INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING

Lecture 14: Thermographic Nondestructive Testing

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction:
 Thermographic non-destructive testing is also known as thermal inspection, thermography,
thermal imaging, thermal wave imaging and infrared thermography testing.
 It was first developed for military purposes in the late 1950s and 1960s by Texas Instruments,
Hughes Aircraft, and Honeywell.
 It involves the measurement or mapping of surface temperatures as heat flows to, from and/or
through an object.
 The simplest thermal measurements involve making point measurements with a thermocouple.

Usefulness of Thermographic Inspection:

 This NDT method is useful in locating hot spots, such as a bearing that
is wearing out and starting to heat up due to an increase in friction.

Application of Infrared thermography for space shuttle maintenance.

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Principle of Thermography:
 Principle of thermography is based on the physical phenomenon that any body of a temperature above
absolute zero (-273.15 °C) emits electromagnetic radiation.
 The emitted infrared energy is a function of the object’s temperature and its relative efficiency of
thermal radiation, known as emissivity.
 Two dissimilar materials, possessing different thermophysical properties, would produce two
distinctive thermal signatures that can be revealed by an infrared sensor (Thermographic Camera).

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Thermographic Camera:
 It is also known as infrared camera or thermal imaging camera.
 It is a device that forms a heat zone image using infrared radiation, similar
to a common camera that forms an image using visible light.
 Instead of the 400–700 nm range of the visible light camera, infrared
cameras operate in wavelengths as long as 14,000 nm.

Thermographic Camera Construction:

 The focusing lenses of IR cameras are not made of glass, as glass blocks long-wave infrared light.
 Special materials such as Germanium or Sapphire crystals are used for this purpose.
 Germanium lenses are also quite fragile, so often have a hard coating to protect against accidental
contact.
 The higher cost of these special lenses is one reason why thermographic cameras are more costly.

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Types of Thermographic Camera:
 Thermographic cameras can be broadly divided into two types:
 Cooled infrared detectors
 Uncooled infrared detectors

• They are typically contained in a vacuum-sealed case and cryogenically cooled.

Cooled Infrared • The cooling is necessary for the operation of the semiconductor materials used.
Detectors
• Typical operating temperatures range from 4 K to just below room temperature.

• Uncooled thermal cameras use a sensor stabilized at a temperature close to

ambient using small temperature control elements.
Uncooled Infrared • Modern uncooled detectors use sensors that work by the change of resistance,
Detectors voltage or current when heated by infrared radiation.
• They have lower sensitivity than the cooled IR detectors.

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Types of Thermographic Inspection:

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ACTIVE THERMOGRAPHY:
 In active thermography, an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the
feature of interest and the background.
 The active approach is adopted in many cases given that the inspected parts are usually in
equilibrium with the surroundings.
 Example: a specimen with internal flaws.

Energy Sources in Active Thermography:

• A wide variety of energy sources can be used to induce a thermal contrast between defective and
non-defective zones.
• These energy sources can be categorized as:
o External Energy Sources
o Internal Energy Sources

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External Excitation:
• Energy is delivered to the surface and then propagated through the material until it
encounters a flaw.
• Examples:
o Photographic flashes (for heat pulsed stimulation)
o Halogen lamps (for periodic heating)
Externally Excited Thermographic Methods:
 Externally applied active thermographic methods are further classified as:

a) Pulsed b) Lock-in
Thermography Thermography

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a) Pulsed Thermography:
 In pulsed thermography (PT), the specimen surface is submitted to a heat pulse using a high
power source such as photographic flashes.
 A heat pulse can be thought as the combination several periodic waves at different
frequencies and amplitudes.
Working Procedure:
 Two photographic flashes are used to
heat up the specimen’s surface, after
what, the thermal changes are recorded
with an infrared camera.
 A synchronization unit is needed to
control the time between the launch of
the thermal pulse and the recording
with the IR camera.
 Data is stored as a 3D matrix, where 𝒙 and 𝒚 are the spatial coordinates, and 𝒕 is the time.

