1.

Basics of Energy

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

In this lesson, you will learn or recollect the topics such as forms of energy, basics of electricity - DC &
AC currents, Electricity tariff, Thermal basics - Fuels, Thermal energy contents of fuel, Temperature and
pressure, Heat capacity, Sensible and latent heat, Evapouration, Condensation, Steam, Moist air and
humidity, Heat transfer, Units and conversion, MTOE conversions, etc.

1.1 Energy
Energy is described as the capability to perform work or as the capability to carry a heat transfer.
Energy is required for doing work or involving in a heat transfer. A body is said to have energy when it
has the capacity to perform work or the capacity to carry a heat transfer with another body. Work
and heat transfer may be termed as the transition of energy from one particular body to another
body -so they are called transitory energy. In practical terms, energy is what we consume to work in
the world around us, whether by stimulating our muscles, by consuming electricity or by means of
mechanical equipment such as cars, bikes, buses, trains, airplanes, ships, etc.

Broadly, we can classify energy as potential (stored) energy and kinetic (working) energy.

1.1.1 Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy that a physical object possesses due to its position or configuration.
There are several forms of potential energy including stored mechanical energy, gravitational,
magnetic, electrical, chemical, and elastic potential energy.

Stored potential energy in a body is due to its height above a datum level and is expressed by:

Potential energy (Er) = mass x gravitational acceleration x height= m g h.

Chemical Energy
The chemical energy is stored inside the bonding of molecules and atoms and released as heat in a
chemical reaction. This is specific to each reaction and is usually given as energy unit mass (e.g. kJ/
kg) or number of molecules (e.g. kJ/mol). Typical examples are the combustion energy produced by
coal, petroleum, propane, natural gas and biomass when combined with oxygen.

Nuclear Energy
The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom is called as nuclear energy. It is the energy that is holding
the nucleus together. The nucleus of a uranium atom releases nuclear energy when its fission
(splitting in two parts) results in a loss of mass and the corresponding loss of mass(m) is converted
into nuclear energy by following famous equation of Einstein:

Nuclear energy (Es) = mass x speed of light squared = m c2 (where c = 3 x 108 m/s)
Stored Mechanical Energy
It is energy kept in items by the use of a force. Rubber bands in stretched position and springs in
compressed position are typical examples of stored mechanical energy.

Gravitational Energy
A typical example of gravitational energy is a dam (see figure below). In a dam, the energy possessed
by the water is due to its higher level above the downstream level of the river. It is released through
a pipe, and made into contact with a turbine through a nozzle. The pressure of water creates high
velocity in the water and therefore impinges on the turbine blades and s it to rotate. This turbine
drives a generator and produces electricity.

Figure 1: Stored potential energy in a Dam

1.1.2 Kinetic Energy

It is the energy a body owns due to its motion or velocity. For example, a moving vehicle, a flowing
fluid and moving parts of machinery all have kinetic energy because of their motion. It exists in
various forms: radiant energy, thermal energy, electrical energy, motion energy, sound energy,
electrical energy etc.

Kinetic energy (Ek) = mv2 = half x mass x velocity squared = 1/2 x m x

Radiant Energy
Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Examples of radiant
energy are solar radiation, x-rays, visible light, radio waves and gamma rays.

Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is the inside energy in materials due to either the vibration of atoms in the
materials or movement of atoms and molecules within materials. Typical example is the energy
transferred to water in a boiler which converts water into steam. Steam is a carrier of thermal
energy.

Motion energy
Certain objects or substances move from one location to another location creating the motion
energy. Typical examples are the wind energy and hydropower.
Sound Energy
The energy that moves through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) wave forms is
called sound energy.

Electrical Energy
The moving electrons create the electrical energy. Lightning is the natural example of electricity and
we know that electricity is produced in generators.

1.2 Work and Power

Work
The unit of energy or work is the joule (J) where one (1) joule is one (1) Newton meter. The joule is
defined as the energy transported or work done when a force equal to one Newton is applied to
the object continuously for a distance of one (1) meter in the direction of the applied force. The
capacity for doing this work is called as energy.

Thus, work or energy applied on a body, in Joules W = Fs

Where, F is the force represented in Newtons and s is the distance represented in meters.
In case of rotating body work done is expressed in Joules as: W = T*(0/24 Where T is the Torque
in Newton-Meter and 0 is the angle in radian the body rotated.

Kilojoule (1 kJ = 1,000J) is more common among engineers. Even Kilojoule is very small a unit when
considering energy consumption at national or global level. In such cases Megajoule (106J), Gigajoule
(109J), Terrajoule (1012J) and Petajoule (10'5J) are used.

Energy and Power

Energy represents potential to do work. To actually do the work, one has to use energy of one form
at a given rate and convert to another form. Power is described as the rate at which energy is used
and converted or the rate at which the work is done.

The unit of measurement of power is Watt (W), where one Watt is one Joule per second.

