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UNIT-III
UNIT – 2

Q.1) Describe the functioning of standard signal generator

Ans.
STANDARD SIGNAL GENERATOR

A standard signal generator produces known and controllable voltages. It is used as power source
for the measurement of gain, signal to noise ratio (SN), bandwidth standing wave ratio and other
properties. It is extensively used in the measuring of radio receivers and transmitter instrument is
provided with a means of modulating the carrier frequency, which is indicated by the dial setting
on the front panel. The modulation is indicated by a meter. The output signal can be Amplitude
Modulated (AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM). Modulation may be done by a sine wave,
Square, rectangular, or a pulse wave. The elements of a conventional signal generator

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The carrier frequency is generated by a very stable RF oscillator using an LC tank circuit, having
a constant output over any frequency range. The frequency of oscillations is indicated by the
frequency range control and the venire dial setting. AM is provided by an internal sine wave
generator or from an external source.

Q.2) how can a sine and square wave be generated using signal generator?

Ans.

The signal generator is called an oscillator. A Wien bridge oscillator is used in this generator.
The Wien bridge oscillator is the best of the audio frequency range. The frequency of oscillations
can be changed by varying the capacitance in the oscillator. The frequency can also be changed
in steps by switching the resistors of different values. The output of the Wien bridge oscillator
goes to the function switch. The function switch directs the oscillator output either to the sine
wave amplifier or to the square wave shaper. At the output, we get either a square or sine wave.
The output is varied by means of an attenuator.

The instrument generates a frequency ranging from 10 Hz to 1 MHz continuously variable in 5

decades with overlapping ranges. The output sine wave amplitude can be varied from 5 mV to 5
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V (rms).The output is taker through a push-pull amplifier. For low output, the impedance is
6000. The square wave amplitudes can be varied from 0 - 20 v (peak). It is possible to adjust the
symmetry of the square wave from 30 -70%. The instrument requires only 7W of power at 220V
50Hz. The front panel of a signal generator consists of the following.

l. Frequency selector: It selects the frequency in different ranges and varies it continuously in
a ratio of 1: 11. The scale is non-linear.
2. Frequency multiplier: It selects the frequency range over 5 decades from 10 Hz to 7 MHz
3. Amplitude multiplier: It attenuates the sine wave in 3 decades, x l x 0.1 and x 0.01.
4. Variable amplitude: It attenuates the sine wave amplitude continuously
5. Symmetry control: It varies the symmetry of the square wave from 30% to 70%.
6. Amplitude: It attenuates the square wave output continuously.
7. Function switch: It selects either sine wave or square output.
8. Output available: This provides sine wave or square wave output.
9. Sync: This terminal is used to provide synchronization of the internal signal
with an external signal.
10. On-Off Switch

Q.3) Explain how a Function Generator works?

Ans:

FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator produces different waveforms of adjustable frequency. The common output
waveforms are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth waves. The frequency may be adjusted,
from a fraction of a Hertz to several hundred kHz lie various outputs of the generator can be
made available at the same time. For example, the generator can provide a square wave to test
the linearity of a rectifier and simultaneously provide a saw tooth to drive the horizontal
deflection amplifier of the CRO to provide a visual display. Capability of Phase Lock the
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function generator can be phase locked to an external source. One function generator can be used
to lock a second function generator, and the two output signals can be displaced in phase by
adjustable amount. In addition, the fundamental frequency of one generator can be phase locked
to a harmonic of another generator, by adjusting the amplitude and phase of the harmonic; almost
any waveform can be generated by addition.
The function generator can also be phase locked to a frequency standard and its output
waveforms will then have the same accuracy and stability as the standard source. The block
diagram of a function generator is illustrated in fig. Usually the frequency is controlled by
varying the capacitor in the LC or RC circuit. In the instrument the frequency is controlled by
varying the magnitude of current which drives the integrator. The instrument produces sine,
triangular and square waves with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.

The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current sources. The upper current source
supplies constant current to the integrator whose output voltage increases linearly with time,
according to the equation of the output signal voltage. An increase or decrease in the current
increases or decreases the slope of the output voltage and hence controls the frequency. The
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voltage comparator multi-vibrator changes states at a pre-determined maximum level of the

integrator output voltage. This change cuts off the upper current supply and switches on the
lower current supply. The lower current source supplies a reverse current to the integrator, so
that its output decreases linearly with time. When the output reaches a pre-determined minimum
level, the voltage comparator again changes state and switches on the Lower current source. The
output of the integrator is a triangular waveform whose frequency is determined by the
magnitude of the current supplied by the constant current sources. The comparator output
delivers a square wave voltage of the same frequency.

e=-

The resistance diode network alters the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and
produces a sine wave with less than 1% distortion.
 

