MECHANICAL

WORKSHOP PRACTICE
Lab Report

Shuja-Ur-Rehman
BSME-01163082
 (Chapter-1)
MEASURING SYSTEMS
Measuring System: There are two measuring systems named as following:
1) Imperial System
2) Metric System
Imperial System:
This system is used by British countries in which measuring units are inch, feet, yard, miles,
etc.
Tools used for measuring: Different types of tools are used for measuring these systems
and are stated below:
1) Semi-precision Tools
2) Precision Tools
Semi precision Tools: These tools include steel rule, inside caliper and outside caliper.
Steel Rule: With the help of steel rule, we can measure both systems. One side of
steel rule is marked with the division in imperial system and the other side with
divisions in metric system.
In some steel rule, both systems are given on same face of the steel rule, upside
down.
Q. How to use steel rule?
There are 12 inches in one steel rule. 1 inch is further divided into:
 4 equal parts
 8 equal parts
 16 equal parts
 32 equal parts

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 Outside Caliper: It is used to measure external diameter, thickness and width of
small pieces. There are two types of outside caliper named as following:
1) Spring Type
2) Firm Type
Inside Caliper: It is used to measure internal diameter of the specimen. There are
two types of inside caliper named as following:
1) Spring Type
2) Firm Type
Precision Tools: These tools include micrometer and Vernier caliper.
Micrometer: Single micrometer has divisions in one system only which means that
we can only measure in specific system of measurements by the help of one
micrometer.
Division on micrometer in imperial System are as follows:
Sleeve is divided into forty equal divisions (1/40). Moreover, the smallest division of
the sleeve is further divided into 25 equal parts or it can be 50 equal parts on the
circular scale.
Vernier Caliper: Vernier Caliper has division of both systems on a single Vernier
Caliper. Upper side has divisions in Imperial System and the lower side is divided
according to the Metric System.
Division on Vernier caliper in imperial system are as follows:
1 inch is divided into 40 equal parts on main scale. The smallest division of Vernier
scale is further divided into 25 equal parts on Vernier scale giving us the least count
of 0.001 inch.

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Metric System:
Semi precision Tools: These tools include steel rule, inside caliper and outside caliper.
Steel Rule: By the help of steel rule, both systems can be measured. One side of
steel rule is marked with the division in imperial system and the other side with
divisions in metric system.
In some steel rule, both systems are given on same face of the steel rule, upside
down.
Q. How to use steel rule?
There are 12 inches in one steel rule. One inch is further divided into:
 4 equal parts
 8 equal parts
 16 equal parts
 32 equal parts
Outside Caliper: It is used to measure external diameter, thickness and width of
small pieces. There are two types of outside caliper named as following:
1) Spring Type
2) Firm Type
Inside Caliper: It is used to measure internal diameter of the specimen. There are
two types of inside caliper named as following:
1) Spring Type
2) Firm Type

3
Precision Tools: These tools include micrometer and Vernier caliper.
Micrometer: Single micrometer has divisions in one system only which means that
we can only measure in specific system of measurements by the help of one
micrometer.
Division on micrometer in metric system are as follows:
Two complete revolutions of the circular scale cover the distance on the sleeve is
equal to 1mm.

Vernier Caliper: Vernier caliper can measure both systems, metric as well as imperial.
Lower side is divided according to the metric system.
Each division on main scale is equal to 1 mm. Metric Vernier scale is 49mm long and
is divided into 50 equal parts. Difference between the smallest division of main scale
and Vernier scale is 0.02mm. Least count of the Vernier caliper can be calculated by
dividing the smallest division on main scale into the number of divisions on Vernier
scale.

4
 (Chapter-2)
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY
Introduction: In an industry, there are number of machines and other equipment that have
large number of moving parts and other dangerous projection that may cause accidents.
Injuries if proper measure are not taken for safeguarding against them, they can cause
accidents. It is thus essential for a worker to know the basic principles
Objectives:
Following are the objectives of industrial safety:
1) To increase the production
2) To reduce the cost of production
3) The best use of labor available
4) To reduce needless sufferings and human wastage
5) To have better human relations in the industry
6) To have better moral of employees
Accidents: An incident that causes some injury to the person, damage to machines, tools
and equipment, which results in loss of production is called accident. The accident may be
due to worker’s own fault or it may be due to his employer’s fault for not providing safe
working conditions. Accidents may be minor or serious.
Common causes of accidents:
Following are the causes of accidents in an industry:
1) Poor house keeping
2) Lack of skill or knowledge
3) Loose clothing of worker
4) Insufficient working space
5) Carelessness of the worker
6) Improper or defective tools
7) Poor working conditions such as bad lighting and ventilation
8) Unguided machinery
9) Improper maintenance of machine
10) Operating of machines at unsafe speed
11) Bad layout and planner

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GOOD HOUSE KEEPING
A good housekeeping is very essential in prevention of accidents. Following point should
be practiced for good housekeeping:
1) Working place should be kept clean and free from oil and Greece in order to avoid
slipping of worker
2) The work benches and machines should be clean
3) Tools and measuring instruments should be kept at their proper places
4) The scrap should be kept in scrap box
5) There should be a sufficient space for a worker to move around
6) The material hindering should be minimum
7) The material should not be stored in passages
8) There should be a suitable and sufficient light in every workplace and passage
9) The ventilation for fresh air should be provided
10) The noise level should not distract the worker
Safety Guards:
The moving parts of the machine must be properly guarded to maintain safety. The type
of guard should be selected with regard to the nature of machine, purpose and mode of
operation. The main types of guards are as follows:
1) Fixed Guards: These are the most commonly used in workshops to protect the
dangerous parts of machine from all direction and curing all operations. These
guards are tightly secured to machine. Sheet metal, steel sheet and sometime cast
iron is suitable material for fixed guards. When a clean view of moving parts is
essential during the operation then metal of small mesh is suitable.
2) Interlocking Guards: When it is impossible to use the fixed guards then, whenever
possible interlocking guards is fitted. This type of guard forms an integral part of the
machine and cannot be removed. Before the machine is operated these guards are
closed to prevent access to the dangerous parts and are kept in close position until
the dangerous part is at rest.
3) Automatic Guards: The moving of the machine in which it is fitted operates the
automatic guards and these two are so linked that the part will automatically bring
the guard in protecting position, before the machine starts operating. These guards
are suitable on medium and heavy presses.
4) Trip Guards: A trip guard is provided when tripping device or safety switch inside
the guards that enables quick stopping of the machine as soon as the operator

6
 approaches within the reach of dangerous parts. Thus safeguarding the operator
from the revolving dangerous parts.
5) Distance guards: the distance guard is fencing made of grills, bars or rails placed at
suitable height and distance from machine so that even if the operator by chance
extends hand over it, his clothes, fingers or other part of body does not reach within
area of dangerous part.
General Safety Precautions:
A worker while working in an industry should observe these:
1) Always wear proper dress and shoes in a workshop. A worker should not wear loose
cloths, neck ties, etc. to guard against getting caught with moving parts of the
machines
2) Before operating a machine it should be cleaned and oiled, if necessary
3) The machine should have effective and properly working guards in proper place
4) The heavy work should not be lifted by hand
5) Before operating the machine, the work and tool should be clamped securely
6) The machine should be operated only by a skilled workman
7) The machine should not be left in running position while going for an urgent call
8) The operator should not lean towards the machine
9) When the machine is running the operator should not talk with the other operators
10) Wear safety googles or face shield to protect eyes from welding arcs and machine
chips
The following points may be observed in case of fire to save machinery, building, factory,
industry, and to save lives of workers in case of fire.
1) In every factory suitable devices for cutting off powers in emergencies from running
machinery should be provided and maintained in every work rule
2) In a factory all doors and windows except their sliding type, should be made as to
open outward.
3) The doors and windows to be used as exit in case of fire should be marked in
language understood by the majority of workers and in red letters.
4) Maximum no. of workers and officers should be trained in firefighting system to
save machinery, building and live of workers.