Thus, power in Watts, P = W/t

Where, W is the energy transferred or work done in Joules and t is the time in seconds.

Thus, energy, in joules, W = Pt

1 kWh = 3600KJ =6MJ
In case of rotating body, power in Watts, P=T*w= (2jr*T*N)/60,
Where T is the Torque applied in Newton-Meter, w is angular velocity in radian/sec. and N is the
revolution per minute(RPM).

Example 1
A portable equipment needs a force of 300 N to move it. How much work is done if the equipment is
moved 30 m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 30 s?
Solution
Work done = force x distance
= 300 N x 30 m
= 9000 Nm or 9 kJ
Power = Work done / time taken = 9000 J /30 s = 300 J/s =300 W

1.3 Electricity Basics

Direct Current (DC)

A current which is a non-varying, unidirectional current, e.g. current produced by batteries.

Alternating Current
A current which flows in reverse order in regularly repeated time intervals and which has alternate
negative and positive values occurring specified number of times., e.g. current from utilities. In 50
Cycle (Hertz) AC, current reverses direction 100 times per second, i.e. two (2) times in one (1) cycle.

Amps or Ampere (A)

Current is the flow rate of charge. Ampere is the unit used for measuring the electric current.

Voltage or Volts (V)

It is the measurement of electromotive force or electricity’s potential. A potential of one (1) Volt
(V) develops across a load of one (1) Ohm of resistance when one (1) Ampere of current flows over
the resistance (see figure below). In case of Alternating Current (AC) the Voltage or Current value
normally mentioned is Root Mean Squared (RMS) value so that one can use the same formula for
calculating power just like a Direct Current (DC) application.

Figure 2: Voltage and current relationship

Resistance and Conductance
The electric resistance is measured in ohms(f2) where one (1) ohm is one (1) volt per ampere. Ohm
is defined as the load of resistance between two (2) points in a conductor where a constant one (1)
volt of electricity of potential applied at the two (2) points produces one (1) ampere of current flow
in the conductor. Thus, resistance, in ohms

R = Volts /Amp = V/I

where V is the potential difference between the two points in volts and I is the flowing current
between the two points in amperes.

The reciprocal of the value of resistance is called conductance and is represented in Siemens (S). Thus,
conductance, in mho or Siemens G = 1/R, where R is the resistance in ohms.

Frequency (Hertz)
The number of cycles at which alternating current changes is called supply frequency. The unit of
frequency is cycles / second or Hz. In Ghana, the normal supply frequency is 50 Hz.

Electrical Energy
When a direct current (DC) of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage is V volts,
then,
Power, in Watts P = VI

Electrical energy = (Power) x (time) Watts Seconds

= (V)x (I) x (t)Joules

The same formulae can be used in AC applications as well (since voltage and current are normally
expressed in RMS values for AC applications)

The unit of energy, the Joule, is normally used to represent heat or thermal energy. But when
dealing with electricity, the unit used is the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) where
1 kWh = 1,000 Watt hour
= 1,000 x 3,600 Watt seconds or
Joules = 3,600,000 J

Example 2
A heater consumes 18 MJ of electrical energy with a voltage is 250 V for 30 minutes. Determine the
power rating and the current flow through the heater from the electrical supply?

Solution
Energy = power x time,
Power = Energy / time
= (18x 106Js) / (30 x 60s)
= 10,000J = 10,000 W
i.e., Power rating of heater = 10 kW
Power P= VI thus, I = P/ V = (10,000)/(250) = 40 A Hence, the current drawn from the power
supply is 40 A.
Example 3
A 10 W electric bulb is supplied with a voltage of 250 V. Find (a) the flow of current in the bulb, and
(b) the bulb’s resistance.

Solution
Power P=V x I from which, current I P/V
(a) Current, I = 10/250 =0.04 A
(b) Resistance, R = V/I =250/0.04 = 6,250 ohms

Example 4
The resistance of an electric water kettle is 30 ohms. What current will flow when it is connected to a
240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.

Solution
Current, I = V/R = 240/30 = 8 A
Power, P = VI = 240 x 8 = 1,920 W

= 1.92 kW

= Power rating of kettle

Example 5
An electric light bulb of 100 W is connected to a power supply of 250 V. Determine (a) the current
that is flowing through the bulb, and (b) the bulb’s resistance

Solution
Power P=VxI from which, current I = P/V

(a) Current, I = 100/250 = 0.4 A

(b) Resistance, R = V/I = 250/0.4 = 625W

Example 6
An electric heater of 230 V, 5 kW rating is used for hot water generation in an industry. Find
electrical energy consumption per hour (a) at the voltage and also (b) at the voltage of 200 V.

Solution
(a) Consumption of Electricity in kWh at rated voltage of 230 V = (5 kW) x (1 hour) = 5 kWh.
(b) Electricity consumption in kwh at 200 V= (200 / 230) 2x (5) kW x (1) hour = 78 kWh.

