Teaching Aptitude

 Teaching: Concept and Assumptions

 Teaching: Nature and Objectives

 Teaching: Characteristics and Basic Requirements

 Steps of Teaching

 Learners Characteristics

 Factor Affecting Teaching

 Methods of Teaching

 Styles of Teaching

 Teaching Aids

 Evaluation System

 Chapter 1_ Teaching Aptitude (From I to VII) _ Notes

for NET Exam - Paper I
Teaching: Concept and Assumptions
Teaching methodology is a very important component of teacher education
or instructor training within the realm of teaching as a profession. Before we
venture further to look into the essentials of teaching methodology, it is necessary
to define some key concepts. These concepts are teaching, learning and finally
teaching methodology. The understanding of these concepts will be crucial for
our overall understanding and application of teaching methodology.

Knowledge is like a garden: If it is not cultivated, it cannot be harvested.-

Guinean proverb.

Fig1: Teaching Concept

TEACHING – SOME ASSUMPTIONS

It is often assumed that when one knows the subject matter well, then such
a person is capable of teaching the subject. For example, a highly skilled carpenter
may feel that he can readily instruct others in the skills of his trade by simply
showing how he does the work and explaining the ideas and purposes which are
involved. This does not amount to teaching.
 Many people also mistakenly think that anybody can teach. Perhaps one
inordinate precedent which reinforces this thinking is the concept of “untrained
teachers”. We rarely hear of untrained doctors, engineers, architects etc. What
makes teaching a profession, like others, is that it has its own principles, ethics
and unique practices. Therefore, not every Tom, Dick and Harry can arrogate to
themselves the functions of teaching without undertaking the requisite training in
teaching.

Teaching is not simply the presentation of new skills and knowledge to the
trainee. It is also not the mere transferring of what the teacher/instructor knows
into the hands or minds of the trainee. Furthermore, teaching, is not the same as
telling nor is telling synonymous with teaching. Effective teaching means that
there are certain things which the teacher must do and other things which the
trainees must also do to increase the chances of learning taking place. The teacher
has to go through formal, theoretical and practical training. In addition, the
teacher needs to plan his/her activities in order to ensure that trainees can acquire
the desirable knowledge and skills. In teaching the process is just as important as
the product. We do not focus on the product alone: Both the means and end are
crucial.

Planning is crucial because it involves the selection and organisation of

learning experiences which will lead to meaningful interaction between the
teacher and trainees.

“Tell me and I will forget show me and I will remember do it with me and I
will know”.

This means knowledge is a result of telling, showing and doing “actively” with
learners (trainees) in a teaching process.

FOCUS OF TEACHING

Teaching focuses on three fundamental elements and processes. These are

cognitive, psychomotor and affective processes. All the three are interrelated and
it is often difficult to arbitrarily teach only one without unconsciously or sub-
consciously teaching the other.

1. COGNITIVE PROCESS

The cognitive process is related to knowledge. It appeals mainly to our

mind or intellect. It is reflected in the acquisition of new ideas or the re-
organisation of an existing body of ideas. This knowledge affects our responses
and reactions to situations. We can illustrate cognitive abilities in teaching
situations involving:-
 Ability to identify facts which explain the existence or absence of particular
matter.
 Ideas which can convince or persuade someone in an argument.

 Ability to determine the interconnection between two or more things.

 One’s ability to create alternative ways of doing something.

 One’s ability to organise ideas and thoughts when making a verbal or written
presentation:-

a) Ideas, facts, figures, numbers and symbols.

b) Inter-relationship between such facts, ideas, figures, numbers, symbols e.t.c.

c) Organisation of such ideas, figures, facts, numbers, symbols e.t.c. in an

orderly manner so as to reflect clear, understandable and logical meaning.