7
 (Chapter # 03)
METALS
A solid material that is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good
electrical and thermal conductivity. Following are the types of metals:
1) Ferrous metals
2) Non-ferrous metals
Introduction about the metals:
The metals play an important role in the industries of a nation. Thus, it is essential for
engineers to know about the sources and techniques of production. The metals used in
the industry are of the following types:
1) Ferrous metals
2) Non-ferrous metals
Ferrous metals: The ferrous metals are defined as those metals that contain iron as their
main consequent such as pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron, steel and their alloys. The
principle raw material for all ferrous metals is pig iron.
 Pig Iron: it is the crude form of iron and is used for the production of other ferrous
metals such as cast iron, wrought iron and steel. It is obtained by smelting iron ore
in a blast furnace. The 3 principle raw material required the production of pig iron
are:
o Iron ore
o Flux
o Fuel
Iron ore: Any material body from which metal can be economically recovered is
called ore. The iron ores are never found in pure state but are always mixed with
earthy metals such as silica, alumina, lime, soda, potash, manganese, Sulphur, and
phosphorous are present in the iron ore.

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 Fuel: The most commonly used fuel in the blast furnace is the hard coal. It serves
the following purposes:
1) It provides the required heat for melting ore.
2) It combines with oxygen of ore in order to burn
3) The ore used should have following properties:
a. It should be hard
b. It should have high chlorophic value and low ash content
c. It should be free from Sulphur
d. It should be of uniform size
Flux: Most commonly used flux in the blast furnace is limestone. The flux is used for
removing impurities such as ash, Sulphur. The flux melts and drives away the
impurities in the form of slag leaving pure iron.
Ratio: All three elements are with ratio of 8:4:1 = iron: hard coal: flux
Composition of pig iron: Pig iron from blast furnace contains 93-94% of iron. The various
other elements present in pig iron are carbon, silicon, manganese, Sulphur & phosphorous.
Average composition of pig iron is as follows:

 Iron (93-94%)
 Carbon (1-5%)
 Silicon (1-2%)
 Manganese (1-2%)
 Sulphur & phosphorous (1-2%)
Cast iron: The cast iron is obtained by melting pig iron with hard coke and limestone in
furnace (cupla furnace) in ratio of 8:4:1. It is an alloy of iron and carbon. Carbon contents
in cast Iron varies from 1.7-4.5%. It also contains small amount of silicon, manganese,
phosphorous & Sulphur. Furnace we use to get cast iron is blast furnace.
Cupla Furnace: Cupla furnace is very similar to the blast furnace. It is smaller and much
simpler in construction. It consist of vertical steel cylinder shell of uniform diameter of
1mm and 4mm height. It is lined with firebrick and rest on a square brick bed that is
supported on four cast iron pillars. The square bedplate has a circular opening size of inside
dimensions of furnace that is closed by two semi-circular cast iron hinged grooves.
Generally, cuplas do not work continuously as that of blast furnace but are… Therefore,
before using the furnace it is cleaned with unburnt coke, slag, etc. which is settled at the
bed of furnace by dropping down the semi-circular hinged doors. The charge consisting of
alternate charge of coke. Pig iron mixed with … and limestone … through the charging door.

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Types of cast iron:
1) Grey cast iron: is an ordinary commercial having following composition:
a. Carbon (3-3.5%)
b. Silicon (1-2.75%)
c. Manganese (0.4-1%)
d. Phosphorous (0.15-1%)
e. Sulphur (0.022-0.15%)
f. Remaining is iron.
The grey color is because of the free graphite. It has a low tensile strength, high
compressive strength, low ductility. It can easily be machined. A very good property
of grey cast iron is the free graphite in its structure is … due to this reason, it is very
suitable for those parts where sliding action is desired. They are widely used for
machine to bodies, automatic cylinder blocks, housing, pipe and pipefittings,
manhole covers, switch housing, etc.
2) White cast iron: it has following composition:
a. Carbon (1.75-2.3%)
b. Silicon (0.85-1.2%)
c. Manganese (0.10-0.40%)
d. Phosphorous (0.05-0.20%)
e. Sulphur (0.12-0.35)
f. Remaining is the iron.
The white color is because the carbon is in the form of carbide known as cementite
that is the hardest consequent of iron. Quick cooling of molten iron causes
cementite. It has high tensile strength and low compressive strength. It is hard so it
cannot be machined with ordinary cutting tools. However, require grinding as a
shaping process. It is used for inferior casting and in places where a hardwearing
surface is desired. As in the outer surface of a car wheel, rolls for crushing planes,
and jaw for crushing grains, etc.
3) Chilled cast iron: it is a white cast iron produced by quick cooling of molten cast iron.
The quick cooling is generally called chilling and the iron so produced is called as
chilled cast iron. All casting are chilled at their outer skin by contact of molten iron
with cool sand in the mold. In most of the casting this hardness penetrates to a very
small depth, less than 1 mm. sometimes a casting is chilled intentionally and
sometimes chilled becomes accidently to a considerable depth. The processes of

10
 chilling is used in casting of rolls for crushing grains for jaw crushing planes the
running surface of rail carriage wheels are also chilled.
Effects of impurities on cast iron:
 Silicon: it may be present in the cast iron up to 4%. It provides the formation of free
graphite that makes the iron soft and easily machine able.
 Sulphur: makes the cast iron hard and brittle. It should be kept well below 0.1% for
most foundry purposes.
 Manganese: makes the cast iron white and hard. It is kept below 0.75%.
 Phosphorous: aids fusibility in the cast iron, but induces brittleness. It is really
allowed to exceed 1%. Phosphoric-iron is used to integrate design and for many
light engineering casting when cheapness is essential.
Wrought Iron: is the purest iron that contains 99.5% of iron but may contain up to 99.9%
of iron. The composition of the wrought iron is following:
 Carbon (0.02%)
 Silicon (0.12%)
 Sulphur (0.018)
 Phosphorous (0.02)
 Slag (0.07%)
The remaining is the iron. The wrought iron is a tough, malleable and ductile material. Is
cannot stand sudden shocks. It can be easily forged and welded. The melting point of the
wrought iron is about 1530 degree Celsius. It is used for bolts and nuts, chains, crane hooks,
railway couplings, water and steam pipes.
Manufacturing of wrought iron: the chief point in manufacturing of wrought iron is
oxidations of nearly all of the carbon and other elements from pig iron. The manufacturing
of the wrought iron involves the following of the processes:
 Puddling Process: the wrought iron is produced from pig iron and is melted in the
puddling furnace. This is a cold fire reverberatory furnace. The term ‘reverberatory
furnace’ is referred to furnace in which the charge is not in the actual contact with
fire, but receives is heat by the reflection from the roof of the furnace. The roof of
the furnace is very low in puddling furnace.

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Steel: different types of steel are as follows:
1. Carbon steel: is the steel that contains 0.01-1.5% of carbon and traces of Sulphur,
phosphorous, silicon and manganese.
Classification of steel:
 Mild steel: the carbon content is between 0.1-0.3 percent in mild steel. Mild steel
can be cut and machined easily, and can be soldered, brazed and welded. It is also
a cheap material, so for these purposes this metal is made. Most of the things we
use in our daily life are made of mild steel.
Things made from mild steel:
o Sheets
o Round, flat, square bars
o Angle iron
o Pipe
o Screws
o Car bodies
o Oil drums
o Windows, door
o Washers
o Nuts and bolts
o Hinges
 Medium carbon steel: contains 0.3-0.7% of carbon. This steel is therefore harder
and tensile than mild steel. It is tough and have high tensile strength. They are used
for manufacturing products which have to be tough and hardly working like:
o axle
o wire
o forging dies
o hammers
o welded links
o chains
o screw drivers
o keys
o connecting rods

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Non-ferrous metals: the non-ferrous metal is defined as a metal that contain a metal other
than iron as their consequent such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, lead, gold, etc.
They are usually implied in the industry due to the following characteristics:
 Easy to fabricate that is casting, rolling, forging, welding and machining.
 High resistance to corrosion
 Very good electrical and thermal conductivity
 Low weight
 Attractive appearance
Aluminum: the properties and uses of aluminum are:
 It is a simple white light metal having specific gravity of 2.7m/s2 and melting point
of 258-degree Celsius
 In its pure state the metal would be weak and soft for most of the purposes but,
when mixed with some other amount of alloys it becomes hard, so it may be formed,
drawn, turned, cast, forged, etc.
 Its good electrical conductivity is an important property and is widely used for
overhead cables
 Due to the high resistance to the corrosion, it is useful metal for cooking utensils
 It is mostly used in aircrafts and automobiles components where saving of weight
in an advantage.
Copper: the properties and uses of copper are:
 It is a soft malleable and ductile metal with reddish brown appearance
 Its specific gravity is 8.9m/s2 and melting point is 1083-degree Celsius
 It is a good conductor electricity. It is largely used in making electric cables and wires
for electric machines
 It is also used for electro-plating and making coins, household utensils
 It may be casted, forged, rolled and drawn into wires. Copper is widely used in
mechanical engineering
 It is used for making useful alloys with tin and zinc.