Power Factor
The total power requirement comprises two (2) components. Here the Active or resistive power (kW),
90° out of phase with the reactive power, (kVAr). To build up the flux, the reactive current is necessary
for the magnetic field of inductive devices, but otherwise it is not useful. The active power is directly
converted into useful work. The hypotenuse of the power triangle is referred to as the kilovolt ampere
or apparent power (kVA). The angle between kW and kVA is the power factor angle.

kW = kVA cos 0
kVA = kW/ cos 0
kVAR = kVA sin 0
PF = cos 0

PF is called the power factor. Only power portions in same phase with each other can be combined.
For example, the resistive portions of one particular load (say water heater) can be added to
resistive portions of another load (say fan). The same will hold for reactive loads also.

Active or Resistive Power (kW)

Figure 3: Power Triangle

Relationships between Power, Voltage, and Current

For a balanced three-phase load, Power, Watts = i/3 VLx ILCosO
For a balanced single-phase load, Power, Watts = VL x ILCos()
Where,VL = The Line Voltage and IL = The Line current.

Which applications use single-phase power in an industry?

Single-phase power is mostly used for lighting, fractional HP motors used in water lifting in homes and
electric heater applications.

Example 7
A 400 Watt rated mercury vapour lamp is switched on for 10 hours per day. The supply volt is 230 V.
Find the energy consumed per day? (Volt = 230 V, Current = 2 amps, PF = 0.8)

Solution
Electricity consumption (kWh) =V x I x Cos Cox No of Hours
= 0.230 x 2 x 0.8 x 10 = 7 kWh or Units

Motor Loads
Each electrical load in a system has an inherent power factor. Motor loads are usually specified by
horsepower ratings. These may be converted to kVA, by use of Equation
 kVA = (HP x 0.746)/(11 x PF)
Where,
i = Motor efficiency
P.F. = Motor power factor
HP = Motor horsepower (i.e. Rated Output power).

Most motor manufacturers can supply information on motor efficiencies and power factors. Smaller
motors running partly loaded are the least efficient and have the lowest power factor.

Example 8
An induction motor of 20 kW capacity with 3-phase AC supply is used for pumping water. The
electrical parameters such as volt, power factor and current, are measured with power analyzer.
Calculate the energy consumed by the motor in 1 hour? (Volts. = 440 V, PF = 0.90 and current = 25
amps).

Solution
Energy consumed= (Square root of 3) x 0.440 x 25 x 0.90 x 1= 17.15 kWh

Motor loading calculation

The name plate details of motor, kW or HP indicates the full load output of the motor. The other
parameters such as volt, PF, amps are the input condition of motor operating at its full load.

Example 9
A 3-phase 10 kW motor has the name plate details as 415 V, 18.2 amps and 0.9 PF. Actual field
measurement with power analyzer is 415 V, 12 A and 0.7 PF when the motor is actually running. Find
out the motor loading and actual input power of the motor.

Solution

Full load Rated output = 10 KW

Full load Rated input = 1.732x0.415x18.2x0.9 = 11.8 kW
The rated efficiency of motor = 10/11.8 = 85%
Measured (Actual) input power = 1.732x 0.415 x 12x 0.7 = 6.0 kW

Motor loading (%) = Measured input kW = 6.0 x 100

Rated Input kW 11.8

= 51.2 %

1.4 Thermal Energy Basics

Temperature
Temperature is a measurement that quantitatively represents hot and cold. Materials of high
temperatures may be either warm or hot depending on how high it is and low temperatures are
cold.
Thermometers are used for measuring the temperature. These thermometers are calibrated to a
wide range of temperature. Much of the world uses the Celsius scale for most temperature
measurements. In Fahrenheit scale (British system), the freezing temperature of water is 32°F (which
is 0 degree in Celsius) and the boiling temperature of water is 212°F (which is 100 degree in Celsius) at
atmospheric pressure.

The Kelvin scale is the standard temperature used in scientific or engineering calculations. It has the
same incremental scaling(1°) as the Celsius scale, but fixes its origin, or null temperature, at absolute
zero ( 0 Kelvin = —273.15°C)

Conversion of the degree Celsius into Fahrenheit = (degrees C x 1.8) + 32

Conversion of the Fahrenheit into degree Celsius = (degrees F - 32) / 1.8
Degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Kelvin (K) = (C) + 273 = (K)
Pressure

It is the force per unit area applied to outside of a body.

P = F/A = ma/A = mg/A (when g=a)

Where,
P indicates pressure in N/m2 or Pascals
F indicates force in Newtons (N)
a indicates the acceleration in m/s2
g indicates acceleration due to gravity in m/s2

Absolute pressure
The total or true pressure is called absolute pressure (ps). It is measured in comparison with the
absolute zero pressure - the pressure that will occur at the absolute vacuum. All calculation relating to
the gas laws needs the pressure to be in represented in absolute units and temperature in Kelvin.

Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure (pg) is the pressure indicated by a gauge. All gauges are to be calibrated to show
zero at atmospheric pressure. Gauges indicates the difference in pressure between a system and
the atmosphere.

The gauge pressure can be defined as

pg = ps - pa
Where,
pg = gauge pressure
ps = system pressure (absolute)
pa = atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure (pa) is pressure in the air at the surface of the earth. The atmospheric pressure
changes with altitude above sea level and temperature.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Standard Atmospheric Pressure (atm) is used as a reference for gas densities and volumes. The
Standard Atmospheric Pressure is well-defined at 273°K (0°C) at sea-level and it is 1.01325 bar which
is equal to101325 Pascal (absolute). The temperature of 293°K (20°C) is also used.

1 atm = 1.01325 bar or101.3 kPa

1 atm = 760 mmHg or10.33 meter H2O
1 atm= 1013 mbar or 1.0332 kg per square centimeters

Heat
Heat is transferred from one particular body which is at higher temperature to another particular
body which is at a lower temperature by virtue of temperature difference, i.e. heat is energy in
transition or transitory energy.

The amount of heat transferred depends on the quantity and type of substance involved. Calorie is
the unit for measuring the quantity of heat, which can increase the temperature of one gram of
water by 1°C.

Calorie is the small unit measurement of heat. Therefore, when huge quantities of heat are to be
measured, then a much bigger unit called Kilocalorie is used. One (1) Kilocalorie is equal to 1,000
calories. One (1) kilocalorie can increase the temperature of 1000grams or 1 kg of water by 1°C.

However, nowadays Joule is also used as the unit of heat energy. Joule is the internationally used unit
of measurement of heat. It has following relationship with calorie:
1 Calorie = 4.187 Joules = 4.2 joules

Specific Heat
If the equal amount of heat energy is supplied to equal quantities of water and milk, their
temperature goes up by different amounts. This is due to different specific heats of different
substances. Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to increase the
temperature of one (1) kg of a substance through 1°C or 1 K. Specific heat is represented in terms of
kcal/kg°C or J/kg K.

Specific heat varies with temperature. In case of gases, there are an infinite number of processes in
which heat could be added to increase the gas temperature by a fixed amount and therefore a gas
can have an infinite numbers of specific heat capacities. However, only two (2) specific heats are
defined for gases, i.e. specific heat at a constant pressure, cp and specific heat at a constant volume,
cv. For solids and liquids, however, the specific heat does not depend on the process of heat
addition.

The specific heat of water is very high as compared to other common substances; it requires a lot of
heat to increase the temperature of water. Also, when water is cooled, it gives out large quantity of
heat. The specific heat of common substances are furnished in below table.
Table 1: Specific Heat of Some Common Substances
Substance Specific heat (J/kg°C)
Lead 130
Mercury 140
Copper 390
Aluminium 910
Water 4,200
Alcohol 2,400
Iron 470

Sensible Heat
The quantity of heat which when added to any substance can change its temperature. The
moisture content in the air is not altered by the changes in temperature. Such heat is called
sensible heat. It is expressed in calories or Joules.

Sensible heat = mass x specific heat x change in temperature

Q =m Cp AT
Phase Change
The alteration of state from the solid state to a liquid state is called fusion. The fixed temperature at
which a solid alter into a liquid is called its “melting point”.

The alteration of a state from a liquid state to a gaseous is called “vapourization”. The fixed
temperature at which a liquid change into a vapour is called its “boiling point”. The change of a
state from gaseous state to a liquid state is called condensation.

Latent heat
It is the heat quantity required for a substance, to change its physical state without change in its
temperature.

Latent heat of “fusion”

It is the quantity of heat required to alter 1 kg solid into liquid state without change of temperature. It
is represented by the symbol hif. Its unit is Joule per kilogram (J/kg). Thus, QL (ice) = 335 kJ/kg. The
change in phase occurs in either direction at the fusion temperature, i.e. liquid to solid and solid to
liquid. The temperature and quantity of heat to bring about the change will be the same in either
case and can be determined from the following equation:
QL = m x hif

Where QL = The quantity of latent heat in kilojoules

m = The mass in kg
hif = The latent heat of “fusion” in kJ/kg

Example 10
If the latent heat of water is 335 kJ/kg, determine the quantity of latent heat released by 10 kg of
water at 0°C when it freezes into ice at 0°C.

QL = 10 kg x 335 kJ/kg = 3350 kJ

Example 11
If 20 kJ of heat is supplied to 25 kg of ice at 0°C, how many kilograms of ice will be melted into water?
m = QL/hif =20 kJ/335 Uflig= 0.06 kg

Latent Heat of “Vapourization”

It is the amount of heat that a 1 kg mass of liquid will absorb in going from the liquid phase to the
vapour phase, or release in changing from the vapour phase to the liquid phase, without change in
temperature, is called latent heat of “vapourization”.