2. PSYCHOMOTOR PROCESS

Refers to skills acquired through the teaching/learning situation. These

skills relate to how we learn to co-ordinate and use our hands, heads, legs and
other parts of our bodies. We can manipulate things using our psychomotor
abilities such as:-

 Manual (Using hands) skills in Carpentry, Garment-making, Motor Vehicle

Mechanics, Masonry e.t.c.
 Ability to play any or all ball games e.g. Soccer, Basketball, Netball, Rugby,
Volleyball e.t.c.
 On becoming effective athletes and gymnastics.
 Undertaking any other trade, skill or craft.

All these processes will require both teachers and trainees to be practical,
creative, precise and manipulative.

3. AFFECTIVE PROCESS

Affective means feelings and attitudes. Our feelings and attitudes reflect
the values we are associated with. Some values are positive and progressive while
others are negative and archaic. Affective teaching seeks to promote positive
values and attitudes while at the same time gradually, but systematically chipping
at those which are negative and disruptive. Attitudes and values are important in
another sense. They greatly influence not only what we do, but also how we do
what we do.
TEACHING AND TRAINING

What would be the difference between teaching and training? Is training

the same as teaching and vice versa? The answer to these questions particularly
the second one, is YES and NO. Yes because training focuses mainly on the
practical known as “knowledge how” as differentiated from “knowledge that”,
the theoretical (or philosophical knowledge). But not all training is teaching
because in training, the instructor can almost determine with certainty the exact
skills and expected behaviour of a learner. That is why we know how a trainee
who has acquired desirable skills should behave. But teaching in general travels
beyond this. It has to do with making learners creative and critical thinkers with
desirable values and attitudes in addition to having requisite skills (Which is an
aspect of training). But as we said earlier on, it is difficult to teach skills alone,
for example without communicating (consciously or unconsciously) certain
attitudes and values.

GUIDELINES OF TEACHING

According to Carl Shafer, “effective learning is fostered by masterful

teaching.” This means teachers should develop an ability for making complex or
difficult material simple enough for their learners. Successful teachers are those
who display the following abilities.

 Good mastery of the subject they teach.

 Stimulate and sustain learners’ interest in what they teach.
 Use language which learners understand easily.
 Break down the content or lesson into simple manageable yet
systematic blocks.
 Help learners to learn on their own rather than depending wholly on
the teacher.
 Makes learners creative and critical in order to fully understand the
idea, art or skill being taught.
 Ability to review, test and confirm, if not apply what has been taught.

Put differently, Shafer has come up with specific guidelines which he refers to
as the seven laws of teaching. These laws can be paraphrased as shown below.

A good teacher needs to:

1) Have a clear understanding of the content embodied in the lesson.

2) Makes learners develop interest in the subject matter through effective class
management techniques.
3) Uses words and expressions which have common meaning to the learner and
teacher alike.

4) Starts teaching the known and proceeds gradually to teach the unknown or
more abstract material.

5) Makes learners to think, act and discover new knowledge on their own.

6) Encourages learners to reproduce in their own words what they have learned.

7) Evaluates what has been taught in order to determine its worth and correct
any false impression.

See: The Seven Laws of Teaching by Carl Shafer.

ACTIVITY 3. FOCUS OH TEACHING

Procedure: Divide the participants into three or more groups depending on their
size (in numbers)

Question: Let each group discuss the question: What kind of broad changes are
reflected in individuals after undergoing any training?

Processing: Each group makes a presentation in the plenary. At the end of each
presentation a few minutes of question and answer, a critique or comments should
be allowed.

Facilitator: Helps the groups after presentations on newsprint to identify issues

which can go together or have common intent. Once the clusters of issues emerge
the facilitator helps the whole group to identify which ones relate to any of the
following:

 Knowledge
 Attitudes
 Practices

Teaching Nature and Objectives

Nature of Teaching:

In its broadest sense, teaching is a process that facilitates learning.

Teaching is the specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes
designed to provide unique service to meet the educational needs of the individual
and of society. The choice of learning activities whereby the goals of education
are realized in the school is the responsibility of the teaching profession.