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Lead: the properties and uses of lead are:
 It is a Greyish metal having specific gravity of 7.36m/s2 and melting point is 326-
degree Celsius
 It is sort of that it can be cut with a knife
 It is resistant to corrosion and many acids has no chemical reaction on it
 It is mostly used for making solder, acid tank, sistens, water pipes and as a coating
for electrical cables
Tin: the properties and uses of tin are:

 It is brightly shinning white metal

 It is soft malleable and ductile, it has good resistance to acid corrosions and can be
rolled into very thin sheets
 It is used for making important alloys, fine solders, as a protective coating for iron
and steel sheets and for making tin foils used as to make moisture free packing
Zinc: the properties and uses of zinc are:

 Bluish white metal having specific gravity of 7.1m/s2 and melting point of 420-
degree Celsius
 It boils at 940-degree Celsius and can easily be distilled
 Not very malleable and ductile at ordinary temperature but it can be turned and
rolled into thin sheets, or drawn into wire by heating it to 100-150 degree Celsius.
At about 200-degree Celsius it becomes so brittle
 Due to its high resistance to corrosion it is used for covering steel sheet to form
galvanized iron
 The covering is done by dipping the sheet into the molten metal and is used for
galvanizing wires, nails

14
 (Chapter# 04)
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Introduction about the subject of workshop technology is important to the engineers,
supervisors, or workers engaged in the production of various types of machines or tools.
The study of workshop technology has therefore been made compulsory those days for
the workers, supervisor and engineers, so that they can make themselves known with the
basic knowledge of manufacturing processes and materials. The material can broadly
divided into the following groups:
 Ferrous metals
 Non-ferrous metals
The manufacturing plays an important role in engineering as it changes the form of the
material into the final product. Process used in manufacturing is classified into the
following five groups:
1. Primary shaping process: following are the commonly used primary shaping
processes in engineering manufacturing:
a) Casting forging
b) Rolling
c) Bending
d) Drawing
e) Sharing
f) Spinning
g) Welding
2. Machining process: involve the operations of casting, rolling, forging in order to
obtain the desired accuracy, shape and size. The following machining operations
are used for this purpose:
a) Turning
b) Drilling
c) Grinding
d) Threading
e) Boring
f) Slotting
g) Milling
h) Knurling

15
 3. Surface finishing process: is used effectively to provide a good surface finish to the
metallic surface of the product. In this process, a neglect able amount of metal is
removed or small amount of metal is added to the surface of the product. It may be
noted that there is no change in dimensions by this process. The following surface
finishing processes are commonly used for obtaining desired finish and accuracy:
a) sand blasting
b) buffing
c) lapping
d) belt grinding
e) polishing
f) electro-plating
g) metal spraying
h) painting
i) hot dipping
j) galvanizing
4. Joining process: This process is to join two or more metal pieces of metal parts.
Following process are commonly used to join the parts:
a) Welding
b) Soldering
c) Brazing
d) Riveting
e) Forge welding
f) Screwing/threading
g) Pressing
5. Processes effecting properties: include the following process to change the
properties:
a) Heat treatment
b) Hot working
c) Cold working
a) Heat treatment Processes: introduction about the heat treatment is as an
operation or combination of the operations involving heating and cooling of
the metal. The aim of the heat treatment process is to achieve one or more
of the following:
i. To increase the hardness of the metal
ii. To relieve the internal stresses setup in the material after the hot or
cold working
iii. To improve machinability
iv. To soften the metal

16
 v. To modify the internal structure of the material to improve its
electrical and magnetic properties
vi. To change the grain size
vii. To increase the qualities of the metal to provide better resistance to
heat, corrosion and wear
viii. To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, ductility and
sharp resistance
Types of heat treatment processes commonly implied are following:
 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Hardening
 Tempering
 Case hardening/surface hardening
Annealing: is one of the most important process of the heat treatment of
steel. It is implied for the following purposes:
i. To soften the steel so that it may be more easily machined or cold
work
ii. To refine the grain size and structure to improve the mechanical
properties like strength and ductility
iii. To relieve internal stresses which may have been caused by hot or
cold work
iv. To alter electrical, magnetic or other physical properties
v. To remove gases trapped in the metal during initial casting

For annealing purpose, we heat the stream 30-50-degrees Celsius above the
upper critical temperature holding it at this temperature for some time to
enable the internal changes to take place. The time around is approximately
3-4 minutes for each mm of the section, then cooling it slowly in the furnace
Normalizing: This process is for the following purposes:
i. To refine the grains structure of the work piece
ii. To improve machinability
iii. Tensile strength and structure of the weld
iv. To remove the strains caused by cold working processes like
hammering, rolling bending, etc. which makes the metal brittle and
unreliable
v. To remove dislocations caused in the internal structure of the steel
due to the hot working
vi. To improve certain mechanical and electrical properties

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 The process of the normalizing consist of heating the stream 30-50-degrees
Celsius above its upper critical temperature. It is hold at this temperature for
about 15 minutes and then allowed to cool down in the air.
Hardening: The main objectives of the hardening are:
i. To increase hardness of the metal so that it can resist wear
ii. To enable it to cut other metals that make it suitable for cutting tool
The process of heating consist of:
i. Heating the metal to a temperature off 30-50-degrees Celsius above
the upper critical temperature
ii. Keeping the metal at this temperature for considerable time
depending upon its thickens
iii. Quenching it in a suitable cooling medium.
Tempering: The steel hardened by rapid quenching is very hard and brittle. It
also contains internal stresses, which cause cracks. It is performed for the
following reasons:
i. To reduce brittleness of the hardened steel and thus to increase
ductility
ii. To remove internal stresses caused by rapid cooling of steel
iii. To make steel tough to resist shocks
The tempering process consists of reheating the hardened steel. Re-
hardening steel to some temperature below the lower critical temperature.
The exact tempering time is judged by the color of the surface of the steel
being tempered.
Carburizing:
Low carbon steel contains carbon up to 0.5% and cannot be hardened by
hardening process. The process of inducing carbon to a lower carbon steel in
order to give it a hard surface is called carburizing. The surface is made hard
only up to a certain depth. The following method is commonly used for
carburizing:
 Pack of solid carburizing: In this method, the article to be carburized is
placed in a carburizing box of proper design and made of special heat
resistant alloy (cast steel or cast alloy). The space between the box
and the article is filled with a solid carburizing compound. The
following is the composition of a carburizing compound:
o Hard charcoal (53-55%)
o Sodium carbonate (2-3%)
o Calcium carbonate (3-4%)
The layer of the compound between the article and box should be as
uniform as possible to give uniform transfer of heat to the article. The
box is covered with lead and sealed with clay to eliminate the entry of