It is also denoted by the symbol QL and its unit is J/kg. The latent heat of “vapourization” of water is
2.257 kJ/kg. When one (1) kg of water at 100°C vapourizes to form steam at 100°C, it absorbs 2,257
kcal/kg (540 kcal/kg) of heat.

QL = Xhfg
Where,

QL = The quantity of latent heat in kilojoules

m = The mass in kg
hfg= The latent heat of “vapourization” in kJ/kg

Condensation
Condensation is the change by which any substance is converted from a gaseous state to liquid state
without change in temperature. When one kilogram of steam at 100°C condenses to form water at
100°C, it gives out 2,260 kJ of heat.

Example 12
Determine the amount of heat needed to vapourize 2 m3 of water at 100°C if the latent heat of
“vapourization” of water at 100°C is 2257 kJ/kg

QL = 2000 kg x 2257 kJ/kg = 4514000 kJ

Super Heat
Super heating is the heating of vapour, particularly saturated steam to a temperature much higher
than the boiling point (also called saturation temperature) at the existing pressure. This is done in
power plants to improve efficiency and to avoid condensation in the turbine.

Here it is noteworthy to mention that higher the pressure of water-higher the “saturation”
temperature for corresponding pressure. This property of water can be depicted by the
Temperature- entropy(T-S) diagram in the figure below:
 Figure 4: Temperature- entropy(T-S) diagram

Entropy in horizontal axis is commonly understood as a measure of disorder of a substance.

The area under the dome is the binary phase, i.e. water and steam mixture. The blue lines are constant
pressure lines and these lines under the dome represent the latent heat region (i.e. constant
temperature and pressure heating resulting into phase change from water to steam).

X=dryness factor of steam=in 1 kg of water-steam mixture, x kg is mass of steam and (1-x) kg is mass
of water.

Thus, the zone in right side of X=1.0 line represents the superheated region of steam.

Humidity
Moisture contained in air is expressed as humidity. Saturated air holds all the moisture that it can hold
without any condensation at that temperature and pressure.

The unit for humidity is kg of moisture / kg of dry air.

Dew Point
It is the temperature of air at which its water vapour becomes saturated with moisture and if further
moisture is added to the air, then the added moisture starts condensing into droplets of water. Dew
point is the saturation temperature at partial pressure of the vapour of water in the mixture.

Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio

It is the mass (kg) of the vapour of water in each kg of dry air (kg/kg).

Relative Humidity (RH)

It is the ratio of mass of vapour of water truly held by the air in a given volume to that which air can
hold at the same temperature if the air were saturated. It is expressed as a percentage. Warmer air
will hold more water vapour and saturated air cannot hold any more water vapour.

Relative humidity (RH) affects comfort conditions. An air at 50% RH means that it is holding half of
the moisture that it is capable of holding at its dew point.

Dry bulb and Wet bulb Temperatures

Dry bulb measures sensible heat content in air-vapour mixtures. Dry bulb temperature is not
influenced by RH. It is the temperature shown by the thermometer with a dry bulb.

Wet bulb thermometer has wick saturated with distilled water enveloping the bulb of the
thermometer. The evapouration of water lowers temperature, taking the latent heat from the water-
soaked wick, thus decreasing the temperature recorded. Wet bulb temperature takes into account
RH.

If relative humidity is 100%, dew point, dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are all the same.

Enthalpy of air
It is the measure of total heat content of air and water vapour mixture measured from pre-
determined base point. It is expressed as kcal/kg or Joules/kg. Enthalpy of air stream can be determined
by measuring dry and wet bulb temperature and referring the psychometric chart.

Fuel Density
Density is the ratio of the mass to its volume of the fuel at a stated temperature. Density is
expressed in kg/cubic meters.

Specific gravity of fuel

It is defined as the ratio of fuel density to water density. The water has specific gravity of 1. As it is a
ratio, there are no units. Higher the specific gravity, higher will be the heating values. Specific gravity
has no dimensions.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow. All liquid fuels decrease in viscosity
with increasing temperature.

Viscosity is specified in Stokes or Centistokes. Sometimes viscosity is specified in, Say bolt, Engler or
Redwood.

Energy Content in Fuel

Energy content (Calorific Value) in an organic matter can be measured by burning it and measuring
the heat released. This is done by placing a sample of known mass in a bomb calorimeter, a device
that is completely sealed and insulated to prevent heat loss. A thermometer is placed inside (but it
can be read from the outside) and the increase in temperature after the sample is burnt
completely is measured. From this data, energy content in the organic matter can be found out.
The heat given up during the complete combustion of one-unit weight of a fuel is called its heating
value. It is expressed as GCV (Gross Calorific Value) or NCV (Net Calorific Value). The difference
between GCV and NCV is the heat due to the moisture vapourization and atomic hydrogen
(conversion to water vapour) in the fuel. Typical GCV and NCV for heavy fuel oil are 44100 J/kg
(10,500 kcal/kg) and 41,160 J/kg (9,800 kcal/kg).