Q.4) Explain the functioning of Random Noise Generator and explain the
parameters of noise?

Ans:

RANDOM NOISE GENERATOR

      

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The spectrum of random noise covers all frequencies the lower density spectrum tells us how the
energy of the signal is distributed in frequency, but it does not specify the signal uniquely nor
does it tell us very much about how the amplitude of the signal varies with time

The spectrum does not specify the signal uniquely because it contains no phase information. The
method of generating noise is usually to use a semi conductor noise which delivers frequencies
in a band roughly extending from 80 – 220 KHz The output from the noise diode is amplified
and heterodyned down to audio frequency band by means of a balanced symmetrical modulator.
The filter arrangement controls the bandwidth and supplies an output signal in three spectrum
choices, white noise, pink noise and Usasi noise. From the Fig 4.2 it is seen that white noise is
flat from 20Hz to 20 KHz and has upper cutoff frequency of 50 kHz with a cutoff slope of -12
dbs/ octave. Pink noise is so called because the lower frequencies have larger amplitude, similar
to red light. Pink noise has a voltage spectrum which is inversely proportional to the square root
of frequency and is used in band analysis. Usasi noise ranging simulates the energy distribution
of speech and music frequencies and is used for testing audio amplifiers and loud speakers.

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Q.5 what is a Sweep Generator, explain its functioning?

Ans:

It provides a sinusoidal output voltage whose frequency varies smoothly and continuously over
an entire frequency band, usually at an audio rate. The process of frequency modulation may be
accomplished electronically or mechanically. It is done electronically by using the modulating
voltage to vary the reactance of the oscillator tank circuit component, and mechanically by
means of a motor driven capacitor, as provided for in a modern laboratory type signal generator.
Figure shows a basic block diagram of a sweep generator. The frequency sweeper provides a
variable modulating voltage which causes the capacitance of the master oscillator to vary. A
representative sweep rate could be of the order of 20 sweeps/second. A manual control allows
independent adjustment of the oscillator resonant frequency. The frequency sweeper provides a

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varying sweep
voltage for

synchronization to drive the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO. Thus the amplitude of the
response of a test device will be locked and displayed on the screen.

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To identify a frequency interval, a marker generator provides half sinusoidal waveforms at any
frequency within the sweep range. The marker voltage can be added to the sweep voltage of the
CRO during alternate cycles of the sweep voltage, and appears superimposed on the response
curve. The automatic level control circuit is a closed loop feedback system which monitors the
RF level at some point in the measurement system. This circuit holds the power delivered to the
load or test circuit constant and independent o frequency and impedance changes. A constant
power level prevents any source mismatch and also provides a constant readout calibration with
frequency.

6. Explain Square and Pulse Generator?

ANS:

SQUARE AND PULSE GENERATOR:

These generators are used as measuring devices in combination with a CRO. They provide both
quantitative and qualitative information of the system under test. They are made use of in
transient response testing of amplifiers. The fundamental difference between a pulse generator
and a square wave generator is in the duty cycle.

Duty cycle =

A square wave generator has a 500/o duty cycle.

Requirements of a Pulse

1. The pulse should have minimum distortion, so that any distortion, in the display is solely due
to the circuit under test.

2. The basic characteristics of the pulse are rise time, overshoot, ringing, sag, and undershoot.

3. The pulse should have sufficient maximum amplitude, if appreciable output power is required
by the test circuit, e.g. for magnetic core memory. At the same time, the attenuation range should
be adequate to produce small amplitude pulses to prevent over driving of some test circuit.

4. The range of frequency control of the pulse repetition rate (PRR) should meet the needs of the
experiment. For example, a repetition frequency of 100 MHz is required for testing fast circuits.
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Other generators have a pulse-burst feature which allows a train of pulses rather than a
continuous output.

5. Some pulse generators can be triggered by an externally applied trigger signal; conversely,
pulse generators can be used to produce trigger signals, when this output is passed through a
differentiator circuit.

6. The output impedance of the pulse generator is another important consideration. In a fast pulse
system, the generator should be matched to the cable and the cable to the test circuit. A mismatch
would cause energy to be reflected back to the generator by the test circuit, and this may be re-
reflected by the generator, causing distortion of the pulses.

