EMC 201 – Measurement and

instrumentation

Source: Wheeler
7.0 Signal conditioning
Outcomes:
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain general aspects signal amplification and filtering
2. List the characteristics of a ideal operational amplifier
3. Derive equations for output voltages for various
configurations of op-amp circuits
4. Compute attenuation gain from an attenuating circuit
5. Evaluate performance of simple RC filters
7.1 Electrical signal measurement
systems
• Most of the modern sensors/transducers have
an electrical output

• That means, the electrical output property of

the sensors/transducers is caused to change
by the measurand, either directly or in directly
• Electrical measurements often come down to
either
(i) measuring current or,
(ii) measuring voltage.

• Even if measuring frequency, you will be

measuring the frequency of a current signal or
a voltage signal
• The advantages of the electrical output sensing
devices over mechanical devices:

1. Ease of transmitting the signal from measurement

point to the data collection point

2. Ease of manipulating / conditioning such as

amplifying, filtering or otherwise modifying the
signal, possible in minimizing friction, inertial &
structural flexibility requirement

3. Ease of recording, processing, displaying, controlling

and so forth as electrical measurement systems are
connectable to most electronic equipment
• The subsystem of the electrical signal
measuring system are readily identified and
are frequently supplied as separated
components

Figure 3.1 Stages in electrical signal measuring system.

• Sensor – a device that produces an output in
response to a measurand (usually electrical
signal)

• Transducer – normally includes two stages,

1. Senses a physical but nonelectrical change
2. Then covert the physical change into an electrical
signal

• Sensor is a transducer but the transducer may

not be a sensor as it is a device that changes or
converts information in the measurement
process.
• Electrical output transducers are able to
measure (but not limited to)
– Displacement – Heat flux
– Linear velocity – Neutron flux
– Angular velocity – Humidity
– Acceleration – Fluid flow rate
– Force – Light intensity
– Pressure – Chemical
– Temperature characteristics and
chemical composition
7.2 Signal conditioners
• Common functions of the signal-conditioning
stage
– Amplification
– Attenuation
– Filtering (highpass, lowpass, bandpass or bandstop
– Differentiation
– Integration
– Linearization combining a measured signal with a reference
signal
– Converting a resistance to a voltage signal
– Converting a current signal to a voltage signal
– Converting a voltage signal to a current signal
– Converting a frequency signal to a voltage signal
http://www.ni.com/signalconditioning/whatis.htm
7.2 Signal conditioners

Figure 4.1 Computerized data-acquisition system. Source: Wheeler

7.2.1 General characteristics of signal
amplification
• Many transducers produce signals with low
voltages – mili- or microvolt range
• Signals difficult to be transmitted over a wire
with great length – signal loss and noise
• Difficult to be manipulated by devices –
common order of 1 to 10 V
• Amplifier is an electronic device that increases
the amplitude of a signal.
Figure 3.2 Generic voltage amplifier.
Electronic Amplification or Gain
• The ratio of output to input for an electronic
signal-conditioning device is referred to variously
as gain, amplification ratio (if greater than unity),
or attenuation (if less than unity).

• It can be expresses as:

Voltage gain = voltage output/voltage input
Current gain = current output/current input
Power gain = power output/power input
Electronic Amplification or Gain

• Another way of expressing power gain

• 1 bel = 10 × decibel
• For a pure resistance, electric power:

Thus,

or
Amplification calculations based on the decibel
offer two important advantages:

1. reasonably small numbers are involved

2. combining the effects of various stages of a

system may be accomplished by simple
addition.
• Most amplifiers do not have the same value
of gain for all frequencies

• Example: an amplifier might have a gain of

20dB at 10kHz and a gain of only 5dB at
100kHz

• Typically, the gain will have relatively constant

value over a wide range of frequencies;
however, at extreme frequencies, the gain will
be reduced (attenuated)
• The range of frequencies with close constant
gain is known as the bandwidth

• The upper and lower frequencies defining the

bandwidth, called corner or cutoff
frequencies

• Corner or cutoff frequencies are the

frequencies where the gain is reduced by 3dB.
 -3dB

cutoff frequencies cutoff frequencies

Figure 3.3 Amplifier frequency response.