In addition to providing students with learning opportunities to meet

curriculum outcomes, teaching emphasizes the development of values and guides
students in their social relationships. Teachers employ practices that develop
positive self-concept in students. Although the work of teachers typically takes
place in a classroom setting, the direct interaction between teacher and student is
the single most important element in teaching.

1. Dynamic, Social & Humane: Influenced by human & social factors

2. An Art & Science: Exercise of being systematic & including talent &
creativity
3. Diverse in Application: There are various forms of teaching

Fig1: Teaching Concept

Objectives of Teaching

Teacher education has to become more sensitive to the emerging demands

from the school system. For this, it has to prepare teachers for a dual role of;
 Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching learning
situations who enables learners (students) to discover their talents, to realize their
physical and intellectual potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and
desirable social and human values to function as responsible citizens; and,

An active member of the group of persons who make conscious effort to

contribute towards the process of renewal of school curriculum to maintain its
relevance to the changing societal needs and personal needs of learners, keeping
in view the experiences gained in the past and the concerns and imperatives that
have emerged in the light of changing national development goals and
educational priorities.

These expectations suggest that teacher operates in a larger context and its
dynamics as well as concerns impinge upon her functioning. That is to say,
teacher has to be responsive and sensitive to the social contexts of education, the
various disparities in the background of learners as well as in the macro national
and global contexts, national concerns for achieving the goals of equity, parity,
and social justice as also excellence

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To be able to realize such expectations, TE has to comprise such features as

would enable the student teachers to

 Care for children, and who love to be with them;

 Understand children within social, cultural and political contexts;
 View learning as a search for meaning out of personal experience;
 Understand the way learning occurs, possible ways of creating conductive conditions
for learning, differences among students in respect of the kind, pace and styles of
learning.
 View knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.
 Be receptive and constantly learning.
 View learning as a search for meaning out of personal experience, and knowledge
generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.
 View knowledge not as an external reality embedded in textbooks, but as
constructed in the shared context of teaching learning and personal experience.
 Own responsibility towards society, and work to build a better world.
 Appreciate the potential of productive work and hands-on experience as a pedagogic
medium both inside and outside the classroom.
 Analyse the curricular framework, policy implications and texts. Have a sound
knowledge base and basic proficiency in language.
 The objectives of teacher education would therefore be to, Provide opportunities to
observe and engage with children, communicate with and relate to children Provide
 opportunities for self-learning, reflection, assimilation and articulation of new ideas;
developing capacities for self-directed learning and the ability to think, be self-critical
and to work in groups.
 Provide opportunities for understanding self and others (including one‘s beliefs,
assumptions and emotions); developing the ability for self-analysis, self-evaluation,
adaptability, flexibility, creativity and innovation.
 Provide opportunities to enhance understanding, knowledge and examine
disciplinary knowledge and social realities, relate subject matter with the social
milieu and develop critical thinking.
 Provide opportunities to develop professional skills in pedagogy, observation,
documentation, analysis, drama, craft, story-telling and reflective inquiry.

The most remarkable objectives of teaching are

1. Au Round Development of a Learner: The prime objective of teaching is the

all-round development of the learner that includes his physical, mental and
spiritual or moral development. This objective is the basis of Gandhi’s idea of
basic education.

2. Behaviour change: The education should be imparted to a learner in such a

way that it reflects the attitude, behaviour and personality of the learner.

3. Development of Adjustment The manner of teaching should be such that it

makes the pupils feel at home in his class room. The teacher has to ensure that
the learner is well adjusted to the environment which includes his classmates,
school mates and other members of his society at large.

4. Learner’s Mental Ability The teacher should take into account the mental
ability of the pupils while teaching. This will enable the teacher to make himself
more communicative with his students and in turn the students will have a better
understanding of what is being taught to them.