7. DC coupling of the output circuit is needed, when dc bias level is to be maintained.

The basic circuit for pulse generation is the asymmetrical multi-vibrator. A laboratory type
square wave and pulse generator is shown in Fig 6.1

The frequency range of the instrument is covered in seven decade steps from 1Hz to 10 MHz,
with a linearly calibrated dial for continuous adjustment on all ranges.

The duty cycle can be varied from 25 - 75%. Two independent outputs are available, a 50Ω
source that supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of 5 ns at 5V peak amplitude and a 600Ω
source which supplies pulses with a rise and fall tme of 70 ns at 30 V peak amplitude. The

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instrument can be operated as a freerunning genenrator or, it can be synchronized with external
signals.

The basic generating loop consists of the current sources, the ramp capacitor, the Schmitt trigger
and the current switching circuit as shown in the fig 6.2

The upper current source supplies a constant current to the capacitor and the capacitor voltage
increases linearly. When the positive slope of the ramp voltage reaches the upper limit set by the
internal circuit components, the Schmitt trigger changes state. The trigger circuit output becomes
negative and reverses the condition of the current switch. The capacitor discharges linearly,
controlled by the lower current source. When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower
level, the Schmitt trigger switches back to its original state. The entire process is then repeated.
The ratio i1/i2 determines the duty cycle, and is controlled by symmetry control. The sum of i1
and i2 determines the frequency. The size of the capacitor is selected by the multiplier switch.
The unit is powered by an intenal supply that provides regulated voltages for all stages of the
instrument.

7. What is the basic difference between a signal generator and an oscillator?

Discuss fixed and variable AF oscillator?
Ans:
Signal generators are the sources of electrical signals used for the purpose of testing and
operating different kinds of electrical equipment. A signal generator provides different types of
waveforms such as sine, triangular, square, pulse etc., whereas an oscillator provides only
sinusoidal signal at the output.

The AF oscillators are divided into two types. They are as follows,
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1. Fixed frequency AF oscillator

2. Variable frequency AF oscillator.

1. Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator

Many instrument circuits contain oscillator as one of its integral parts to provide output signal
within the specified fixed audio frequency range. This specified audio frequency range can be 1
kHz signal or 400 Hz signal.
The 1 kHz frequency signal is used to execute a bridge circuit and 400 Hz frequency signal is
used for audio testing. A fixed frequency AF oscillator employs an iron core transformer. Due to
this a positive feedback is obtained through the inductive coupling placed between the primary
winding and secondary winding of the transformer and hence fixed frequency oscillations are
generated.

2. Variable Frequency AF Oscillator

It is a general purpose oscillator used in laboratory. It generates oscillations within the entire
audio frequency range i.e. from 2O Hz to 20 kHz. This oscillator provides a pure, constant sine
wave output throughout this AF range. The examples of variable AF oscillators used in
laboratory are RC feedback oscillator, beat frequency oscillator.

8. With a neat block diagram discuss about an AF sine wave generator?

Ans: As the name suggest an AF sine and square wave generator produces either sine wave or
square wave output. It employee a Wein bridge oscillator, sine wave amplifier, square wave
shaper, square wave amplifier and attenuator. The schematic arrangement of these blocks is
shown below.

The Wien bridge oscillator operates effectively in audio frequency ranges. It produces
oscillations whose frequency can be varied by varying the capacitance value of the capacitor of
the oscillator. Also the frequency value can be varied in steps by switching in different values of
resistors. The oscillations of Wien bridge oscillator are applied to either sine wave amplifier or
sine wave shaper through function key. When the key is connected to position 1, the output
oscillations are connected to sine wave amplifier and then to attenuator. Therefore, the
oscillations are amplified and then attenuated and a pure sine wave is available at the output.
Depending on the requirement the amplitude of this sine wave can be varied from 5 mV to 5 V
(r.m.s value).

When the key is connected to position 2, the oscillations are applied to square wave shaper
which converts the oscillations into square wave. The square wave signal is amplified and then
attenuated and finally appears as pure square wave at the output. The amplitude of the square
wave can be varied from 0 V to 20 V (peak value).

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This generator produces output in the frequency range of 1 0 Hz to I MHz and it requires power
of 7 W at 220V, 50 Hz. The front panel of the instrument contains

(i) ON/OFF switch.

(ii)FrequencyMultip1ier: To choose the frequency range over 5 decades (from10Hz to1MHz).

(iii) Amplitude Multiplier: To attenuate sine wave output in 3 decades (x 1; x 0.1 and x 0.01).