• Amplifier can affect the signal in
– Frequency distortion
– Phase distortion
– Common mode effect
– Source loading
Frequency distortion
• Amplifier with a narrow bandwidth will
change the shape of an input time-varying
signal by an effect known as frequency
distortion

Figure 3.4 Frequency distortion of a square wave

due to high-frequency attenuation.
• In most case, φ is negative and the output will
trail the input waveform

Figure 3.5 Effect of phase angle on signal.

Figure 3.6 Typical phase-angle response of amplifier.
• Bode diagram of dynamic system such as an
amplifier

Figure 3.3 Amplifier frequency Figure 3.6 Typical phase-angle

response. response of amplifier.

Bode plots are a very useful way to represent the gain and
phase of a system as a function of frequency. This is referred
to as the frequency domain behaviour of a system.
• Phase shift is usually not a problem for pure
sinusoidal waveforms

• However, for complicated periodic waveform,

(e.g. sum of various waveforms) it may result
in a problem called phase distortion.

• If the phase shift varies with frequency, the

amplifier can distort the shape of the
waveform.
Figure 3.7 Effect on signal of linear
and nonlinear phase-angle variation
with frequency: (a) original signal; (b)
phase angle varies linearly with
frequency; (c) phase angle varies
nonlinearly with frequency.
Common mode effect
• When different voltages are applied to the to
input terminals, the input is known as a
differential-mode voltage.

• When the same voltages are applied to the to

input terminals, the input is known as a
common-mode voltage.
• Ideal amplifier will produce an output in
response to differential-mode voltages but
will produce no output in response to
common-mode voltages.

• Real amplifier will produce an output

response to both differential- and common-
mode, but the response to differential mode
voltages will be much larger.
• Signals of interest result in differential-mode
input and noise signals often result in
common-mode input, high values of CMRR are
desirable

• High quality amplifiers often have CMRR in

excess of 100dB
Source loading – input loading and output
loading
• If the source is not connected, the voltage at
the source output will be Vs as no current
flows through Rs

Figure 3.8 Models for (a) source and (b) amplifier.

(Based on Franco, 2002.)
 Vs – IRs

Figure 3.9 Combined model of (a) input source, (b)

amplifier, and (c) output load. (Based on Franco, 2002.)

• When the source is connected to amplifier, the

voltage at the source output will be Vs – IRs
 Vs – IRs

Figure 3.9 Combined model of (a) input source, (b)

amplifier, and (c) output load. (Based on Franco, 2002.)

• The amplifier has placed a load on the source

device.
 Vs – IRs

Figure 3.9 Combined model of (a) input source, (b)

amplifier, and (c) output load. (Based on Franco, 2002.)

• To minimize loading effects at the input and

output, an ideal amplifier (or signal conditioner)
should have a very high value of input resistance
(Ri) and very low value of output resistance (Ro)
Source: Wheeler
7.2.2 Amplifiers using operational
amplifiers
• Several generalities for ideal electronic amplifier
(but nonexistent):
1. Infinite input impedance
2. Infinite gain
3. Zero output impedance
4. Instant response
5. Zero output for zero input
6. Ability to ignore or reject extraneous inputs
• The op amp is an integrated circuit that
functions as a dc differential voltage amplifier.

• By dc we mean that it will process input

signals over a frequency range extending
down to and including a dc voltage.

• As a differential amplifier it accepts two inputs

and responds to the difference in the voltages
applied to the input terminals.
 Power supply
terminal Approaching Approaching
infinity zero

Input
voltages
Output voltages

Power supply
terminal

Figure 3.10 Operational amplifier symbol

and simplified model.
• The op-amp’s differential characteristic has
great importance in instrumentation because
it eliminates offset voltages and noise signals
common to both input terminals – common
mode rejection.
Basic configuration
The open-loop configuration: No feedback loop.