18
 air. The box is now gradually heated in a furnace to the selected
carburizing temperature generally (900-950) degree Celsius. During
heating CO2 is formed. This reacts with the article to form carbon and
CO2 gas. The surface of the article absorb the carbon and get rich in
its carbon content. The temperature time and carburizing compound
is used depending upon the depth of the article. The carbon
composition in article is as given above, 1-1.5mm can be obtained at
925- degree Celsius in an overall carburizing time of 9 hours. Out of
these 9 hours, 5 hours are required for the heat of work and 4 hours
represent the time and temperature. After heating, the article may be
quenched in the oil directly or it may be slowly cooled.
Fasting: there are two types of fasting:
 Temporary fasting
 Permanent fasting
Temporary fasting: In this type of fasting if, we want to remove two parts easily without
the damage of the parts. Examples are:
 By the help of nuts and bolts
 By the help of press
 By the help of finishing process
 By the help to soldering
Soldering: it is the quick and useful method for making joint in light articles. Metal
used for soldering are steel, copper, brass and tin. Soldering method should where
high strength or heat is required. For plumber solder, joint Tin is 30% and Lead is 70%,
and melting point is 180-250 degrees Celsius. For tinsmith joint, tin is 65% and lead is
35%, and the melting point is 180-210 degrees Celsius. Before soldering, the joint
portion must be cleaned
Permanent fasting: In permanent fasting, two parts cannot be separated without
damaging the parts. Examples are:
 Welding
o Electric arc welding
o Gas welding
Electric arc welding: we put the electrode into a holder, rub the electrode on the
surface of the job and make an arc. The distance between the arc and surface of
the job that we want to join is 3-6 mm

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 Gas welding: the gases used in gas welding are oxygen gas and acetylene gas.
Acetylene gas is a burning gas and oxygen gas helps it in burning. If we get the
oxygen gas from the cylinder and acetylene from the homemade tank. This system
is used in small and light article. This system is called low-pressure system. If we
get oxygen and acetylene gases from each cylinder we called it heavy pressure
work
 Forge welding: we put pieces into the forge furnace when temperature is 1371
degrees Celsius that is white in color take it out and put it on anvil and strike it by
the help of hammer or press
 Brazing: In brazing, we use spelter (mixture of copper and zinc). The composition
depends upon the metal being brazed because it is essential that the spelter
should have low melting point then the metal being brazed.

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FITTING SHOP

21
Introduction:
The bench work and fitting plays an important role in every engineering workshop. To
complete and finish the work with desired accuracy, the work carried out by the hand at
the bench is called bench work. Whereas fitting is the assembling of parts together by filling,
chipping, sawing, scrapping, tapping, etc.
Fitting shop tools: The tools used in the fitting lab are called fitting shop tools. These can
be classified into following groups according to their functions:
1) Measuring tools
a. Measuring tape
b. Steel rule
c. Outside caliper
d. Inside caliper
e. Vernier caliper
f. Micrometer
2) Marking/layout tools
a. Scriber
b. Divider
c. Prick punch
d. Centre punch
e. Surface plate
f. V-block
g. Odd leg caliper
h. Scribing block
3) Testing tools
a. Tri-square
b. Protector
c. Adjustable bevel

22
 4) Holding tools
a. Vice
i. Bench vice
ii. Machine vice
iii. Hand vice
iv. Pin vice
v. Leg vice
b. Clamps
i. C-clamps
ii. V-clamps
iii. Parallel clamps
5) Striking tools
a. Hammer
i. Ball peen hammer
ii. Straight peen hammer
iii. Cross peen hammer
6) Cutting tools
a. Hand hex saw
b. Drills
c. Files
d. Chisel
e. Reamer
f. Taps
g. Dies
Fitting shop operations:
Following is the list of fitting shop operations that are performed to complete a job:
1) Measuring operation
2) Layout operation
3) Holding operation
4) Cutting operation
5) Filing operation
6) Drilling operation
7) Inside threading operation
8) Outside threading operation
9) Joining operation

23
 1. Measuring Tools:
a) Measuring tape: It is used for long measuring and both systems are market on
the surface of steel strip. The length of steel tape is normally 3m.
b) Steel Rule: It consists of a steel blade and both systems are marked on steel plate.
c) Outside Caliper: This tool is used for measuring outside dimensions with the help
of steel rule.
d) Inside Caliper: It is used for measuring inside dimension with the help of steel
rule. It is also made of HCS.
e) Micrometer: It is used for measuring minimum dimension. The least count in
metric system is 0.01mm and 0.001 inches in the imperial system. It is available
in different types. Following are the types of micrometer:
i. Outside micrometer
ii. Inside micrometer
iii. Depth micrometer
iv. Screw micrometer
Parts of micrometer:

 Anvil
 Spindle
 Lock
 Ratchet
 Vernier scale/main scale
 Circular scale
 Adjusting nut
 Sleeve
 Thimble
 Frame
f) Vernier caliper: It is also used for measuring minimum dimension in both systems.
The least count in imperial system is 0.0078125 inches and in metric system, the
least count is 0.01mm. following are the types of Vernier caliper:
i. Vernier height gauge
ii. Vernier depth gauge
iii. Gear tooth Vernier

24
 Parts of Vernier caliper:
 Main scale
 Vernier scale
 Locking screw
 Inner jaws
 Outer jaws
 Depth gauge
2. Layout Tools:
a. Scriber: It is made of HCS and used for marking lines on job according to the
measurement. It has hardened point grade to an angle of 20 degree. It has
knurled body for firm gripping. The sizes of scriber are 6 to 10 inches.
b. Divider: Made of HCS used to layout arcs and circles. It is used the same way
as compass in drawing. It can find out the center of circle. It is not a
measuring tool but can be used to transfer the measurement from on job to
another. The points of legs are hardened and tempered. The size of divider
is measured from center to point of the leg. There are two types of divider
used in workshop:
i. Spring type divider
ii. Firm type divider
c. Prick punch: is a layout tool made of HCS. It is used for marking small dots on
the surface of the job. The purpose of these dots is to make the scribed line
more clear. It has a sharp point grade to the angle of 30-60 degree.
d. Center punch: is a similar to prick punch expect that it is to an angle of 60
degree and is used to start the drilling accurately. If we use drill before using
center punch the drill will try to slip. During the use to center punch, it should
be hold at angle of 90 degree.
e. Hermaphrodite caliper/odd leg: only one leg of this caliper is similar to the
outside caliper the other is straight. It is used to find out the center of round
work piece and scribe line parallel to the straight edge.
f. Surface plate: surface plate is made of cast iron and granite. It’s a heavy
weight lay out tool. Body of this plate is machined by grinder carefully to an
extremely smooth and flat surface to enable accurate marking of articles.
After machining, the smoothness of the plate is check by a dial indicator.
Edges of surface plate are squared and we can keep this plate on the table.
Different sizes of surface plate are available in market. Maximum of the plate
size is 144x72 inches. In workshop mostly used 19x12 inches.

25
 g. V-block: is made of mild steel and all faces are machined. The two opposite
side faces have v-grooves and two have slots. The v-block is used for holding,
round bars during marking the center and drilling.
3. Testing tools:
a. Tri-square: consists of a steel blade fixed at right angle to the straight edge
of stock. It is used for testing the square-ness of surface and to set line at
right angle. It is available in various sizes like 100mm, 150mm, 300mm, etc.
b. Protector: is the simplest tool used to measure the angles between two faces
of component. It is made of HCS.
c. Adjustable bevel: is an important tool used for checking, measuring,
transferring an angle and laying out work. The adjustable bevel consists of
blade and handle that can be set, lock at any position by screw.
4. Holding tools:
a. Bench vice: consists of a fixed jaw, a movable jaw, a screw and a nut to fasten
the jaws. The body of bench vice is made of cast iron and strips for jaws are
made of HCS (high carbon steel). The size of vice is measured from the width
of jaws and maximum opening between the jaws. For holding soft or finished
work, soft jaws are used that are made of lead, fiber, copper, brass and tin.
They are fitted over the jaws to provide protective grip.
5. Cutting tools:
a. Files: are hand cutting tools used to reduce and to smoothen the surface.
They are made of HCS and during manufacturing, pass through a number of
stages, such as forging, grinding, forming of teeth and heat treatment. File is
a cheap cutting tool. They are classified according to their length, sectional
shape, grade of cut and type of cut. The chief types of file and their uses are
as follows:
i. According to length: the size of a file is specified by the length, as
measured from heel to point. In metric system, the lengths of file are
available from 100mm to 450mm with 50mm increasing step. In the
imperial system the length of files are available from 4 inch to 18 inch
with 2-inch increasing step.
ii. According to shape: file are produced in a wide range of shapes. Some
of which are used for general purpose applications e.g., flat, hand file,
half-round file, square file and triangular file.
iii. According to cut:
1. Single cut
2. Double cut