(iv) Amplitude: To continuously attenuate the amplitude of square wave output.

(v) Variable Amplitude: To continuously attenuate the amplitude of sine wave output.
(vi) Frequency Selector: To select different ranges of frequencies and to vary the frequency in a
ratio of 1: 11.

(vii) Function Key: To select either square wave or sine wave output.

(viii) Symmetry Control: To adjust the symmetry of square wave from 30% to 70%

(ix) Sync: To synchronize the internal signal with external signal.

8. What is need for inserting isolation between the signal generator output and oscillator in
a simple signal generator? What are the difference ways in which this can be achieved?
Ans:
An oscillator of a simple signal generator needs to be isolated from the
output of the signal generator because any variations in the load (output circuit of signal
generator) will affect the output characteristic (i.e., amplitude, frequency, etc) of an oscillator.
Usually, the frequency of an oscillator should be very stable when the oscillator is operating at
high frequencies of the order of MHz, because even a small variation in the frequency will give
rise to errors. Hence, an isolation of 20 dB or more (based upon the type of oscillator circuit)
should be introduced between oscillator and signal generator output.

The different ways to achieve an isolation of 20 dB or more between oscillator and signal
generator output are,
1. Setting the attenuation of attenuator to 20 dB or more.
2. Introducing an isolation amplifier between oscillator and attenuator

1. Setting the Attenuation of Attenuator to 20 dB or More

In a signal generator the output of the oscillator is attenuate d by feeding it to variable attenuator,
in order to obtain a signal of desired amplitude (or power level). So, if the attenuator is set to
provide and attenuate the oscillator output by 20 dB or more, an isolation of 20 dB will be
produced between the oscillator and the load.
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UNIT-III
2. Introducing an Isolation Amplifier between oscillator and Attenuator

In this method of achieving isolation, the oscillator output is amplified by certain amount using a
buffer amplifier. Consecutively, it is attenuated by same amount by a fixed attenuator before
feeding the oscillator output to the variable attenuator of the signal generator. In this way
isolation is achieved without any change in the signal level of oscillator output. To achieve an
isolation of 20 dB or more, a 10 dB gain isolation amplifier followed by a 10 dB fixed attenuator
is introduced between the oscillator and variable attenuator as shown in the following figure. The
gain of the isolation amplifier and thus the attenuation of a fixed attenuator depend on the
amount of isolation required and also on the attenuation of the variable attenuator

9. with respect to construction and circuit configuration, explain how a square

wave generator differs from sine wave generator?
Ans:

Sine Wave Generator

The circuit configuration of a sine wave generator consists of Wien bridge oscillator, sine wave
amplifier and attenuator. The block diagram of a sine wave generator is shown in figure 9.1

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Wein bridge oscillator produces an oscillating output which is usually a sinusoidal (sine) wave.
Thus, half of the operation of a sine wave generator is done by the Wein bridge oscillator. The
frequency of oscillations of this oscillator can be varied by varying its capacitance and thus a
sine wave of desired frequency can be generated. The remaining elements of sine wave generator
i.e., amplifier, and attenuator are used as signal conditioners to condition the output of Wien
bridge oscillator in order to obtain a sine wave of desired amplitude.

Square Wave Generator

The circuit configuration of a square wave generator consists of the basic elements of a sine
wave generator (i.e., Wien bridge oscillator, attenuator) and square wave shaper and square wave
amplifier. Figure 9.2 shows the block diagram of a square wave generator.

A square wave is obtained by feeding the sinusoidal output of the Wein bridge oscillator to the
square wave Shaper circuit. The square wave shaper is usually a sine-to-square wave converter.
The square wave is further processed through square wave amplifier and attenuator in order to
obtain a square wave of desired amplitude. The frequency of the square wave can be varied by
varying the oscillation frequency of Wein bridge oscillator.

10. What are the precautionary measures to bee taken in a signal generator
application?
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Ans;
A signal generator is an instrument, which can produce various types of wave forms such as sine
wave, square wave, triangular wave, saw tooth wave, pulse trains etc. As it can generate a variety
of waveforms it is widely used in applications like electronic troubleshooting anti development,
testing the performance of electronic equipments etc. In such applications a signal generator is
used to provide known test conditions (i.e., desired signals of known amplitude and frequency

Hence, the following precautionary measures should be taken while using a signal generator for
an application.