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Processing of Pulsed Thermography Data:
• The data is analysed on the basis of assumption that:

“Temperature profiles for non-defective

pixels should follow the decay curve given by
the one-dimensional solution of the Fourier
equation”.

 Temperature decreases approximately as 𝑡 (as per

Fourier equation), except for the defective areas, where
the cooling rate is different.

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Advantages:
 Pulsed thermography is fast and easy to deploy.
 It’s experimentation time varies from a few seconds for high conductivity materials to a few minutes
for low conductivity materials.
 Since a heat pulse can be seen as a set of several periodic thermal waves launched at once, several data
points (amplitude or phase) can be extracted from a single experiment.
 Pulsed thermography is sensitive to voids and inclusions in the material which are difficult to detect.

Disadvantages:
 The data processing of pulsed thermography technique is complex as compared to lock-in.
 The results are affected by non-uniform heating, emissivity variations, environmental reflections and
surface geometry.

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b) Lock-in Thermography:
 In lock-in thermography (LT) is also known as modulated thermography.
 In this method, a small surface spot is periodically illuminated by an intensity modulated laser
beam to inject thermal waves into the specimen.
 Sinusoidal thermal waves are typically used in LT.
 The periodic wave propagates by radiation through the air until it touches the specimen surface
where heat is produced and propagates through the material.
 Internal defects act as barrier for heat propagation,
which produces changes in amplitude and phase of
the response signal at the surface.
 The thermal response is recorded using an infrared
detector and decomposed by a lock-in amplifier to
extract the amplitude and phase of the modulation.

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Selection of Working Frequency for Inspection of Different Materials:
• The rate of decay of the thermal wave as it penetrates through the material depends upon the
thermal diffusion length (𝜇).
• Thermal diffusion length is defined as:

𝟐𝜶 𝜶 Where, 𝛼 = thermal diffusivity of the material being inspected.

𝝁≡ =
𝝎 𝝅. 𝒇 𝑓 = frequency of the thermal wave.

• From above relation, it is established that:

 Thermal waves propagate deeper in more diffusive materials.
 Information about deeper features is available when lower frequencies are used.
• These two aspects are important to correctly select the working frequency and to determine the
depth of internal defects.

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Processing of Lock-in Thermography Data:
 Four Point Methodology (for sinusoidal waveform):
• For sinusoidal input signal, four point methodology is used for amplitude and phase delay
estimation by lock-in thermography.
• Input and output have the same shape when sinusoids are used, there is only a change in amplitude
and phase that can be calculated as follows:
• If 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 and 𝑆4 are four equidistant data points in a complete period then, the phase (ϕ) and
amplitude (A) is given by:

𝑨= 𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟑 𝟐 + 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟒 𝟐

𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟑
𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟒

 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) Method (for any waveform):

• The discrete Fourier transform (DFT) can also be used to extract amplitude and phase information
from LT data.

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Advantages: Applications:
 Energy required to perform an LT experiment is generally
less than in other active techniques, which is helpful:
o If a low power source is to be used,
Determination
Detection of
o If special care has to be given to the inspected part, of coatings
delamination's.
thickness.
e.g. cultural heritage pieces, works of art, frescoes,
etc.

Disadvantages:
Determination
 It is in general slower than other approaches such as of local fiber
Detection of
pulsed thermography. corrosion.
orientation.

 Extra hardware, i.e. lock-in amplifier, is needed in order

to retrieve the amplitude and phase of the response.

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Internal Excitation:
• Energy is injected into the specimen in order to stimulate exclusively the defects.
• Vibrothermography technique uses internal excitation to perform the inspection.

Vibrothermography (VT):
 It is also known as ultrasound thermography or thermosonics.
 The ultrasound wave is produced within specimen by a
transducer made of a stack of piezo elements and concentrated
in a titanium horn that acts like a hammer.
 After the elastic waves are injected to the specimen, they travel
through the material and dissipate their energy mostly at the
defects so heat is locally released.
 The thermal waves then travel by conduction to the surface,
where they can be detected with an IR camera.