26
 iv. According to grade of cut:
1. Rough files (20-25)
2. Coarse file (25-30)
3. Bastred file (30-40)
4. Second cut file (40-50)
5. Smooth file (50-60)
6. Dead smooth file (80-120)
b. Hand hex saw: is a hand-cutting tool used to cut the material into pieces. Its
blade is made of HCS and its frame is made of mild steel. It should be 50
strokes per minute. There are two types of frames:
i. Adjustable frame: is the type of
frame that can hold different
sizes of blade e.g., 8 inch, 12 inch.
ii. Non-adjustable frame: is the type
of frame that can hold only single
size of blade that depends on
frame size.
c. Drill: is a cutting tool used in drilling
operation of producing a hole in solid material. It is one of the most
frequently used tool in engineering. In common, workshop drill is known as
a twist drill because the flutes are twisted around the body of drill in
the front of a helix. Twist drill is made of wide range of sizes according
to the diameter of shank. Drills are made of HSS (high-speed steel) are
suitable for use in an industrial workshop and drills of this material are
easily recognized because HSS is stamped on the shank. Types of drill
are as follows:
i. Straight shank twist drill: are the drills that have a straight shank
and a standard flute length. These are the drills in normal use.
Straight shank drills are not directly fitted in to drill machine
spindle. These are made of HSS. These are available in the range
of 1/64 inch to ½ inch
ii. Taper shank twist drill: are the drills that have a standard taper.
These drills are directly fitted into drill machine spindle. More
than half drills are made taper shank.
d. Sleeve & socket: when drill shank is large and drill machine spindle size is
small, we use socket. In addition, when drill shank is smaller than drill
machine’s spindle, we use sleeve.

27
 e. Taps: are used for cutting internal thread in a hole and hold into the tap
handle. Taps are made of HSS. Three types of taps are available in one tap
set:
i. Taper tap: In which taper lead is, extended over seven to nine and
include an angle of 8 degree. The taper lead enables a taper tap to
start the formation of threading gradually; in simple words, this is the
tap used to start tapping operation. When a thread is to be tapped in
a blind hole the taper tap must not be used to start the thread if there
is a chance that it will touch the bottom of the hole before thread can
be formed. In such case, the thread must be started with the gun tap.
In imperial system: TDS = M.D. = 2*depth of thread
½ - 2(0.64*pitch of thread)
In metric system: TDS = M.D. – pitch of thread
ii. Gun tap: the taper start of a gun tap extends over three to five thread
and has an angle of 16 degree. It is used after the taper tap. A gun tap
is used to reduce the length of contact the taper tap makes with the
work material. If a hole is open on both sides, this tap is suitable for
finishing the thread.
iii. Bottom tap: the starting lead of this tap is over 1 to ½ thread and
include an angle of 46 degree. The bottom tap is used to size and
finish the hole. The bottom tap can be used to carry the thread close
to the bottom of a blind hole.
f. Die: It is a tool used to cut outside thread on a round bar or a tube. Dies are
made of HSS and holed into the die handle.
6. Striking tools:
a. Hammers: The hammers are used for striking, peeing, shaping and forming
metal. These are made of MCS and shaped by forging. A hammer consists of
a head, striking face. Peen and a handle. Following are the types of hammer:
i. Ball peen hammer: has a ball shaped peen and is used for riveting and
chipping
ii. Straight peen hammer: is used for peening and riveting. It is also used
swaging
iii. Cross peen hammer: is used for peeing and swaging.

28
Drill press machine: is a machine or machine tool that is used to make a round hole in the
metal. It is also known as drill press. It is also sued for reaming and taping. Types of drill
press machine are as follows:
1. Hand drill machine
2. Portable hand electric drill machine
3. Hand feel drill machine
4. Gang drill machine
5. Multi spindle drill machine
6. Ultra-sensitive microscopic machine

29
EXPERIMENT # 01
Find out different dimensions of different samples provided to you by help of semi-
precision tools in imperial system. Also, find their difference.
Apparatus: Outside caliper, inside caliper, steel rule, Vernier caliper, micrometer (imperial
system) and test specimen.
Measuring System: There are two measuring systems named as following:
1) Imperial System
2) Metric System
Imperial System:
This system is used by British countries in which measuring units are inch, feet, yard, miles,
etc.
Tools used for measuring: Different types of tools are used for measuring these systems
and are stated below:
1) Semi-precision Tools
2) Precision Tools
Semi precision Tools: These tools include steel rule, inside caliper and outside caliper.
Precision Tools: These tools include micrometer and Vernier caliper.
Procedure:
First, take an outside caliper and a pipe to measure. Open the jaws of outside caliper equal
to the outside diameter of the pipe. After opening it, tally it with the steel rule and note
the reading.
Secondly, take a precision tool, after checking the zero error, measure the external
diameter of the same pipe with it, note the readings, and find out the difference between
precision and semi-precision tools.
Then take an inside caliper and measure the inside diameter of a pipe. Note the readings.
After it take a Vernier caliper and check the zero error. Then measure the inside diameter
of the pipe with the help of outer jaws of the Vernier. Note the readings and find out the
difference between the precision and semi-precision tools.

30
Take different specimens and measure them with the precision and semi-precision tools
to find out their difference in accuracy.
Calculate the mean of their difference.
Precautions:
 First of all check for the zero error
 While taking readings, apparatus should be in front of our eyes.
 Take more than one reading to find mean.
 Use upper jaws of Vernier caliper for internal diameter only.
 Use lower jaws of Vernier caliper for external diameter only.

31
EXPERIMENT# 02
Find out the different dimensions of the different samples provided to you by the help of
semi-precision tools and precision tools according to metric system. Find out the difference
between in accuracy of both types of tools.
Apparatus: Outside caliper, inside caliper, steel rule, micrometer, Vernier caliper, test
samples.
Imperial System:
This system is used by British countries in which measuring units are inch, feet, yard, miles,
etc.
Tools used for measuring: Different types of tools are used for measuring these systems
and are stated below:
1) Semi-precision Tools
2) Precision Tools
Precision Tools: These tools include micrometer and Vernier caliper.
Procedure:
1) First, take an outside caliper and a pipe to measure. Open the jaws of outside caliper
equal to the outside diameter of the pipe. After opening it, tally it with the steel rule
and note the reading.
2) Secondly, take a precision tool, after checking the zero error, measure the external
diameter of the same pipe with it, note the readings, and find out the difference
between precision and semi-precision tools.
3) Then take an inside caliper and measure the inside diameter of a pipe. Note the
readings.
4) After it take a Vernier caliper and check the zero error. Then measure the inside
diameter of the pipe with the help of outer jaws of the Vernier. Note the readings
and find out the difference between the precision and semi-precision tools.
5) Take different specimens and measure them with the precision and semi-precision
tools to find out their difference in accuracy.
6) Calculate the mean of their difference.

32
Precautions:
 First of all check for the zero error
 While taking readings, apparatus should be in front of our eyes.
 Take more than one reading to find mean.
 Use upper jaws of Vernier caliper for internal diameter only.
 Use lower jaws of Vernier caliper for external diameter only.

33
 Practical
Statement: make a small clamp for holding small work piece.
Material: mild steel (low carbon steel)
Size: strip (46x46x6 mm), round bar (45x10 dia. mm)
Tools/Apparatus: steel rule, tri square, hand hex saws, bench vice, flat bastred 12”double
cut file, center punch, prick punch, protector, straight shank twist drill, drill chuck, taps, die
and drill machine.
Procedure: following operations are required for this practical:
 Measuring
 Layout/marking
 Holding
 Cutting
 Filing
 Drilling
 Internal and external threading
Following steps should be followed for an accurate result:
1. Take measurements on the mild steel strip with the help of steel rule as per
drawing.
2. Now draw a layout on the work piece by the help of scriber and tri square
3. After cutting operation hold the work piece into the bench vice and smoothen
the sides of work piece with the file until they make angle of 90 degree with each
other at every corner. Check it using tri square.
4. Taper one side of the work piece. Make the line of 6mm on the corner of work
piece and make it more visible by using prick punch. Check the taper portion by
protector that must be 45 degree from the horizontal.
5. Find the center of both parts of work piece by diagonal method and then draw
a center point and mark it with center punch on both parts of work piece.
6. Drill at the center of work piece by using straight shank twist drill.
7. Start the tapping operation. First, use taper tap to start the operation and to
finish, use gun tap.
8. Make external threads on the round bar according to the diagram by using die
and join the pieces of work piece to complete the job.