1. The amplitude and frequency of the output of the signal generator should be made stable and
well known.

2. There should be provision for controlling the amplitude of signal generator output from very
small to relatively large values.

3. The output signal of generator should not contain any distortion and thus, it should possess
very low harmonic contents.

4. Also, the output of the signal generator should be less spurious.

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UNIT-3

1. Draw the Block Schematic of AF Wave analyzer and explain its principle
and Working?
ANS: The wave analyzer consists of a very narrow pass-band filter section which can
Be tuned to a particular frequency within the audible frequency range(20Hz to 20 KHz)).
The block diagram of a wave analyzer is as shown in fig 1.

The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an adjustable attenuator which

serves as a range multiplier and permits a large range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed without
loading the amplifier.

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The output of the attenuator is

then fed to a selective amplifier, which
amplifies
the selected frequency. The driver
amplifier applies the attenuated input
signal to a high-Q active filter. This high-Q
filter is a low pass filter which allows the
frequency which is selected to pass and
reject all others. The magnitude of this
selected frequency is indicated by the
meter and the filter section identifies the
frequency of the component. The filter
circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant
circuit and amplifiers. For selecting the
frequency range, the capacitors generally
used are of the closed tolerance
polystyrene type and the resistances used
are precision potentiometers. The
capacitors are used for range changing and
the potentiometer is used to change the frequency within the selected pass-band, Hence this wave
analyzer is also called a Frequency selective voltmeter. The entire AF range is covered in decade
steps by switching capacitors in the RC section
.
The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the meter
circuit and to an unturned buffer amplifier. The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive
output devices, such as recorders or electronics counters.

The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on it. It is
driven by an average reading rectifier type detector. The wave analyzer must have extremely
low input distortion, undetectable by the analyzer itself. The band width of the instrument is
very narrow typically about 1% of the selective band given by the following response
characteristics shows in fig.1.2

2. What are the applications of wave Analyzer?

Ans: Application of wave analyzer
1. Electrical measurements
2. Sound measurements
3. Vibration measurements.

In industries there are heavy machineries which produce a lot of sound and vibrations, it is very
important to determine the amount of sound and vibrations because if it exceeds the permissible

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level it would create a number of problems. The source of noise and vibrations is first identified
by wave analyzer and then it is reduced by further circuitry.

3. Explain the working of the harmonic distortion analyzer?

Ans:
Fundamental Suppression Type
Distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in the test wave rather than the
distortion caused by each component. The simplest method is to suppress the fundamental
frequency by means of a high pass filter whose cut off frequency is a little above the
fundamental frequency. This high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total harmonic
distortion can then be measured. Other types of harmonic distortion analyzers based on
fundamental suppression are as follows

1. Employing a Resonance Bridge

T
h
e

b
r
i
d
g
e

s
h
o
w
n

in fig 3.1 is balanced for the fundamental frequency, i.e. L and C are tuned to the
fundamental frequency. The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics, i.e. only harmonic
power will be available at the output terminal and can be measured. If the fundamental
frequency is changed, the bridge must be balanced again. If L and
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC are fixed components, then this method is suitable only
when the test wave has a fixed frequency. Indicators can be thermocouples or square
law VTVMs. This indicates the rms value of all harmonics. When a continuous
adjustment of the fundamental frequency is desifrequency is desired a Wien bridge
arrangement is used as shown in fig 3.2.

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2. Wien’s Bridge Method

The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency. The fundamental energy is
dissipated in the bridge circuit elements. Only the harmonic components reach the output
terminals .The harmonic distortion output can then be measured with a meter. For
balance at the fundamental frequency

C1=C2=C, R1=R2=R, R3=2R4.

3. Bridged T-Network Method

Referring to the fig 3.3 the L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R
is adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency. The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental
frequency, the fundamental energy will circulate in the tank and is bypassed by the resistance.
Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the distorted output can
be measured by the meter. The Q of the resonant circuit must be at least 3-5.

One way of using a bridge T-network

is given in Fig. 3.4 The switch S is first
connected to point A so that the
attenuator is excluded and the
bridge T-network is adjusted for full
suppression of the fundamental
frequency, i.e. Minimum output
indicates that the bridged T-
network is tuned to the
fundamental frequency
and that
fundamental frequencies
is fully suppressed.

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The switch is next connected to terminal B, i.e. the bridge T- network is excluded. Attenuation is
adjusted until the same reading is obtained on the meter. The attenuator reading indicates the
total rams distortion. Distortion measurement can also be obtained by means of a wave analyzer,
knowing the amplitude and the frequency of each
component, the harmonic distortion can be calculated.
However, distortion meters based on fundamental
suppression are simpler to design and less expensive
than wave analyzers. The is advantage is that 1give
only the total distortion and not the amplitude of
individual distortion components.