Heat transfer
Heat always will be flowing from hot medium to cold medium irrespective of the mode. The energy
flown is measured in Joules. The rate of energy flow which is commonly called heat transfer, is
specified in Watts (J/s).

Primarily, there are three (3) modes of heat transfer:

 Conduction (transfer of energy in a solid),
 Convection (transfer of energy in a fluid) and
 Radiation (transfer of energy in space and no travel through any solid).

Conduction occurs by two mechanisms:

 Molecular Motion: Higher energy (motion) molecules convey that energy to molecules of lesser
energy which are adjacent.

 Migration of free electrons associated primarily with the pure metals

Convection occurs when a fluid exchanges energy with an adjacent solid. The fluid motion adjacent
to the surface of the solid assists in the transmission of energy

There are two (2) types of convection heat transfer:

Forced convection: Fluid motion is induced by an external source like a pump or a fan

Natural convection: Heating a fluid results in natural convection heating. Due to natural convective
heating air will circulate. The temperature gradient in the fluid creates changes in density inside the
fluid. The heavier (colder) fluid will go down, and the hotter fluid (lighter) will come up.

Radiation mode heat transfer needs no medium for the transport of heat. Energy can be radiated
from a body on a widespread range of wavelengths. Thermal radiation is only a small portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum shown and it encompasses infrared light to ultraviolet light. Radiant
energy that strikes a surface can be reflected, absorbed and transmitted.

Steam Properties
Evapouration
When a liquid is heated up to its evapouration temperature. the following activities happen:
 The liquid absorbs heat up to its evapouration temperature from the particular
temperature where it originally existed
 Further addition of heat makes the liquid to evapourate at its evapouration
 temperature and it change its state from liquid to vapour form
 Further addition of heat to the vapour increases the temperature of vapour above
the saturation temperature and this is called superheating

Sensible heat is the heat transferred to a material when its temperature changes (increases or
decreases). The latent heat of evaporation is the heat needed for transforming state (from liquid
to vapour or vapour to liquid) at the saturation temperature.

The steam is the most well-known vapour form of water after the evaporation process is
completed.

Enthalpy of steam
Enthalpy of a matter is stated as the mass of the matter(m) multiplied by its specific enthalpy (h)
and can be denoted by the equation:
H=mh

Where, H is the enthalpy (kJ), m is the mass (kg) and h is the specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy is a characteristic of a fluid and is given by the following equation:

h=u+pv

Where, u is the internal energy (kJ/kg), p is the absolute pressure (N/m2), and v is the specific
volume (m3/kg).

Part of the water vapour - steam - properties are given below for understanding purpose. The
reader is advised to standard steam tables available in the internet (see the references).

Figure 5: Properties of water vapour and steam

s is the steam entropy

suffix -f - referrer to saturated liquid
suffix - g - referrer to saturated vapour — steam
 p (bar) in terms of absolute pressure i.e.,pg +pa

Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Water

It is represented byhf and can be found from steam tables. The value varies with varying pressure.

The specific enthalpy of saturated water at the standard atmosphere represented by hf is 419 kJ/kg.
Water will start boiling at 100°C (212 °F) at the standard atmosphere pressure of1 bar (14.7 psi). It
can be found using the following equation:

hf = cw(tf- t0)

Where, hf is the enthalpy of water (kJ/kg),cw is the specific heat of water which is 4.19 (kJ/kg.°C)
and tf is the saturation temperature which is 100°C) and t0reference temperature which is 0 (°C) for
water.

Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Steam

It is denoted by hg and is easily got from steam tables. The value varies with the pressure.

The specific enthalpy of saturated steam at standard atmosphere, represented by hg is 2,676 kJ/kg
and is determined from the following equation:

he = hg - hf
Where, he is the specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) of evaporation, Specific enthalpy of evaporation for water
at the standard atmosphere pressure is given by he = (2676 kJ/kg) - (419 kJ/kg) = 2257 (kJ/kg).

Specific Enthalpy of Superheated Steam

The specific enthalpy of superheated steam can be determined using the following equation:

hs= hg+ cps(ts- tf)

Where,

h is the Enthalpy of the superheated steam in (kJ/kg),

cps is the Specific heat of steam at constant pressure = 1.860 (kJ/kg °C),
tfis the Saturation temperature (°C),
t is the Superheated steam temperature (°C),
c is 1.860 (kJ/kg °C) at standard atmosphere. c varies with temperature.