5. Transmission of Knowledge The process of teaching should ensure that the

knowledge is transmitted from the teacher to the pupil. For achieving this
objective, the teaching need to be very communicative and the process of teaching
should ensure the pupil participation in it. The more the pupil are encouraged to
interact with the teacher, the more the chances of transmission of knowledge.

6. Assimilation of Lessons Teaching does not stop at delivering lectures and

giving home tasks to the students. It has to be responsible for the assimilation of
what is taught to the students. The manner of teaching should be pleasant enough
to make the students grasp whatever they are taught.

7. Friendly Environment One of the primary objectives of teaching is to make

the environment of the place of teaching more friendly and conducive to learning.
His all attention should remain focused to the teaching and he, should not get
irritated with the non-conducive atmosphere of the class room.

Teaching Characteristics and Basic Requirements

Characteristics of Teaching:

“The aim of teaching is simple: it is to make student learning possible…To

teach is to make an assumption about what and how the student learns; therefore,
to teach well implies learning about students’ learning” (Ramsden, 1992).

The task of the teacher in higher education has many dimensions: it

involves the provision of a broad context of knowledge within which students can
locate and understand the content of their more specific studies; it involves the
creation of a learning environment in which students are encouraged to think
carefully and critically and express their thoughts, and in which they wish to
confront and resolve difficulties rather than gloss over them, it involves
constantly monitoring and reflecting on the processes of teaching and student
understanding and seeking to improve them. Most difficult of all perhaps, it
involves helping students to achieve their own aims, and adopt the notion that
underlies higher education: that students’ learning requires from them
commitment, work, responsibility for their own learning, and a willingness to
take risks, and that this process has its rewards, not the least of which is that
learning can be fun!

So what is good or effective teaching? Smith (1995) suggests that learning

‘is a consequence of experience’ (p.588). He argues that education and therefore
teaching, should be focused on the creation of ‘appropriately nourishing
experiences so that learning comes about naturally and inevitably’ (p.589). He
states that schools should focus less on ‘talking about learning and teaching’ and
‘more about doing’ (p.589)

Alton-Lee (2003) has provided ten clearly defined and research-supported

characteristics of quality teaching

1. A focus on student achievement.

2. Pedagogical practices that create caring, inclusive and cohesive learning
communities.
3. Effective links between school and the cultural context of the school.
4. Quality teaching is responsive to student learning processes.
5. Learning opportunities are effective and sufficient.
6. Multiple tasks and contexts support learning cycles.
7. Curriculum goals are effectively aligned.
 8. Pedagogy scaffolds feedback on students’ task engagement.
9. Pedagogy promotes learning orientations, student self-regulation, meta cognitive
strategies and thoughtful student discourse.
10. Teachers and students engage constructively in goal oriented assessment.

(Alton-Lee, 2003: vi-x)

These are not easy tasks, and there is no simple way to achieve them. Still
less are there any prescriptions that will hold good in all disciplines and for all
students. How we teach must be carefully tailored to suit both that which is to be
learnt and those who are to learn it. To put it another way – and to add another
ingredient – our teaching methods should be the outcome of our aims (that is,
what we want the students to know, to understand, to be able to do, and to value),
our informed conceptions of how students learn, and the institutional context –
with all of its constraints and possibilities – within which the learning is to take
place.

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1. The main character of teaching is to provide guidance and training.

2. Teaching is interaction between teacher and students.
3. Teaching is an art to give knowledge to students with effective way.
4. Teaching is a science to educate fact and causes of different topics of
different subjects.
5. Teaching is continues process .
6. Teacher can teach effectively, if he has full confidence on the subject.
7. Teaching encourages students to learn more and more.
8. Teaching is formal as well as informal
9. Teaching is communication of information to students. In teaching , teacher
imparts information in interesting way so that students can easily understand the
information .
10. Teaching is tool to help student to adjust himself in society and its
environment.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS of Teaching

Basic requirements of teaching include,

I. The Teacher: The teacher is an innovator of information and knowledge. He
is the creator and transmitter of knowledge, values and ethos to our youngsters
for latter’s physical, mental, emotional and social development. In the process of
teaching-learning, the teacher is the main vehicle, and he knows what is right and
what is wrong in the society. The teacher masters over his subject and uses an
effective language for the communication in order to bring a positive change in
the behaviour of the learner. Since, it is the age of science and technology, the
teacher ought to have a sound knowledge of science and technology. He should
therefore use the latest means of media communication in the process of teaching.