4. Draw the block Schematic of a Basic

Spectrum Analyzer and explain its
working?
Ans: The most common way of observing signals is
to display them on an oscilloscope with time as the
X-axis (i.e. amplitude of the signal versus time). This
is the time domain. It is also useful to display signals
in the frequency domain. The providing this
frequency domain view is the spectrum analyzer.

A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT, with frequency on the
horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on the vertical axis.

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Displayed as vertical lines against these coordinates are sinusoidal components of which the
input signal is composed. The height represents the absolute magnitude, and the horizontal
location represents the frequency.

These instruments provide a display of the frequency spectrum a given frequency band.
Spectrum analyzers use either parallel filter bank or a swept frequency technique.

In a parallel filter in a parallel filter bank analyzer, The frequency range is covered by a series of
filters whose central frequencies and bandwidth are so selected that they overlap each others, as
shown in fig 4.1.

Typically, an audio analyzer has 32 of these filters, each covering one third of an octave.

For wide band narrow resolution analysis, particularly at RF or microwave signals, the swept
Technique is preferred.

Basic Spectrum Analyzer Using Swept Receiver Design

Referring to the block diagram of fig. 4.2, the saw tooth generator provides the saw tooth voltage
which drives the horizontal axis element of the scope and this saw tooth voltage is the frequency
controlled element of the voltage tuned oscillator. As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of
its frequency band at a linear recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the input
signal and produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its sweep.
The frequency component and voltage tuned oscillator frequency beats together to produce a
difference frequency, i.e. The IF corresponding to the component is amplified and detected if
necessary and then applied to the vertical plates of the CRO, producing a display of amplitude
versus frequency.

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The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single toned A.M is given in figs 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5

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One of the principal applications of spectrum analyzers has been in the study of the RF spectrum
produced in microwave instruments. In a microwave instrument, the horizontal axis can display
as a wide a range as 2 - 3 GHz for a broad survey and as narrow as 30 kHz, for a highly
magnified view of any small portion of the spectrum. Signals at microwave frequency separated
by only a few KHz can be seen individually.

The frequency range covered by this instrument is from I MHz to 40 GHz, The basic block
diagram (Fig. 9.13) is of a spectrum analyzer covering the range 500 kHz to 1 GHz, which is
representative of a super heterodyne type.

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The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven by a local oscillator. This oscillator is
linearly tunable electrically over the range 2 - 3 GHz. The mixer provides two signals at its
output that are proportional in amplitude to the input signal but of frequencies which are the sum
and difference of the input signal and local oscillator frequency.

The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GH4 since the local oscillator is tuned over
the range of 2 - 3 GHz, only inputs that are separated from the local oscillator frequency by
2GHz will be converted to IF frequency band, pass through the IF frequency amplifier, get
rectified and produce a vertical deflection on the CRT.

From this, it is observed that as the saw tooth signal sweeps, the local oscillator also sweeps
linearly from 2 - 3 GHz. The tuning of the spectrum analyzer is a swept receiver, which sweeps
linearly from 0 to 1 GHz. The saw tooth scanning signal is also applied to the horizontal plates of
the CRT to form the frequency axis. (The spectrum analyzer is also sensitive to signals from 4 -
5 GHz referred to as the image frequency of the super heterodyne. A low pass filter with a cutoff
frequency above I GHz at the input suppresses these spurious signals.) Spectrum analyzers are
widely used in radars, oceanography, and bio-medical fields

5. With a neat sketch explain the working of a digital Fourier analyzer?

An: A spectrum analyzer, which uses computer algorithm and an analog to digital conversion
phenomenon and produces spectrum of a signal applied at its input is known as digital Fourier or
digital FFT or digital spectrum analyzer.