The laws of thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is about heat and work, and the change of energy from one form into another.
There are actually three (3) laws of thermodynamics, although the majority of thermodynamics is
based on the first two (2) laws.
The first law of thermodynamics
It is also known as the “law of conservation of energy”. It states that the energy in a system can
neither be created nor destroyed. Instead, energy is either transformed from one form to another,
or transferred from one system to another. The term 'system' can refer to anything from a simple
object to a complex machine.

If we apply the first law to a heat engine, like gas turbine, in which heat energy is transformed into
mechanical energy by the impinging gas at high velocity on rotating turbine blades, then we can infer
that no matter whatever the stage of the system is, the total amount of energy in the system must
always remain the same or constant.

The second law of thermodynamics

While the first law refers to the quantity of energy that is in a system, the second law says nothing but
about the direction in which the energy flows. Second law deals with natural direction of energy
processes. For example, according to the second law of thermodynamics, heat will always flow only
from a hot object to a colder object.

Another term arising out of the second law of thermodynamics is the term 'entropy' which
means disorder. Entropy can be used to quantify the amount of useful work that can be performed in
a system. In simple terms, the more chaotic or disorderly a system, the more difficult it is to perform
useful work.

It is the second law that accounts for the fact that a heat engine can never be 100% efficient. Some
quantity of the heat energy contained in its fuel will be discharged to the surroundings, with the
result that it will not be fully possible to convert 100% energy in the fuel to mechanical energy.

The third law of thermodynamics

The third law is concerned with absolute zero (i.e. -273°C). It simply states that it is not at all
possible to decrease the temperature of any system to absolute zero.

1.5 Energy Units and their Conversions

SI system has 6 base units on which other units are derived. The base units are:

Table 2: Base units of SI system

Base quantity Name Symbol
Length meter m
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Following units are derived from the above base units are:
Table 3: Units derived from base units
Derived quantity Name Symbol
Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Acceleration Meter per second Squared m/s'
Mass density Kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Specific volume Cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
Luminance Candela per square meter Cd/m2

SI derived units are given special names and symbols for better understanding. Some derived SI units
relevant to Energy Management and Audit are listed below:
Table 4: Derived SI units relevant to energy management and audit
Derived quantity Name Symbol Expression in Expression in terms
terms of other units of base unit
Frequency Hertz Hz - s-1
Force Newton N - m-kg-s-2
Pressure Pascal Pa N/m2 m-1.kg.s-2
Energy, quantity of heat, Joule J N-m m2.kg.s-2
work
Power Watt W J/s m2.kg.s-3
Electric potential difference, Volt V W/A m2.kg.s-A-1
electromotive force
Capacitance Farad F C/V m-2 . kg-1 .s4 . A2
electric resistance Ohm V/A m2-kg-s-3-A-2
electric conductance Siemens S A/V nr2.kg-1 .s3 • A2
Celsius temperature Degree Celsius °C - K
luminous flux lumen lm cd. sr(c) m2-m-2-cd = cd
Illuminance lux lx 1m/m2 m2.m-4-cd = m-2.cd

Temperature Units

Conversion of the degree Celsius into Fahrenheit = degrees C x 1.8 + 32

Conversion of the Fahrenheit into degree Celsius = (degrees F - 32.) / 1.8
Degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Kelvin (K) = (C) + 2715 = (K) Pressure Units

1 atm 760 mm Hg atmosphere (standard)

1 atm 101325 Pa atmosphere (standard)
1 bar 100000 Pa bar
1 cmHg (0 °C) 13322 Pa centimeter of mercury (0 °C)
lcm H2O 98.0638 Pa centimeter of column of water (at 4 °C)
1 kgf/cm2 98066,5 Pa kilogram force per square centimeter
1 kgf/m2 9,80665 Pa kilogram force per square meter
1 kPa 1000 Pa kilopascal
1 MPa 1000000 Pa megapascal
1 mbar 100 Pa millibar
1 N/m2 1 Pa pascal
1 lbf/ft2 6894,76 Pa pound force per square inch
Conversions of Energy Units

1 Joule = 1 Watt/s
1 kW = 1000 W
1 kWh =6 x 106J
= 6 million Joules
1 Mega-joule = 278 Wh
1 Watt-hour (Wh) = 3600 Joules
1 British Thermal unit (BTU) = 252 Cal
1 BTU = 1055 J
1 Btu/h = 0.293071 Wh
1 Kilocalorie/hour (kcal/h) = 1163 Wh
1 HP = 745.7 Watts

Energy Conversion values used for working out annual energy consumption in terms of metric ton
of oil equivalent

1 kWh - 860 kilocalories (kcal)

1 kg. Coal/Coke - Gross Calorific Value as per supplier's (coal company's) latest certificate
1 kg. Charcoal - 6,900 kcal or as per supplier's latest certificate
1 kg. Furnace Oil/RFO/LSHS/NAPTHA - 10,050 kcal (density = 0.9337 kg/litre) or as per supplier's
latest certificate
1 kg. HSD - 11,840 kcal (density = 0.8263 kg/litre) or as per supplier's latest certificate
1 kg. Petrol - 11,200 kcal (density = 0.7087 kg/litre) or as per supplier's latest certificate
1 kg. Kerosene - 11,110 kcal (density of SKO = 0.7782 kg/litre) or as per supplier's latest
certificate.
1 kg. LPG - 12,500 kcal or as per supplier's latest certificate
1 m3 Natural Gas - 8,000-10,500 kcal (Actual calorific value as per supplier's latest certificate
may be considered. In case of non-issue of certificate by the supplier, average of the range 8000
-10,500 kcal/m3 may be considered).

