heat transfer, and isolating for Q̇ yields:
  mCpT
Q
t
Where
Q̇ = rate of heat flow (W)
m = mass of object (kg)
Cp = specific heat capacity (J/kgK)
ΔT = temperature change (K)
Δt = time step (s)

24
If we set up our Excel sheet as follows, we need an equation to solve for TC, given Told, TL
and TR.

t = 0s
Told
t = 10s
TL TC TR

If heat is conducted through the rod from left to right, we have two conduction
equations:
Q IN  A (TL  TC )
x
 OUT  A (TC  TR )
Q
x

The Cp equation describes the change in temperature of the cell due to the difference in
Q̇ IN – Q̇ OUT.
 mCp(TC  TOLD )
Q NET 
t
where, Q̇ NET = Q̇ IN - Q̇ OUT

If we combine these equations and solve for TC we get:

mCp A
(TOLD )  (TL  TR )
TC  time x
mCp 2A

time x
mCp λA
To simplify, we let Y = , and Z = , then the equation becomes:
∆t x

Y(TOLD )  Z(TL  TR )
TC 
Y  2Z
We can now use this equation to solve for the temperature profile in the rod over time.
We can also find when the end of the rod reaches 400°C.

LAB ASSIGNMENT

Work in a group of up to 3. You will submit one lab report per group. All members should
solve the problem, then you can compare your results. Chances are, if you got the same
results, you’re all right (assuming you weren’t just copying off each other).
Once you’ve chosen your groups, see the instructor and an object will be assigned to you.

25
3.0 EXERCISES

1. On a graph, plot the temperature profile of the rod (T vs time) for t = 0-30 minutes.
2. How long it will take for the end of the rod to reach:
a) 300ºC?
b) 400ºC?

4.0 OBJECTS

OBJECT 1
Rectangular aluminum rod initially at 20ºC, it is insulated along all sides. One end
maintained at 800ºC.
The rectangular rod is 0.04 m x 0.01 m and is 2 m long.
Cp = 900 J/kgK
λ = 237 W/mK
ρ = 2702 kg/m3
Use 10 elements, so x = 0.2 m, and Δt = 5 s

OBJECT 2
Circular gold rod initially at 20ºC, it is insulated along all sides. One end next to an object
maintained at 800ºC.
The circular rod has a diameter of 0.08 m and is 1.4 m long.
Cp = 129 J/kgK
λ = 317 W/mK
ρ = 19300 kg/m3
Use 10 elements, so x = 0.14 m and Δt = 5 s

OBJECT 3
Rectangular copper rod initially at 20ºC, it is insulated along all sides. One end next to an
object maintained at 800ºC.
The rectangular rod is 0.1 m x 0.2 m and is 1 m long.
Cp = 385 J/kgK
λ = 401 W/mK
ρ = 8933 kg/m3
Use 10 elements, so x = 0.1 m and Δt = 5 s

OBJECT 4
An Aluminum L-shaped bracket initially at 20ºC, it is insulated along all sides. One end
next to an object maintained at 800ºC.
The L-shaped has the following dimensions and is 2 m long.
Cp = 902 J/kgK
λ = 237 W/mK
0.05 m
ρ = 2702 kg/m3
Use 10 elements, so x = 0.2 m and Δt = 5 s
0.15 m 0.05 m

26
0.1 m
OBJECT 5
Copper pipe initially at 20ºC, it is insulated along all sides. One end next to an object
maintained at 800ºC. The pipe has an inside diameter of 0.126 m and an outside
diameter of 0.14 m and is 1.6 m long.

Cp = 386 J/kgK
λ = 401 W/mK
ρ = 8933 kg/m3
Use 10 elements, so x = 0.16 m and Δt = 5 s

Note: If you set up your Excel sheet correctly, you should be able to solve all of these by
simply changing the given values in the example problem.

27
 LAB #7
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
PURPOSE: To become familiar with the form and function of a four stroke internal
combustion engine by observing its operation.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The internal-combustion engine is a device in which chemical energy is converted to

mechanical energy by the burning of a mixture of fuel and air. The combustion of the
mixture creates hot gases that push against one or more pistons. Each piston is connected
to an output shaft. This shaft rotates, transferring the mechanical energy to another
location to perform useful work. Internal-combustion engines include gas-turbine, diesel,
and both piston-type and rotary gasoline engines.

Nearly all automobiles, lawn mowers, motorcycles, motor scooters, snowmobiles, and
small tractors have gasoline engines, as do many trucks, buses, airplanes, and small boats.
Gasoline engines may also be used as portable power plants.