34
CARPENTRY SHOP

35
Introduction:
A branch of engineering workshop that deals with the constructional works such as roofs,
floors, partitions of buildings and shipping works by means of wood with the help of
carpentry tools.
Timber: A tree that has been cut down and used as building materials. Following are the
qualities of good timber:
 Should be free from defects like bending, knots and shakes.
 Should be free from moisture.
 Should be free from fungal effects.
 Color should be uniform throughout.
 Annular rings of timber should be of regular form.
Classification of trees: there are two types of trees depending upon the member of growth:
 Exogenous
 Endogenous
Endogenous: are those trees that grow inwards. Their stems are light but they are flexible
to be used for engineering purpose. Such trees are bamboos, coconut, cane, etc.
Exogenous: are those trees that grow outwards from the center adding almost concentric
layers of fresh wood every year known as annular rings. Exogenous trees may be further
divided into following types:
 Conifer/evergreen trees
 Broadleaf trees
Types of wood: there are two types of woods according to the quality of wood:
 Soft wood
 Hard wood
Soft wood: is obtained from trees having needles shape leaves like pine, kail, cheirr, partal,
cedar, redwood, etc.
Hard wood: is obtained from trees having broad leaves like maho-ghany, walnut, sheesham,
cherry, maple, etc.

36
Applications:
 Furniture
 Doors and windows
 Flooring
 Sports equipment
 Ships building
 Stairs
 Railway cars
 Packaging boxes
 Tool handles
 Musical instruments
 Construction and decorations
Hard wood Soft wood
 Dark in color  Light in color
 Heavy in weight  Light in weight
 Shows distinct annular rings  Doesn’t not show annular rings
 Non-resinous  Resinous
 It is expensive  It is less expensive
 Higher density  Lower density
 Slower growth rate  Faster growth rate
 Fibers are quite close  Fibers are not so close

Traditional wood working joints:

 Butt joint: the pieces of wood are butted against each other. This is the simplest
and weakest joint.
 Miter joint: is similar to a butt joint, but both pieces have been cut at 45-degree
angle.
 Lap joint: one piece of wood will overlap the other.
 Dovetail joint: a form of box joint where the fingers are locked together by diagonal
cut.
 Dado joint: the slot is cut across the grains in one piece for another piece to set into
it. Examples are book shells, etc.
 Mortise & tenon joint: a stub (tenon) will fit tightly into a hole cut for it (demortise).
It is a traditional method of joining frames and panel members in door, windows
and cabinets.

37
Types of wood saws:
 Cross cut saw
 Rip saw
 Panel saw
 Universal saw
 Coping saw
Crosscut saw: is used to cut across the grains (across the length). It has long blade length
of around 24-26 inch and has 7-8 teeth per inch.
Rip saw: are designed to cut timber along the grains (along the length). They are log saw
with blade length of 26 inch. It has 4 to 6 teeth per inch.
Saw setting: teeth of saw are bent left and right after sharping is called saw setting. Saw
sets are used for this purpose. This is to avoid the resistance during cutting.
Wood seasoning: is the process of drying the timer or removing the moisture from wood.
Types of seasoning are following:
1. Natural seasoning:
a. Air seasoning
b. Water seasoning
2. Artificial seasoning
a. Chemical seasoning
b. Kiln seasoning
c. Electric seasoning
Q. why preservation of timber is necessary?
 To increase the life of timber
 To increase the quality of timber
 To prevent from harmful effects of insets
 To prevent from environmental effects
 To prevent from fungal effects
 To enhance the properties of wood

38
Defects in wood: following are the types of defects in wood:
1. Natural defects:
a. Knots
i. Dead knot
ii. Live knot
b. Shakes
i. Heart shake
ii. Cup shake
iii. Star shake
c. Twisted fibers
2. Seasoning defects (defects during seasoning):
a. Shakes
b. Distortion & shrinkage
3. Defects due to diseases of wood:
a. Fungal effect
b. Decay

39
 Practical
Statement: make a rectangular box with the help of dovetail joint.
Material: kail wood (soft wood)
Tools: lead pencil, steel rule, tri square, marking gauge, wood vice, rip saw, metal or
wooden jack plane, chisel, mallet, rasp file, triangular file.
Procedure: Following steps must be followed for accurate results:
1. Take a log of kail wood (soft wood) with 2 inch width and 1.25-inch thickness. Place
it into the wood vice to hold log firmly in place.
2. Measure the dimensions from one side of log as per drawing (6 inch in length) with
the help of steel rule and draw a line on that point.
3. Set the marking gauge to 6 inch and scribe the wood on the line drawn in previous
step.
4. By using cross cut saw, cut the wood as per the line scribed by marking gauge.
5. Now cut another piece of wood with 4 inch in length to make dove part by repeating
the above steps.
6. Mark the thickness of pieces ½ inch by using marking gauge and use wooden
jackplane to cut it.
7. Now mark a line at the end of the first piece of timber that is as wide as the thickness
of our second piece. Make sure to mark this line around all faces of the timber.
8. By the help of dovetail gauge, draw the lines according to the diagram and start
cutting.
9. Use chisel and a mallet to chip away the waste pieces between the cuts made in
step 8. Place the chisel with against the line marked by the gauge and gently tap the
end of the chisel with mallet until the waste pieces slide between the tails.
10. If the joints are a little tight, use triangular file to remove the minimal amount of
dove part.
11. Bond the parts of wood with locking pin of dovetail.
Precautions:
 Vice should not be too tight otherwise wood can crack
 Always use sharp chisel
 During chiseling, hold the chisel from handle and hold it at 90 degree from the
horizontal

40
SMITHY SHOP

41
Introduction:
The process of giving a desired shape to a metal piece by heating and hammering is known
as forging. The metal piece is heated up to a desired temperature known as forging
temperature. When the forging is done by hand tools manually then it is called hand
forging. When the forging is done by the power hammer then it is called power forging.
Forging tools and equipment: the following tools are used in smithy shop:
 Furnace or hearth
 Anvil
 Hammers
 Tongs
 Chisels
 Punches and drifts
 Flatters
 Fullers
 Swages
 Swage block
 Bick iron
 Clamping devices
Furnace or hearth: Is a black smith used as a furnace for heating the metal pieces. Furnace
consist of four legs, a cast iron or steel body, iron bottom, a chimney and a blower. The
main parts of the furnace are discussed below:
1. Hearth: is the iron bottom where fire is lightened. It is provided with firebrick lining.
2. Tuyers: a pipe coming from the bottom or rear of the hearth is known as tuyers. It
is used to supply the air at high pressure.
3. Hood: is the upper part of the furnace. It is made up of mild steel sheets with
firebricks inside it.
4. Chimney: is fitted in the upper end of the hood. It is used for the easy escaping of
exhaust gases and smoke.
5. Water tank: is a small tank attached with hearth of the furnace. It is used for the
dipping purpose.