• Any non-zero input will cause saturated output

• Seldom being used but, can be used as a voltage
comparator
• For sinusoidal input, a square-wave output would result.
Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard
 Feedback loop prevents
Basic configuration saturation by holding ein ≈ eout
The close-loop configuration: With feedback loop.

ein = eout

iinRin = ioutRout

Iout/iin = Rin/Rout

The voltage follower, or impedance transformer

• Output voltage is equal to (follows) the input
voltage: eo = ei
• The circuit gain, G = 1
• Characteristics of µA741C
– Input impedance, Rd ≈ 2 MΩ
– Output impedance, Ro ≈ 75 Ω
– Gain, g ≈ 200000
– CMRR ≈ 70 dB

http://www.ti.com/product/UA741/technicaldocuments
Non-inverting amplifier
• Non-inverting means that the sign of the
output voltage relative to ground is the same
as input voltage
• With feedback loop: close loop configuration

Figure 3.11 Simple noninverting amplifier

using an op-amp.
• It should be noted that, if Vi is high enough so
that Vo(=GVi) approaches the power supply
voltage, further increase in Vi will not increase
the output.

• This situation is called output saturation.

• The maximum output voltage = 13.5 V

• Using a gain of 200 000:

Maximum input voltage
= ± 13.5 ÷ 200 000
= ± 67.5 mV
Input waveform

Output waveform
• Practical gain of an op-amp is limited by signal
frequency

• Bode plot indicates the gain is constant up to

cutoff frequency

• The range of frequency between f = 0 and fc is

the bandwidth of the amplifier
 Octave is a doubling of the
frequency.
Each time the frequency doubles
in the range above fc, the gain has
decreased by 6dB from the value
computed
Figure 3.12 Frequency response of op-
amp amplifier.
Example 7.4
• The inverting amplifier most used op-amp circuits
• Feedback is provided through resistor R2.
Virtual ground
(or earth)

Since i+ ≈ 0, therefore e+ = 0. Because negative

feedback is present, e− = e+ = 0. The inverting input
also draws no current, so that i1 = i2. Thus
Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard
 or Negative gain in op-amps
only happens when the
input is alternate current /
voltage and indicating the
shift of phase

The output is opposite in sign from the input (inverted,

or 180◦ out of phase), and the gain of the circuit is G
= −R2/R1.
Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard
Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard
Example 7.6
The differential, or difference, amplifier:
Virtual ground
(or earth)

• If R1 = R2 and R3 = R4, then eo = −(R3/R1)(ei1 − ei2 )

• Precise resistor matching to achieve high CMRR

Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard

 Virtual ground i3
(or earth)
i1

i2

Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard

Example 7.9
The summing amplifier

eo = −[e1(R4/R1) + e2(R4/R2) + e3(R4/R3)]

If R1 = R2 = R3 = R, then eo = −(R4/R)(e1 + e2 + e3)

Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard
Let’s try

7.22. Show that the input–output relationship for

the summing amplifier described in Example
7.9 is eo = −[e1(R4/R1) + e2(R4/R2) + e3(R4/R3)].

Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard

Let’s try
i4
i1

i2

i3

eo e1 e2 e3
At virtual earth ( ground )    
R4 R1 R2 R3
e  e  eo  0
 R4 R4 R4 
i4  i1  i2  i3 eo   e1  e2  e3 
 R1 R2 R3 

Mechanical Measurements, 6th ed. – T G Beckwith, R D Marangoni, J H Lienhard

7.2.3 Circuits for integration,
differentiation and comparison
• A final op-amp application is in circuits that
respond to the rate of change or the time
history of an input signal, called
differentiators and integrators
• In the differentiator, the currents through the
resistor and capacitor are equal, and e− = e+ = 0.
Thus At virtual earth ( ground )
e  e  eo  0
Output is a
iC  iR derivative
differentiated
from input
• In the integrator, the capacitor charges in
proportion to the time summation of ei . Again, the
resistor and capacitor currents are equal:
At virtual earth ( ground )
e  e  eo  0
iR  iC

Output is a
derivative
integrated
from input
Example 7.8
The voltage comparator: When ei > eref , output is
positively saturated; when ei < eref , output is
negatively saturated.