Internal combustion engines most commonly run on a four stroke cycle. The four strokes
are: intake, compression, combustion and exhaust. During the intake stroke, the intake
valve opens and the piston moves down in the cylinder pulling in a fresh air-fuel mixture
charge. Subsequently the intake valve closes and the piston moves up compressing the air-
fuel mixture. During the combustion stroke, or power stroke, the spark plug ignites the air-
fuel charge causing it to heat and expand rapidly, thereby forcing the cylinder down.
Finally, in the exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the cylinder moves up expelling
the used gases. The various parts of the internal combustion gasoline engine are described
below.

The cylinder block is a rigid frame that holds the cylinders in proper alignment. If the engine
is liquid cooled, the block is jacketed, or has passages for the liquid around each cylinder.
In automotive engines, the cylinder block and crankcase form a single unit. Most cylinder
blocks are made of cast iron or aluminum.

The cylinders are rigid tubes that serve as bearings for the pistons that move up and down
inside them. They have highly polished surfaces. This permits a close fit between piston
and cylinder and prevents gases from leaking past the piston. The cylinders in most
automobile engines are part of the block. Some engines have a cylinder sleeve made of
especially hardened steel or cast iron pressed into the block.

The cylinder head is a casting bolted to the top of the cylinder block. The cylinder head,
together with the upper end of the cylinder and the top of the piston, form the combustion
chamber where the fuel-air mixture burns. In most cases, it also holds the camshaft, the
valves, the spark plug, the intake and exhaust ports, and the fuel injectors.

28
The crankcase is a rigid frame that holds the crankshaft and the crankshaft bearings. In
small engines, all or part of the crankcase may be a part of the cylinder block.

When the fuel-air mixture combusts, the expanding gases exert a force on the piston. This
force is then transmitted through a connecting rod to the crankshaft. The piston has two
to six rings to prevent the gases from escaping past the piston and to keep lubricating oil
from getting into the combustion chamber.

The crankshaft translates the reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The
crankshaft has a number of cranks. In multi-cylinder engines, these cranks are displaced at
angles to each other. For example, in a six-cylinder the cranks are displaced at 120° angles
to each other. As a result, the engine delivers three equally spaced power strokes in each
revolution of the crankshaft to assure smooth operation.

In a four-stroke engine, each cylinder has one or two intake valves, to let the air-fuel
mixture into the combustion chamber, and one or two exhaust valves, to let the burned
gases escape. The opening in the cylinder block or head uncovered by the valve is called
the port.

The camshaft runs the length of the engine and has one cam (lobe) at each intake and
exhaust valve. The cams open and close the valves at the proper point in the engine cycle.
The camshaft is geared to the crankshaft so that it runs at half the crankshaft's speed. The
camshaft may be in the head of an overhead valve engine, or in the crankcase. When the
camshaft is in the crankcase, connecting rods and rocker arms are employed to convert the
camshaft profile into vertical motion opening and closing the valves.

The burning fuel-air mixture in a cylinder produces gas temperatures of about 2500 °C.
Therefore, the metal parts of the engine must be cooled. Most automotive gasoline
engines are liquid cooled. A liquid, usually water, is circulated around the cylinders to cool
the metal. The heated liquid is then pumped through a radiator. A fan driven by the engine
or by an electric motor draws air through the radiator to cool the liquid. Most aircraft
gasoline engines and some motorcycle and automotive engines are air cooled. Air is not as
effective a coolant as liquids, so air cooled cylinder blocks sometimes have metal fins.
These fins conduct heat out of the cylinder and offer a large surface area for the air to
sweep over.

The flywheel stores energy during a piston's power stroke and releases it during other
strokes. This helps turn the crankshaft at a constant speed.

The fuel system includes (1) a storage tank for gasoline, (2) fuel lines to carry the gasoline
to the carburetor, (3) a carburetor to mix the gasoline with air, (4) an intake manifold to
distribute the fuel-air mixture to the cylinders, (5) a needle valve to control the amount of
fuel in the air-fuel ratio, and (6) a throttle to control the amount of air in the air-fuel ratio.
Some gasoline engines have a fuel injection system instead of a carburetor. Fuel injection
controls and distributes the fuel-air mixture better than a carburetor does. It can improve
fuel economy and reduce exhaust emissions.

29
The air-fuel ratio is the ratio of the fuel to air in the air-fuel mixture. This ratio has an effect
on engine performance and the heat of the combustion flame. An air-fuel ratio with excess
fuel is called a rich mixture, whereas an air-fuel ratio with excess air is called a lean mixture.

The exhaust system consists of one or more parts. It may include (1) an exhaust manifold
to collect the burned gases from the cylinders, (2) an exhaust pipe to carry the burned
gases, and (3) a muffler to silence the noise of the exhaust gases.