42
Accessories of a forging furnace:
 Shovel: is used to place the coal into the furnace hearth.
 Blower: is used to supply the air at high pressure to the hearth.
 Poker: is a bent rod used to strike the fire. Poker is made up of mild steel.
 Regulator: is used to control the supply of the air to the hearth.
Smithy tools:
1. Anvil: is a block on which forging work is done. It is made up of cast iron. It acts as a
supporting device for all forging operations. Since it is capable of withstanding very
heavy blows. The anvil is supported either on an iron base or on the wooden block
or mounted on the foundation. Weight of the anvil varies from 100 to 50kg. It is
available in many sizes and shapes. Common types of anvil used in forging shop has
following parts:
a. Body
b. Horn
c. Bick
d. Table
e. Face
f. Hardy hole
The center part is known as body. The projected ends called horn it is used for
making circular jobs. A steel plate riveted on the body is called face. Most of the
work is done on face. Chipping block is for cutting purposes. Hole is used for
chisels or punching. At the bottom, four legs are attached.
2. Hammer: is used as a striking tool. It is specified as under:
a. hand hammer
b. sledge hammer
c. power hammer
Hand hammer is light in weight, used by smith
himself. Sledgehammer is heavier in weight and
is used by smith’s helper. These hammers are
divided into four parts namely peen, eye, cheeks
and face. Hand hammer are of four types based
on the shape of the peen. If the peen is along the
axis of the handle then it is straight peen
hammer. When the peen is across the axis of the

43
 handle then it is called cross peen hammer. In case, the shape of peen is same
as the shape of the face, then it is called double ended. If the shape of the peen
is same, the shape of the ball, then it is called ball peen hammer. The weight of
the hand hammer varies from ½ kg to 2 kg and that of sledgehammer is 3 – 8 kg.
The factors that influence the working of hammer are:
a. size and shape of the job
b. falling weight of the hammer
c. height of falling weight
3. Tongs
Tongs are used for holding and turning hot metal pieces.
Depending upon their use, tongs are classified into many
types. All types of tongs have similar construction except
the mouth. A tog has two legs riveted from a suitable place.
These are made up of mild steel. Various types of tongs are
used in forging shop. It is made in two pieces and both of
the pieces are joined by hinges. The lengths of the tongs
vary from 12-inches to 18-inches. It is classified based on
the shape of the mouth.
4. Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting metal pieces in hot and cold state. Chisels are divided
into following categories:
a. Hot chisel
b. Cold chisel
c. Hardie set
Hot chisel and cold chisels are used to cut the metal in hot and cold state,
respectively. The main difference between these chisels is the cutting angle. In
hot chisel, the cutting angle is 30-degrees but in
case of cold chisel, it is 60-degrees. A hardie set
consist of the three parts:
i. Shank
ii. Body
iii. Cutting edge

44
 The shank if fitted into the hardie hole in an anvil. Chisels and the hardie set are
made from the carbon steel. It is hardened up to the desired level with proper
tempering.
5. Punches and drifts
Punches are made up of high carbon steel and are used for making rough holes in
hot metal pieces. Punches are available in different sizes but have a common shape.
A drift is a large sized punch used to enlarge a hole.
6. Flatters
Indicated by the name, flatters are used to flatten the
work piece. It has a plane face joined with a shank. It is
held in a thin wire. The material of the flatter is high
carbon steel. The body of a flatter is square in cross
section.
7. Fullers
Fullers are used for grooving and drawing. These are made in
two pieces (lower and upper). Lower part is mounted on the
anvil and the upper is held in hand from the wire handle.
These are made up to high carbon steel and medium carbon
steel. These are used for hot work only,
8. Swages
Swages are used for giving various shapes to the work pieces. These are made up of
high carbon steel and are used two pieces as in case of fullers.
9. Swage block
It is a cast iron or cast steel rectangular block having a number
of holes on it. These holes are made in different sizes and
shapes. It’s outer sides are also made in sectional forms and
receive various types of jobs. It is always placed on a cast iron
frame.
10. Set hammers
Set hammers have similar shapes as that of flatters. These are used for making the
surface plane, forming and making corners. It is made up of tool steel. The job is
supported on the anvil and set hammer is stroked on it.

45
 Comparison between flatter and a set hammer
Sr. # Flatter Set hammer
1 It has a wide face It has a small face
2 It has a wide handle It has a wooden handle
3 The edges are blunt The edges are sharp

11. Clamper
Leg vice is the only clamping device used in smithy shop. It is mounted with the
table or wooden base. It consists of two jaws, a spring and a leg. Hot work pieces
are clamped in it while working.

Forging defects:
Sr. # Defects Reasons
1 Mismatching of forgings Low and upper part of the
die are not properly aligned
2 Incomplete forgings  Under hating of the
metal
 Short slug length
 Wrong die design
3 Cracks in forging  Defective raw
material
 Improper heating
 Wrong die design
4 Burnt forging Due to overheating in the
furnace
5 Brittle forging Raw material not properly
annealed
6 Recesses in forging corners Wrong die design

46
Material chart:
Sr. # Tools Part name Material
1 Anvil  Face  Cast steel
 Body  Cast steel,
 Stand cast iron
 wooden
2 Hammer  Body  Medium
 Handle carbon
steel
 Wooden
3 Tong - Mild steel
4 Hot chisel - High carbon steel
5 Cold chisel - High carbon steel
6 Flatter - High carbon steel
7 Punch - High carbon steel
8 Drift - High carbon steel
9 Fuller - High carbon steel
10 Swage - High carbon steel
11 Swage block - Cast iron, cast
steel

Forging temperature chart

Sr. # Material Temperature (oC)
1 H.S.S. 1100-1300
2 Carbon steel 850-900
3 Tool steel 1000-1150
4 Wrought iron 1300-1350
5 Aluminum 350-500
6 Gun metal 600
7 Mild steel 800-850

47
 Heat colors:
Colors Temperature (oF) Temperature (oC)
Black red (viewed in dull 800 426
light or darkness) 900 482
1000 538
Very dark red 1100 593
1200 648
Dark red 1300 704
1400 760
Cherry red 1500 815
Light cherry red 1600 871
1700 926
Orange red 1800 981
1900 1036
Yellow 2000 1093
2100 1149
2200 1204
Yellow white 2300 1259
2400 1315
White 2500 1371

48
MACHINE SHOP

49
There are following types of machine situated in machine shop, named as follows:
 Lathe machine
 Drill machine
 Power hacksaw
 Tool grinding machine/ bench grinder
 Shaper machine
Lathe machine: is a machine tool in which work piece revolves against the cutting tool and
the cutting tool moves longitudinally along the axis of bed and across the axis of bed and
work piece.

Size: The size of the lathe machine can be measured by following methods:
1) Total length of bed (headstock to tailstock)
2) Distance between the live center and dead center
3) Height from bed to live center

50
Accuracy: We can check accuracy of lathe machine by the help of different methods:
1) Bed alignment
2) Facing operation
3) Headstock spindle nose
4) Dial gauge
Types of lathe machine:
1) Center lathe machine
2) Engine lathe machine
3) Capston lathe machine
4) Turret lathe machine
5) CNC
Parts of lathe machine: there are four main parts of lathe machine named as follows:
1) Headstock
2) Tailstock
3) Carriage
4) Bed
Headstock: is fixed part of lathe machine is fixed by the help of nut and bolts. It has
following parts:
a. Headstock spindle
It is a follow shaft and mounted on two bearings. One side of the spindle
is threaded externally to support different devices such a lathe chuck,
race plate, driving plate, etc.
b. Headstock gear box
It is used for changing the speed of lathe machine spindle.
c. Cone-step pulley
It is also used for changing the speed of the lathe machine spindle.
d. Side/quick change gear box
It is used for cutting internal and external threads on lathe machine.
e. Feed gear box
It is used for the automatic movement of the lead screw for automatic
feed while threading on lathe machine.
f. Clutch
It is used for starting and stopping the spindle of lathe machine.
g. Electric motor: It is used to supply the power to head stock spindle.