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Configurations of Vibrothermography Testing:
• There are basically two configurations for VT (similar to the optical methods discussed earlier):
a) Burst Vibrothermography (analogous to Pulse Thermography)
b) Lock-in Vibrothermography (analogous to Lock-in Thermography)

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Advantages:
 In either lock-in or burst configuration, VT is extremely fast.
 Defect detection is independent from of its orientation inside the specimen, and both internal and open
surface defects can be detected.
 It is the most appropriate technique to inspect some types of defects, e.g. micro cracks, delamination's.
 There is only minimal heating of the inspected specimen since energy is usually dissipated mostly at
the defective areas.

Disadvantages:
 It is necessary to relocate the transducer to cover a large area for inspection. Hence, VT is only
suitable for relatively small objects.
 The most inconvenient aspect of VT is the need of a coupling media between the sample and the
transducer, and the need of holding the specimen.
 A bad coupling implies a poor ultrasound transmission but more seriously it creates unwanted heat
in the vicinity of the ultrasound injection point.

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PASSIVE THERMOGRAPHY:

 In passive thermography, the features

of interest are naturally at a higher or
lower temperature than the background.

Example: surveillance of people on a

scene.

 All objects above absolute zero emit

thermal infrared energy, so thermal
cameras can passively see all objects,
regardless of ambient light.

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Important Applications of Passive Approach:
• Passive thermographic inspection has several applications in different sectors:
Production:
 Inspection of printed circuit boards (PCBs) to detect solder bridges and
overheating components.
 Seam tracking in arc welding.
 In the production of metals, recording of temperature profiles enables
monitoring of steel quality in continuous casting.
 In the paper industry, infrared thermography monitors quality in the
production of high-gloss paper.
Maintenance:
 Inspection of turbine blades in jet engines.
 Thermal insulation of building envelopes, heated floors, furnace walls.
 Estimation of liquid level in tanks.
 Early detection of transformer overheating.
 Visualisation of gas leaks.

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Medicine:
 Evaluation of patients with disorders of the musculoskeletal system.
Monitoring of Road Traffic:
 In the case of monitoring of road traffic, infrared thermography enables moving road vehicles, which
will be hotter than their surroundings.
Detection of Forest Fires:
 Safety of forest areas through early detection of smouldering fires
Astronomy:
 Satellites with infrared imaging capabilities are also used to monitor the Earth’s weather,
o To study vegetation patterns, and geology
o To measure surface, ocean and cloud temperatures
Military:
 Revealing the presence of potential targets in poor visibility conditions (e.g. at night or in fog).
 Air-to-air detection of incoming enemy missiles or aircraft from their hot exhaust gases.
 Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defence.

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Thermographic Inspection:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:  Quality cameras often have a high price range
due to the expense of the larger pixel array.
 It is capable of catching moving targets in
 Fewer pixels reduce the image quality making
real time. it more difficult to distinguish proximate
 It is able to find deterioration, i.e., higher targets within the same field of view.
temperature components prior to their failure  Accurate temperature measurements are
 It can be used to measure or observe in areas hindered by differing emissivities and
inaccessible or hazardous for other methods reflections from other surfaces.
 It can be used to find defects in shafts, pipes,  Most cameras have ±2% accuracy or worse in
and other metal or plastic parts. measurement of temperature and are not as
accurate as contact methods.
 It can be used to detect objects in dark areas.
 Methods and instruments are limited to directly
detecting surface temperatures.

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Summary:

 Thermographic Non-destructive Testing is a modern method for inspecting

surface layers and thin parts made of various materials.
 Defects or foreign particles in an inspected part can be detected if their thermal
properties are different from the inspected material.
 Two approaches are being followed in thermography:
i. Active Thermography
ii. Passive Thermography
 Several methods have been developed for active thermography for non-
destructive evaluation.

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