The ignition system is the electrical circuit necessary to set fire to, or ignite, the fuel-air
mixture in the cylinders. In an automobile a storage battery provides electric current, which
is increased in voltage by an induction coil. The high-voltage current is carried through a
distributor, which delivers the electricity to each cylinder just before the piston reaches the
top of the compression stroke. There the electric current jumps a gap between two
terminals and sets fire to the gasoline-air mixture. The terminals are encased in insulating
material and called a spark plug.

The lubrication system provides oil as a film between the moving parts of the engine to
prevent wear from friction and to keep the engine cool.

2.0 APPARATUS

1) MegaTech Corporation Mark III Single Cylinder Engine

2) MegaTech Corporation Model DG1 Electric Dynamometer and Generator

3.0 PROCEDURE

STARTING THE ENGINE

1) Turn dynamometer switch to GEN position
2) Connect air supply at 15 psi
3) Open fuel needle valve 7/8 to 1 ½ turns
4) Open fuel inlet valve on rotameter 9 ¼ turns
5) Turn field reversing switch to +
6) Turn load adjust knob fully clockwise
7) Connect battery charger (power light should come on)
8) Fully open throttle valve
9) Ensure timing lever is set to ¾ position
10) Turn ignition switch on
11) Turn load range switch to HIGH
12) Turn dynamometer switch to START position, as soon as engine turns, move load
adjust knob back to 70%
13) If no fuel on the cylinder walls, put finger over the carburetor inlet for 1 second
14) As soon as engine starts to run flip dynamometer switch to GEN position, turn
field reverse switch to OFF and turn load adjust knob fully counter-clockwise
15) Adjust needle valve and throttle to obtain smooth operation

30
TEST 1: MEASURING POWER OUT
1) Let the engine warm for one minute
2) Set throttle to ¾ open
3) Turn load range switch to HIGH
4) Turn load adjust knob to 20%
5) Turn field reverse switch to +
6) Fully open throttle
7) Turn dynamometer switch to load
8) Vary load adjust knob
9) Observe and record:
a. Torque (T)
b. Engine speed (N)
c. Dynamometer voltage (VD)
d. Dynamometer current (ID)

TEST 2: OBSERVING FLAME COLOUR

1) Adjust throttle to ¾ open
2) Adjust needle valve to give a lean mixture
3) Observe and record:
a. The flame colour
4) Adjust needle valve to give a rich mixture
5) Repeat step 3
6) If desired, experiment with the water injection and repeat step 3

SHUTTING DOWN
1) Run engine at low load and no load for a short time
2) Close needle valve
3) Disconnect air as soon as engine turns off
4) Turn ignition switch off
5) Disconnect power

4.0 OBSERVATIONS

LOAD TORQUE RPM VOLTS CURRENT

(%) (NM) (N) (VD) (ID)

31
5.0 EXERCISES

1. Label the diagram below:

a. Cylinder block
b. Cylinder
c. Cylinder head
d. Crankcase
e. Crankshaft
f. Valves
g. Spark Plug
h. Piston

2. Draw the internal combustion engine cycle on a P-v diagram below:

32
 LAB #8
REFRIGERATION: ANALYSIS

PURPOSE: To observe, become familiar with, and analyze a simple refrigeration cycle.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Heat engines in Thermodynamics are of two types, the power cycle (such as an internal
combustion engine), and the refrigeration cycle. Both are depicted below:

Power Cycle Refrigeration Cycle

The refrigeration cycle uses a work input to move heat in the opposite to natural
direction. Naturally, heat moves from an area of higher temperature to an area of lower
temperature. The refrigeration cycle move heat from an area of lower temperature to an
area of higher temperature. A simple refrigeration cycle is depicted below:

Heat Out

3 2
T
H

Condenser
Throttle Work In
Compressor

Evaporator

4 T 1
C

Heat In

33
2.0 APPARATUS

In our lab, we will be using Armfield’s Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Unit (RA1-MKII).

Data from the unit will be displayed on a diagram as follows. The diagram is rotated with
respect to the diagrams above, but the indicated points 1-4 correspond with the previous.

3.0 PROCEDURE

Observe the apparatus, touching the various locations where temperature changes
should occur, such as before and after the expansion valve. You will see that it is
functioning based on the theory presented. You may also wish to fill in the relevant values
(dark borders) in the diagram above with your observations of the apparatus.

In order to analyze the system, we need to understand COP, or Coefficient of

Performance. COP is the ratio of the amount of thermal energy that is being removed
from the area of lower temperature (Q̇ in ), divided by the amount of power being supplied
to the compressor (Ẇ in ), or,

Q̇ in
COP=
Ẇ in

Our task is to calculate the COP of the apparatus in our lab.