51
 Tailstock: is the moveable part of the lathe machine, it is used for taper turning,
drilling, supporting of work piece, locating the center of work piece. It is situated
at the R.H.S. of the machine and has following parts:
i. Spindle of tailstock
It is used for supporting different devise such as drill, chuck,
dead center, revolving center, taper shank twist drill, etc.
ii. Locking liver of tailstock
It is used for locking and unlocking the tailstock.
iii. Hand wheel
It is used for moving the spindle of tailstock forward and
backward.
iv. Locking liver of tailstock spindle
It is used for locking and unlocking of tail stock spindle
Carriage: is also a moveable part of lathe machine. It is situated between
headstock and tailstock and has following parts:
i. Tool post
It is used for holding different cutting tools such as facing tool,
threading tool, knurling tool and boring tool (high speed steel,
carbide tip, and diamond tip tool).
ii. Compound slide
It is used for taper turning when the angle is given.
iii. Cross slide
It is used for moving the cutting tool across the axis of bed.
iv. Longitudinal slide
It is used for moving the cutting tool along the axis of bed.
v. Half nut liver
It is used for engaging the lead screw for cutting the internal
and external threads.
vi. Dial gauge
Bed: is the solid part of the lathe machine made of cast iron (1.7-4.5% of carbon)
at which all parts of lathe machine are situated such as headstock, tailstock and
carriage.

52
In front of the lathe machine, there are two shafts:
1. Upper shaft
2. Lower shaft
Upper shaft: It is threaded shaft and is called lead screw. It is used for cutting internal and
external threads.
Lower shaft: It is plain shaft and is called feed rod. It is used for moving the carriage
automatically along the axis of bed and across the axis of bed.
Cutting tools: there are two types of cutting tools:
1) Hand cutting tools
2) Machine cutting tools
Hand cutting tools: These tools are mode of high carbon steel (HCS) with the carbon
percentage of 0.7-1.5 and the edges are hardened and tempered.
Machine cutting tools: These are made of high carbon steel (HCS), high speed steel
(HSS), carbide tip tool and diamond tip tool.
Lathe machine holding devices: There are different holding devices used for holding work
such as chuck, faceplate, driving plate, and lathe or dog carrier.
Chuck: There are different types of chucks used for lathe machine:
a. Three jaws chuck
b. Four jaws chuck
c. Collet chuck
d. Magnetic chuck
e. Quick clamp chuck
f. Vacuum chuck
Three jaws chuck: This chuck is used for holding
regular shape of work piece such as round,
hexagonal, etc. This chuck is called universal
chuck because the three jaws move at the
same time and travel equal distance.

53
 Four jaws chuck: This chuck is used for holding
regular as well as irregular shapes of work piece
such as round, square, rectangular, etc. this
chuck is all independent chuck because all of the
four jaws move independently and we have to
adjust the center of work piece manually.
Collet chuck: This chuck is used for holding small and thin work piece such as
round, hexagonal, etc. This chuck is preferred on capstan lathe machine.

Magnetic chuck: This chuck is used for holding iron and steel parts that are too
thin. This chuck is also fitted on headstock spindle and is used for light cuts and
for special grinding applications.
Lathe machine operations: We can perform different types of operations on lathe
machine such as:
1) Facing operation: When the cutting tool is moved across the axis of bed or work
piece, that operation is called facing operation, we can reduce the length of work
piece. The machine part used for this operation is called cross slide.
2) Simple/plate turning operation: When the cutting tool is moved along the axis of
bed or work piece, that operation is called simple/plain turning operation. By the
help of this operation, we can reduce the diameter of work piece. The machine
part we use for this operation is called longitudinal slide.
3) Taper turning operation: When the cutting tool is moved at a required angle, that
operation is called taper turning operation. Taper turning operation can be done
by the help of different machine parts such as compound slide, tailstock and taper
turning attachments.
Methods of taper turning:
a. Compound slide taper turning
b. Offset the tail stock taper turning
c. Taper turning attachments
d. Taper turning by the help of form tool

54
 Compound slide taper turning: We use this method when the length is small
and angle is large.
Formula for compound slide:
𝐷−𝑑
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = (57.3)
2𝐿
Offset the tailstock taper turning: In this method, taper/inch is used when the
length is large.in this method we move tailstock by the help of offset screw
bolts. Formula for this method is:
𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟
𝑂𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 = (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
Taper turning attachments: We use this method when the length is large and
angle is small.
By the help of form tools: this method is used for removing the sharp edges of
work piece through chamfering method.
4) Screw/thread cutting operation: We can cut internal and external threads by the
help of different machine parts such as side gearbox, feed gearbox, lead-screw
and half nut lever. Formula is:
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
=
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡
5) Knurling Operation: Knurling can be done by the help of knurling tool and it is used
to increase the friction.
6) Drilling Operation: We can drill hole into the metal by the help of tailstock. Firstly,
center drill is fixed into the drill chuck and drill chuck is directly fitted into the
spindle of tailstock for locating the center of work piece. Then we fix straight
shank twist drill into the chuck and the work piece if fixed into the lathe chuck and
the job is revolved. The drill is penetrated into the job by the help of tailstock hand
wheel. We can also fix taper shank twist drill into the spindle of tailstock for
drilling a hole into the metal same way.
7) Boring Operation: This operation is performed to increase the pre-drilled hole.
Boring can be done by the help of boring tool.

55
 Practical
Statement: to make a work piece according to drawing on lathe machine.
1
Material: mild steel rod (Low carbon Steel) of dimension 5 x 1
8
Tools/apparatus: steel rule, Vernier caliper, high speed steel cutting tool (facing tool,
turning tool), thread cutting tool, straight shank twist drill, knurling tool, screw pitch
Gauge, lathe machine and power hacksaw machine.

Procedure: following steps are required for this practical.

1) Measuring
2) Marking
3) Holding
4) Sawing
5) Facing
6) Simple turning
7) Taper turning
8) Drilling
9) Thread cutting
10) Knurling

Step 1: take a long bar of mil steel (one-inch diameter). Hold it into the power hacksaw
vise. Tighten the vice to hold the long bar firmly and measure the length from one side
1
with the help of steel rule and mark a line to cut the length of 5 inch length by the help
8
of power hacksaw machine.
Step 2: Hold the work piece into the 3 jaws chuck of lathe machine and tight it firmly.
Now, hold the cutting tool into the tool into the tool post key and tight it firmly then
check the edge of the cutting tool that must coincide the center of the work piece. For
machining purpose, we know that the cutting speed for mild steel is 70-90 feed per
minute. Now we calculate the R.P.M. of the machine for mild steel by the help of
following formula:
𝜋𝑑𝑁
𝐶. 𝑆. =
12
1
Step 3: To cut the metal rod till the marked line at the end of work piece of ” length,
16
start the lathe machine as so that it revolve in anti-clockwise direction and start the
facing operation by moving the tool post across the axis of bed by the help of cross slide
1
and reduce the length of " as per drawing. Turn out the work piece and do it same as
16
above

56
 7
Step 4: Start simple turning operation to reduce the diameter of the work piece to " on
8
the whole length
3 5
Step 5: Start the step turning operation. First mark the line at 2” length and make " , "
4 8
diameter as per drawing
Step 6: now start the taper turning operation like compound slide taper turning method.
First, find the angle of the taper by the help of following formula:
𝐷−𝑑
∅= (57.3)
2𝐿
To set the machine on the above degree mark the line at the point of 2”length and start
the taper turning operation by the help of compound slide.
Step 7: Start the drilling operation by fixing the drill chuck directly into the spindle of the
tailstock. Hold the center drill into the drill chuck and tighten it firmly. Start the machine
as so that the job would rotate in anti-clockwise direction and start penetrating it into the
work piece by the help of tail stock hand wheel.
5
Step 8: start the thread cutting operation on " diameter to 1” length with 11 thread per
8
inch and depth of (0.64*1/11). First, find the core diameter of the thread by the help of
this formula:
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎. = 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎. −2(𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑)
To set the thread cutting tool into the tool post by the help of tool post key and tight it
firmly. We want to cut 11 BSW thread per inch. Set the liver according to the chart on the
machine. Engage the half nut lever to the lead screw until the depth of thread is reached.
Now check the thread with the help of thread pitch gauge.
Step 9: Start knurling operation by setting the knurling tool into the tool post. By the help
of tool-post key, tight it firmly. Start rotating the work piece in anti-clockwise direction
and knurl the tool up to 1”length.

Precautions:
1) Tool and work piece must be tight securely
2) Chuck must be revolving in anti-clockwise direction
3) Chuck key must be removed at once from the chuck after the work piece is tighten
and loosen
4) Googles must be wore during the operation
5) For facing and turning move the slide cross and longitudinal uniformly

57