II. The Learner: The learner is a dependent one and immature. He has to
cooperate in the teaching-learning process with the teacher and try to get as much
information and knowledge as possible from him. He must follow the teacher for
understanding and getting knowledge. The learners may be categorized as the
students of primary schools, elementary schools, secondary schools, senior
secondary schools, colleges or universities.

III. The Subject (Topic): The subject is the main concern in the whole
endeavour of teaching and learning process. The topic is generally decided by the
teacher but the learner can also contribute in deciding a topic, so that, a balanced
and harmonious development takes place. It is for the teacher to prepare necessary
charts, maps, tables and models that pertain to the decided topic. Media based
technological and scientific aids may also be made available by the teacher to
make the teaching more interesting and understandable.

IV. The Environment: The learner’s growth and all round development are the
main objectives of teaching. This is possible only when there is a suitable
environment for the teaching-learning process. The teacher as such creates such
environment and nurtures the’ learner in that environment. Learners are not
passive objects. For long, the child or the learner was viewed as a natural or given
category. This undermined the importance of the fact that the development of the
learner is intimately linked to changes in the sociocultural and historical
conditions in a given society.

Steps of Teaching

Steps of Teaching

In order to make teaching an effective process one needs to follow certain

steps. These steps are so important that these cannot be removed from the process
of teaching. If a teacher deviates from these steps, the outcome of the teaching
may be biased.

1. Planning Without a plan one can not proceed in a resolution. In the teaching-
learning process also a teacher has to make a plan according to the strength of the
students, the locality of the school the environmental conditions of the school and
the contents and the subjects he is going to teach. He has to take into consideration
the language that he finds suitable for teaching. The planning includes the
gradation of students, as to how many are present in the class, how many are
absent, how many are high achieving and how many mediocre. The teacher has
to plan for the arrangement of teaching aids like maps, charts, models, overhead
projector etc.

2. Preparation During the preparation stage, the teacher has to follow the subject
or topic systematically. As the present times are times of science and technology,
the presentation must also be scientific in nature for which the teacher may need
overhead projectors, slides TV and video tapes etc. for making his presentation
more effective and understandable.

3. Presentation: After preparation, the teacher is prepared to present the topic in

the class to the full satisfaction of students and the observer who is there to watch
his presentation.

4. Comparison Comparison is an important characteristic of teaching. It allows

a second chance, to all the three participants, the teacher, the learner and the
observer to arrange one more programme of teaching-learning in order to remove,
any shortcomings found in the first attempt.

Seven Steps for Teaching and Learning

1. Diagnose the needs of student and create appropriate classroom profile

summary power standards multiple intelligence’s formative assessment
strategies instructional strategies

2. Create and maintain classroom profiles to record data identifying the standards,
formative assessment date(s), summative assessment date(s), and student
information reflecting performance on standards

3. Plan engaging lessons three-part lesson (opening, work period, and

closing) essential question(s) engaging instructional activities based upon the
identified power standards and depth of knowledge

4. Teach the standards using standards-based instruction and ensure the identified
instructional activities at the appropriate depth of knowledge level
5. Utilize formative assessment strategies to daily determine if standards taught
were mastered and update the classroom profile daily

6. Re-teach, provide additional support, and document response to intervention

(RTI) for students who have not mastered the standard(s)

7. Administer a summative assessment to validate that students have mastered the

standards and update the classroom profile record.

Repeat step two and/or three and follow the process until all power standards have
been taught and mastered by all students.