34
4.0 OBSERVATIONS

1. Find the pressure at point 4

The apparatus software lists the temperature at point 4, but it does not list the
pressure. Looking at the P-V diagram given in the lab, above, determine what
region of diagram contains points 1-4.
(Regions on a P-V diagram: compressed liquid, wet vapour, superheated gas)

Point 1 Region:___________________

Point 2 Region:___________________

Point 3 Region:___________________

Point 4 Region:___________________

Given the region and temperature of point 4, use your steam tables and find the
pressure at point 4. The apparatus uses R134a, so make sure you use the correct
table. You may have to interpolate.

P4=__________ ( )

2. Find Q̇ in
We’ll use the heat transfer out of the water in the evaporator to confirm the value
for Q̇ in given by the apparatus software.

Record the following for the water entering and exiting the evaporator:

Tin = __________ Tout = __________

Flow rate of the water in (l/min) =__________

𝑙 1 𝑚3 1000 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
ṁ = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 =__________ (kg/s)
1000 𝑙 𝑚3 60 𝑠

Cp (for water) = 4187 J/kgK

Q̇ out (of the water) = ṁ Cp(Tout – Tin) = __________

Q̇ in = -Q̇ out = __________ ( )

3. Find COP
Given Ẇ in from the apparatus software, calculate COP using:

Q̇
COP= Ẇ in = __________
in

35
4. Find degree of superheat
In class, we talked about the fact that steam entering and exiting the compressor
must be superheated. Determine the degree of superheat of points 1 and 2
(before and after the compressor) using your steam tables. Again, make sure you
use the R134a tables.

Point 1
From the apparatus, record the pressure at point 1.

P=__________

From your steam tables, calculate the saturation temperature at the above
pressure. Again, you may need to interpolate.

Ts=_________

From the apparatus, record the temperature at point 1.

T=__________

Calculate superheat using SH = T – Ts SH1=________

Point 2
From the apparatus, record the pressure at point 2.

P=__________

From your steam tables, calculate the saturation temperature

at the above pressure. Again, you may need to interpolate.

Ts=_________

From the apparatus, record the temperature at point 2.

T=__________

Calculate superheat using SH = T – Ts SH2=________

36
 LAB #9
AIR CONDITIONING: ANALYSIS
PURPOSE: To observe, become familiar with, and analyze a simple air conditioning cycle.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As we saw in our last lab, the refrigeration cycle is a type of heat engine in
Thermodynamics. The refrigeration cycle is also used in air conditioning systems. In this
lab we will analyze such a system.

2.0 APPARATUS

1) The Hilton Recirculating Air Conditioning unit A770 using R-134a refrigerant
(depicted in Figure 10.1 above).

3.0 PROCEDURE

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
1) Set damper to fully open
2) Ensure all the switches are off
3) Record the height of the intake orifice manometer (mm of H2O)
4) Turn fan speed controller to 90
5) Switch on main power supply, the following should turn on:
a. The internal fan
b. The mains warning lamp
c. The voltmeter
d. The temperature indicator
6) The ammeter switches are biased, when pressed the ammeter will indicate the
current passing through the component adjacent to the switch
7) WARNING: NO MORE THAN ONE SWITCH SHOULD BE PRESSED AT ONE TIME,
THIS CAN BLOW THE FUSE AND RENDER THE APPARATUS INOPERABLE
8) Turn on the refrigeration unit
9) Wait for system to stabilize
10) Record the power input (Ẇ in = V x I) into the system (W)
11) Record the temperature of the air before (T1), and after (T2), the evaporator (°C)
12) Record the height of the intake orifice manometer, and calculate the difference in
the heights before the fan was turned on and afterwards (mm of H2O)
13) Find and record the specific volume (v) and specific heat at constant pressure (cp)
of the air at its film temperature
14) Calculate the mass flow rate of the air using the equation:
mm of H2O
ṁ =0.0757√
v
15) Calculate q, the specific heat removed from the air (J/kg) using the equation:

37
 q = h2 – h1 = cp(T2 – T1)
16) Calculate Q̇ , the rate of heat removal from the air (W) using the equation:
Q̇ = qṁ
17) Calculate the COP using the equation:
Q̇
COP = Ẇ in
in
SHUT DOWN
1) Switch off the refrigeration unit
2) Shut main power
3) Unplug the apparatus

38
4.0 OBSERVATIONS

Input Volts (V)

Input Amps (I)

Power In (Ẇ in)

Definition Value
Air temperature before the
T1
evaporator (°C)
Air temperature after the
T2
evaporator (°C)
mm Height of orifice manometer
H20 after fan is on – before fan is on
Specific volume of air at film
v
temperature
Specific heat capacity of air at
cp
film temperature
mm of H2O
ṁ Mass flow, ṁ =0.0757√ v
Specific heat flow
q
q = cp(T2 – T1)
Rate of heat removal
Q̇ in
Q̇ = qṁ
Q̇
COP Coeff of Perform, COP = Ẇ in
in

39