• This provides output indication for the size of ei

relative to eref.
• Diodes serve to limit differential input.
Figure 3.25 Op-amp comparator: (a) circuit; (b) output voltage.
7.2.4 Signal attenuation
• Sometimes, voltage output of a component
has a higher amplitude range than the input
range of the next component

• The voltage must be reduced to a suitable

level with a process called attenuation.

• A voltage dividing network can be used for the

attenuating purpose
Figure 3.15 Attenuation using dividing
network.
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/attenuators/attenuator.html
• Dividing networks have potential loading
problems
• See example 3.3

Figure E3.3a Figure E3.3b

Figure E3.3a

Figure E3.3b

Source: Wheeler
 Figure E3.3b
Figure E3.3a
Predetermined values and variables attenuators

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/attenuators/attenuator.html
Attenuator Types

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/attenuators/attenuator.html
7.2.5 General aspects of signal filtering
• Signal is a complicated, time varying voltage
that can be considered to be the sum of many
sine waves of different frequencies and
amplitudes

• Filtering process removes the unwanted or

undesirable frequencies in the signal
• Time-varying measurands commonly consist of
a combination of many frequency components
or harmonics, e.g.

Harmonics

Fundamental
frequency

 3 5 7 9
• In addition, unwanted inputs (noise) are often
picked up, thereby resulting in distortion and
masking of the true signal.

• Appropriate circuitry is needed to selectively filter

the noise.

• Filtering is the process of attenuating unwanted

components of a measurand while permitting the
desired components to pass
Some terms applied in filter design and use

Band-pass filter terminologies

 • Filter is commonly used to remove
(i) spurious noises in a signals
Unfiltered signal
High pass filter

Low pass filter

Assuming that Filtered signal

this is the signal
you are looking
for

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Procedures/SignalFiltering.htm
• Filter is commonly used to remove
(ii) aliased frequencies in a signals

http://www.ni.com/white-paper/4278/en/

To be filtered
• Filters are of two basic classes: active and passive

Uses powered
components, Made up of R, L, C
e.g. op amps components

• In addition, filters may be classified by the terms

1. high-pass
2. low-pass
3. band-pass
4. notch or band-reject
 lowpass highpass

bandpass bandstop

Figure 3.16 Categories of electrical filters: (a) lowpass; (b) highpass; (c)
bandpass; (d) bandstop.
• Four types of filter
– Low pass filter allows low frequencies to pass
without attenuation, but starting at fc, attenuates
high frequency components of the signal
– High pass filter allows high frequencies to pass
but attenuates low frequencies
– Band pass filter attenuates signals at both high
and low frequencies but allow a range of
frequencies to pass without attenuation
– Band stop filter allows both high and low
frequencies to pass but attenuates an
intermediate band of frequencies.
• If the band of stopped frequencies is very narrow, the
band stop filter is called a notch filter
Some Filter Theory
• Simplest low-pass and high-pass filters are
made from a single resistor and capacitor, RC
circuit:

low-pass filters

high-pass filters
• For an RC low-pass filter, to determine the
frequency characteristics, find the filter output, eo,
for a harmonic input voltage, ei:

• If negligible current is drawn at the output, the

currents through the resistor and the capacitor
are equal

i.e
Solution of this equation gives

where

• Filter performance is normally characterized

by cutoff frequency fc:
• In terms of fc, the frequency response (or gain),

and the phase response, Phase lagging

• At the cutoff frequency

which indicates a −3 dB change in the signal strength

• Frequency response on linear coordinates:

The filter response seems to change only slightly

with frequency.
• A logarithmic graph, such as a Bode plot is
needed to illustrate such variation.
Octave is a doubling of the
frequency.
• A Bode plot of the low-pass Each
andtimehigh-pass
the frequencyfilter’s
doubles
response: in the range above fc, the gain has
decreased by 6dB from the value
computed
• In addition to reducing amplitude, this filter also
produces an increasing phase shift as signal
frequency rises

At the −3 dB point, the output lags the input by 45°.

• RC high-pass filter is obtained by interchanging
the resistor and capacitor:

where the phase shift, , is a lead ( > 0)

Phase leading
• High-pass filter’s cutoff frequency is identical to
the low-pass filter’s:

• In terms of the cutoff frequency, the frequency

response and phase lead are
Butterworth Filters using operational amplifiers

Figure 3.21 Lowpass Butterworth filter using op-amp: (a) op-amp circuit;
(b) frequency response.

Source: Wheeler
Figure 3.22 First-order Butterworth highpass filter using an op-amp:
(a) op-amp circuit; (b) frequency response.

Source: Wheeler
Figure 3.23 Bandpass filter using op-amp: (a) op-amp circuit; (b) frequency
response.

Source: Wheeler
Practical usage of Bode (Gain) Plot
Problem 3.20
If the corner frequency of a low pass filter is
1500Hz, calculate the attenuation from the
bandpass gain at 3000Hz for the following
filters:
a) A fourth-order Butterworth filter
b) A fourth-order Chebyshev filter with 2-dB
ripple width
c) A fourth-order Bessel filter

Source: Wheeler
a) For a fourth-order Butterworth filter
Given n = 4
1
From Eq. 3.20, G 
1   f fc 
2n

1

1  3000 1500
24

 0.0624  6.24%
 24dB

Source: Wheeler
b) For a fourth-order Chebyshev filter with 2 dB
ripple width
Given n = 4
f 3000
Frequency Ratio  2
fc 1500

From Fig. 3.18 we see that for n = 4 and f/fc = 2,

G(dB) = 34dB

Source: Wheeler
Figure 3.18 Gain of lowpass Chebyshev filters as a function of order and
frequency.
Source: Wheeler
c) For a fourth-order Bessel filter
n=4
f 3000
Frequency Ratio  2
fc 1500

From Fig. 3.20 we see that for n = 4 and f/fc = 2,

G(dB) = 14 dB

Source: Wheeler
Figure 3.20 Gain of lowpass Bessel filters as a function of order and frequency.
Source: Wheeler
Practical usage of Bode (Phase) Plot
Example:
A signal described by: Asin(ωt) may be attenuated
but also phase-shifted.
If the system attenuates it by a factor x and phase
shifts it by −Φ the signal out of the system will be
(A/x) sin(ωt − Φ).

Asin(ωt) → (A/x) sin(ωt − Φ)

The phase shift Φ is generally a function of

frequency.

Source: Wheeler
7.3 Indicating and recording devices

Figure 3.27 Cathode ray oscilloscope.

(Courtesy of Tektronix, Inc.)

Figure 3.26 Digital multimeter with a

digital voltmeter as a mode of operation.
(Courtesy of Triplett Corp.)
Figure 3.28 Schematic view of cathode ray tube.
Figure 3.30 Strip-chart recorder.
7.4 Data acquisition systems
• A data acquisition system is a system that
records the input from one or more sensors.

Software – Vee
programming

DAQ unit
• In digital signal transmission, the information
in the transducer signal is converted to a
series of voltage pulses, called bits, which
transmit the information in digital code.
• If the voltage of the pulse exceeds a certain
level, the pulse is “on”
• If the voltage is below another level, the pulse
is “off”