Learners Characteristics

Analyzing learner characteristics is essential since this will help you to

determine what strategies to use in actual instruction. Identifying the
characteristics of learners entails gathering information on the learners’ cognitive,
physiological, affective, and social characteristics (Smith & Ragan, 1999).
Learner information can be obtained from surveys, interviews, observations,
results of previous course performance, and assessment of their current
knowledge/skill levels. The following list, adapted from Smith and Ragan (1999),
may serve as a guideline in depicting the profile of your target learners. Note that
depending on the learning task, it is not necessary to include all factors given
below in your analysis.
Questions to consider

Who are my learners? How many of them will there be? Where are they going
to be studying? What are their ages, their previous educational experience, their
life and work experience? What kind of people are they? How do they prefer to
learn? Why can some students confidently tackle the subjects they study and
succeed? How do they do this?

Learner characteristics can be personal, academic, social/emotional and/or

cognitive in nature. Personal characteristics often relate to demographic
information such as age, gender, maturation, language, social economic status,
cultural background, and specific needs of a learner group such as particular
skills and disabilities for and/or impairments to learning. Academic
characteristics are more education and/or learning related such as learning goals
(of an individual or a group), prior knowledge, educational type, and
educational level. Social/emotional characteristics relate to the group or to the
individual with respect to the group. Examples of social/emotional
characteristics are group structure, place of the individual within a group,
sociability, self-image (also feelings of self-efficacy and agency), mood, etc.
Finally, cognitive characteristics relate to such things as attention span,
memory, mental procedures, and intellectual skills which determine how the
learner perceives, remembers, thinks, solves problems, organizes and represents
information in her/his brain.

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Theoretical Background

The theoretical roots of learner characteristics can be traced back to Witkin

(1949; 1978, p. 39) who saw them as a “characteristic mode of functioning that
we reveal throughout our perceptual and intellectual activities in a highly
consistent and pervasive way”. In other words, learner characteristics are seen as
traits (i.e., characteristic of the learner and, thus, not easily influenced) and not as
states (i.e., characteristic of the situation in which the learner finds himself/herself
and, thus more easily influenced). As early as 1949, Witkin published research
related to field dependence/field independence. Field dependent people have
difficulty separating an item from its con-text while a field independent person
can easily break up an organized whole into its relevant parts.

A second driving force with respect to learner characteristics – and

especially cognitive learner characteristics – was Guilford who referred to them
as intellectual abilities (Structure of Intellect Model, 1967). He organized these
abilities along three dimensions, namely operations (cognition, memory,
divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation), content (visual,
auditory, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral) and products (units, classes,
relations, systems, transformations, and implications). Guilford saw these
dimensions as being independent of each other yielding, theoretically, 150
different components of intelligence on which learners can differ.

With respect to the coupling or use of specific instructional approaches for

specific learner characteristics, Cronbach and Snow (1977) posited their model
of Aptitude-Treatment Interactions which held that certain instructional strategies
(i.e., treatments) will be more or less effective for different individuals depending
upon the individual’s specific abilities (i.e., aptitude). This model presupposes
that optimal learning is the result of the instruction being perfectly matched to the
learner’s aptitudes.

Cognitive Characteristics

A. General characteristic

 General aptitudes
 Specific aptitudes
 Development level
 Language development level
  Reading level
 Level of visual literacy
 Cognitive processing styles (read an article by G. Kearsley)
 Learning styles (visit the Learning Styles Resource Page by J. Shindler;
read an article on Myers-Briggs’ learning stylesby H. J. Brightman; Read
an article on Kolb’s learning styles by J. Blackmore)
 Cognitive and learning strategies
 General world knowledge