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Principle

When the analog signal to be analyzed is applied, the A/D converter digitizes the analog signal
(i.e., converts the analog signal into digital signal). The digitized signal, which is nothing but the
set of digital numbers indicating the amplitude of the analog signal as a function of time is stored
in the memory of the digital computer. From the stored digitized data, the spectrum of the signal
is computed by means of computer algorithm.
Description:

The block arrangement of a digital Fourier analyzer is illustrated in the figure above fig 5.The
analog signal to be ana1ysed is applied to the low pass filter, which passes only low frequency
signals and rejects high pass spurious signals. This filter section is used mainly, to prevent
aliasing. The output of low pass filter is given to the attenuator. The attenuator is a voltage
dividing network whose function is to set the input signal to the level of the A/D converter. The
use of attenuator prevents the converter from overloading. The function of A/D converter is to
convert the samples of analog data into digital i.e. ., to digitize the analog signal. When the
output of A/D converter is applied to the digital computer, the computer analyzes the digitized
data and adjusts the attenuator setting accordingly in order to obtain the maximum output from
the inverter without any overloading. As soon as the entire analog signal is sampled and digitized
by the A/D converter) computer performs calculations on the data according to the programmed
algorithm and the calculated spectral components are stored in the memory of the computer.

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If the spectral display is to be viewed on the oscilloscope, the digital values of spectral
components stored in the computer memory are converted into analog by using D/A converters
and then applied to the CRO. Thus the spectral display of the input waveform is obtained on the
CRT screen.

Advantages
1. The use of computer avoids most of the hardware circuitry such as electronic switches.
Filters and PLLs. The use of less hardware reduces the cost of the analyzer.

2. More mathematical calculations can be carried-out on the spectral display.

3. The rate of sampling analog signal can be modified in order to obtain better spectral
display.

6. Differniate between wave analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer?

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Ans:

Wave analyzer Harmonic distortion analyzer

1. These are designed to measure the relative 1. These are designed to measure the total
amplitude of each harmonic or fundamental harmonic content present in a distorted or
components separately. complex wave form.

2.They indicate the amplitude of single 2. They do not indicate the amplitude of single
frequency component frequency component

3.These are tuned to measure amplitude of one 3.These can be operated with in a band of 5Hz
frequency component with in a range of 10Hz to 1 MHz frequency
to 40MHz

4.These are also known as frequency selective 4.It is general know as distortion analyzer
voltmeters, selective level voltmeters, carrier
frequency voltmeters

5. These are used with a set of tuned filters and 5. These can be used along with a frequency
a voltmeter. generator.

6. Wave analyzers provide very high frequency 6. They measure quantitative harmonic
resolution. distortions very accurately.7.

7.These can be used for electrical 7.These can be used to measure frequency
measurements, sound ,vibration ,noise stability and spectral purity of signal sources
measurement in industries

7. Explain the two types of spectrum analyzers?

Ans:
The two types of spectrum analyzers are,
1. Fliter Bank Spectrum analyzer.
2. Super hetero dyne Spectrum analyzer.

1. Filter Bank Spectrum analyzer

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2. Super hetero dyne Spectrum analyzer

The modern spectrum analyzers use a narrow band super heterodyne receiver. Super heterodyne
is nothing but mixing of frequencies in the super above audio range. The functional block
diagram of super heterodyne spectrum analyzer or RF spectrum analyzer as shown in the
Figure 7.2

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The RF input to be analyzed is applied to the input attenuator. After attenuating, the signal is fed
to low pass filter.

The low pass filter suppresses high frequency components and allows low frequency components
to pass through it. The output of the low pass filter is given to the mixer, where this signal is
fixed with the signal coming from voltage controlled or voltage tuned oscillator. This oscillator
is tuned over 2 to 3 GHz range. The output of the mixer includes two signals whose amplitudes.
are proportional to the input signal but their frequencies are the sum and difference of the input
signal and the frequency of the local oscillator. Since the frequency range of the oscillator is
tuned over 2 to 3 GHz, the IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band of frequencies of about 2 GHz.
Therefore only those signals which are separated from the oscillator frequency by 2 GHz are
converted to Intermediate Frequency (IF) band. This IF signal is amplified by IF amplifier and
then rectified by the detector. After completing amplification and rectification the signal is
applied to vertical plates of CRO to produce a vertical deflection on the CRT screen. Thus, when
the saw tooth signal sweeps, the oscillator also sweeps linearly from minimum to maximum
frequency range i.e., from 2 to 3 GHz. Here the saw tooth signal is applied not only to the
oscillator (to tune the oscillator) but also to the horizontal plates of the CRO to get the frequency
axis or horizontal deflection on the CRT screen. On the CRT screen the vertical axis is calibrated
in amplitude and the horizontal axis is calibrated in frequency.