For the purpose of this table

1 kg of Oil Equivalent: 10,000 kcal
1 Metric Tonne of Oil Equivalent (MTOE) : 1 x 10 7 kcal

In case of coal, petroleum products and other fuels in absence of supplier certificate, GCV of the above
fuel (fuel sample) will be considered as per the test Certificate from a NABL Accredited Lab or State
Government Lab or Gov. recognized Lab.

For different types of fuels, these following formulas can be used for MTOE conversion:

1. For solid fuel,

(Quantity of solid fuel used in kg X GCV of fuel used in kcal/kg)/107
2. For Liquid fuel,
 (Quantity of liquid fuel used in kg or liters X GCV of fuel used in kcal/kg or liters)/107

3. For gaseous fuel,

(Quantity of gaseous fuel used in kg or Nm3 X GCV of fuel used in kcal/kg or Nm3)/107

1.6 References

1. Cleveland and Christopher Morris, Dictionary of Energy, https://epdf.pub/queue/dictionary-

of-energy.html

2. Engineering Thermodynamics-2nd Edition by P K NAG, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

IIT-Kharagpur, https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B7aqV7A2-Iy6NFV4dXBJcVR0dEk/edit.
3. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists (Fifth Edition) by EASTOP, McConkey
www. eia. doe. gov/kids/btudef.html
4. Units convertors, A physical property for conversions, www.calculator.org/properties.html
5. Engineering Unit Conversion Calculator, www.katmarsoftware.com

6. General aspects of Energy audit, www.beeindia. gov. in,

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rKbsgRMKS1a9SxfDKMnOjucmQDcgIS-e/view
Steam tables, https://www.engineersedge.com/thermodynamics/steam_tables.htm
1.7 Sample Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. An example of stored mechanical energy is

a) water in a reservoir b) an arrow in a stretched bow
c) an air-borne aeroplane d) you on top of a mountain
2. Mega Volt Ampere (MVA) in a three phase electrical circuit could be written as a)
Voltage x Ampere b) Voltage x Ampere
1000 1,000,000
c) Voltage x Ampere x1,000 d) none of the above
3. When the current lags the voltage in an alternating current system, it is caused mainly due
to
a) resistive load b) capacitive load c) inductive load d) none of the above
4. Which energy source is indirect in an overall energy balance in the generation of electricity
by a photovoltaic cell?
a) commercial energy b) wave energy c) sun lightd) none of the above
5. The rate of energy transfer from a higher temperature to a lower temperature is measured
in
a) kcal b) Watt c) Watts per Second d) none of the above
6. What is the "toe" of 125 Ton of coal which has GCV of 4000 kcal / kg a) 40
b) 50 c) 400 d) 500

7. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1° C is known as

a) sensible heat b) specific heatc) heat capacity d) latent heat

8. Active power in an alternating current (AC) circuit is given by

a) kVA x power factor b) (kVA2 - kVAr2)1/2
c) [(kVA + kVAr) x (kVA - kVAr)P/2 d) all of the above

9. Nameplate kW or HP rating of a motor indicates

a) input kW to the motor b) output kW of the motor
c) minimum input kW to the motor d) maximum input kW to the motor
10. Among which of the following fuel is the difference between the GCV and NCV maximum? a)
coal b) furnace oil c) natural gas d) rice husk
Short Answer Questions

1. List five forms of energy with examples.

2. A 10 kW rated motor has a full load efficiency of 85%. Actual input measurement at a
particular loading shows 415 Volt, 10 Amps, and PF of 0.68. Find out the motor loading in
percentage.
3. A 250 W sodium vapour lamp is installed on a street. The supply voltage for the streetlight is
230 V and it operates for around 12 hours in a day. Considering the current of 2 amps and
power factor 0.85 calculate the energy consumption per day.
4. What is the load factor of a continuously operating facility that consumed 900,000 kWh of
energy during a 30-day billing period and established a peak demand of 2000 kW?
5. A 400 Watt mercury vapour lamp was switched on for 10 hours per day. The supply volt is
230 V. Find the energy consumption per day? (Volt = 230 V, Current = 2 amps, PF = 0.8)

Long Answer Questions

1. Define the following:

a) specific heat b) power factor
2. Define the following
a) relative humidity b) wet bulb temperature c) dew point