Application:
These analyzers are widely used in the field of,

1. Bio medicals
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2. RADARS
3.Oceangraphy

8. Explain the terms

(i) Distortion in a waveform
(ii) Distortion in a communication sign
ANS:
Distortions may be introduced in a waveform or a communication signal when they are
transmitted from one point to other point through a transmission channel. The transmission
channel consists of various electronic components like amplifier, heterodyning element etc. The
different types of distortions that occur during transmission of an input signal (waveform or
communication signal) are,

1. Linear distortions
(i) Amplitude distortion
(ii) Phase or delay distortion

2. Non-linear distortions
(i) Harmonic distortion
(ii) Inter modulation distortion.

l. Linear Distortions

(i) Amplitude Distortion

When different frequency components of the input signal are amplified or attenuated by different
amounts, The output signal consists of distortions, known as amplitude distortions (i.e.,)
amplitude distortion occurs When the amplification or attenuation of the signal is not constant
over the useful range of frequencies.

(ii) Phase or Delay Distortion

If the phase of the output signal is different from the phase of input signal then such distortion is
known as phase distortion. Phase distortion leads to delay in the transmission of the signal.
Hence, it is known as delay distortion. If different amounts of phase shifts occur at different
frequencies of an output signal then it becomes necessary to compensate for such phase
distortions. Whereas if same amount of phase shift occurs at all frequencies then such phase
distortion can be ignored.
The phase distortion arises due to the presence of energy storage elements in the transmitting
circuit (i.e. reactive elements such as capacitor and inductor).

2. Nonlinear Distortions

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The non-linear distortions in the signal arise due to non-linear characteristics of the electronic
components like amplifiers, etc. The two types of non-linear distortions are,

(i) Harmonic Distortion

 

The non-linear characteristics of an electronic circuit give rise to harmonics in the output signal.
These harmonics produce distortions in the output signal. The distortions caused due to
harmonics are known as harmonic distortions. Harmonic components occur at frequencies 2f1,
3f1, 4f1……………. (where. f1= Fundamental frequency of signal).

(ii) Inter modulation Distortion

When two signals of different frequencies (f1 and f2) are mixed together (i.e.…..heterodyned) the
resultant signal will be a sum or difference of the actual frequencies of the signal i.e. f1± f2, 2f1 ±
f2.....etc. Thus, when the signals are heterodyned additional frequency components are generated
which are undesirable and which lead to distortions in the signal. The distortion caused by
heterodyning of different frequency signals is known as inter modulation distortion.

9. Explain how distortion occurs during transmission of a waveform or

Ans
Distortion refers to the deviation in any parameter (like amplitude, frequency. shape) of a signal
from that of an ideal signal. The non-linear characteristics of the elements of an electronic circuit
give rise to harmonics in the output signal which in turn causes distortion of the output signal.
The distortion caused due to harmonics is known as harmonic distortion.
The different types of harmonic distortions caused by an electronic circuit (for example,
electronic amplifier are as follows,

(i) Amplitude distortion

(ii) Frequency distortion
(iii) Phase distortion
(iv) Crossover distortion
(v) Inter modulation distortion.

(i) Amplitude Distortion

When the amplitude of the output signal is not a linear function of the amplitude and input
signal is distorted under specific conditions then such type of distortion are known as
amplitude distortion. Amplitude distortion occurs when the amplifier gives rise to harmonics
of the fundamental frequency of the input signal.

(ii) Frequency distortion

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Frequency distortion of a signal takes place when the signal is amplified by different
amounts at different frequencies. This is caused mainly due to the combination of active devices
and components in an amplifier.
For Example, the non uniform frequency response of RC-coupled cascade amplifier refers to
frequency distortion

(iii) Phase Distortional: Is different from the phase of the input signal then such distortion is
known as phase distortion.

If different amounts of phase shifts occur at different frequencies of an output signal than
it becomes necessary to compensate for such phase distortions. While if same amount of phase
shift occurs at all frequencies then such phase distortion cannot be ignored .the phase distortion
arises due to presence of storage elements in the circuit

(iv)Crossover Distortion

The improper biasing voltages of the electromagnetic components of an amplifier (for

example push-pull amplifier give rise to crossover distortion)

(v) Inter modulation Distortion

When two signals of different frequencies are mixed together (i.e., heterodyned) the
resultant signal will be a sum or difference of the actual frequencies of the signals. Thus, when
the signals are heterodyned, additional frequencies are generated which are undesirable and
thereby leads to distortion. The distortion caused by heterodyning of frequencies is known as
inter modulation distortion.
The various distortions in the signal can be analyzed using a distortion analyzer (for example,
harmonic distortion analyzer).

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