B. Specific prior knowledge

Physiological Characteristics

A. Sensory perception (read a summary of information theory by P. E.

Doolittle)
B. General health
C. Age

Effective Characteristics

A. Interests
B. Motivation and motivation to learn (read an article by S. C. Tzeng
C. Attitude toward learning and subject matter
D. Perceptions of and experiences with specific forms of mediation
E. Academic self-concept
F. Anxiety level
G. Beliefs
H. Attribution of success (i.e., locus of control)

Social Characteristics

A. Relationships to peers
B. Feelings toward authority
C. Tendencies toward cooperation or competition
D. Moral development (read an article by Y. L. LaMar)
E. Socioeconomic background
F. Racial/ethnic background, affiliations
G. Role models

Use the following questions to help you to start thinking about the
characteristics and learning preferences of your learners.

 What are some of the personal characteristics of the learners (age,

gender, cultural background, profession, background, family life, etc.)?
  What is the educational level of the learners?
 Will there be any barriers to their learning such as literacy or numeracy
issues, or lack of computer skills?
 Why are they taking the course?
 How will they use their knowledge?
 What do they already know about the topic?
 Are there any prerequisites?
 How will they be studying this topic? (Face to face, distance, blended
etc.)
 Are they novice or expert learners?

Cross-References

 Abilities and learning

 Aptitude-treatment-interaction
 Knowledge representation
 Learner preferences and achievement
 Learning styles
 Role of prior knowledge in learning processes

Factor Affecting Teaching

To know factor affecting teaching is so important because after analysis all
factors which affecting teaching, teacher can improve himself and can become
good teacher and create better citizen for country. If study teaching subjects, we
find many factors which affecting teaching which can write in list of these factors.

 Teacher knowledge, enthusiasm and responsibility for learning.

 Classroom activities that encourage learning.
 Assessment activities that encourage learning through experience.
 Effective feedback that establishes the learning processes in the
classroom.
 Effective interaction between the teacher and the students, creating an
environment that respects, encourages and stimulates learning through
experience.

1. Educational qualification of teacher

 Higher qualified teacher can provide high scholarly instructions which can
effect than general graduate teacher. Many teachers hold different degrees which
is the sign of their higher education qualification. A teacher is just B.A. and other
teacher is M.A., M.Ed., PhD, if we compare both, then is sure that higher qualified
teacher can cede good teaching result.

2. Skills

Skill is an ability to do any work with better way. If a teacher has teaching
skill then he can provide effective teaching. Often says that teaching is God gifted
but getting good education training and Psychologize best educational books, we
can get this skill and create better result. In teaching talent we can include
following skills

 Communication skill of teacher

 Taking teaching aids
 Technique of teaching
 Method of teaching
 Human relation skill

3. Experience of Teacher

Experience of teacher affects also the teaching. After increasing teaching

experience, a teacher learns many new things in teaching experience which he
can employ in next time teaching. First day teacher may not effect on students
but after 5 years teaching, a teacher can more effect on students.

4. Class – room environment

Class room environment effects also on teaching. This environment is

made both by teacher and students.
Without both active participation in education, teaching never effects. If the
concentration lives in class room and students listen teacher’s voice and teacher
also cares the activity of teacher doing interacting with students.

5. Economic Factor

Economic background of teacher and student is also affected teaching.

Even salary of teacher effects on his thinking level. Poor and rich students can
also classify economically and sometime these factors can effect on effective
teaching.

6. Administrative policies of school or college or university

 Administrative policies also effect teaching. Teacher wants to instruct with
his way but administrative policies is not allowed, so the voice of teach can stop
and effect of teaching may slow in class room.

7. Subject Matter

Sometime when a teacher teaches that subject in which he is not specialize,

he cannot create any effect through his teaching but same teacher can teaches his
specialize subject with better way .

8. Parental expectations

What are the expectations of parent on students? This factor can be defined
psychologically. If parent wants to frame up his children doctor or engineer and
continually stress on student, sometime student may not at that rank, so mentally
he can create depression and which can stop effective teaching of teacher.

Methods of Teaching
There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorized
into three broad types. These are teacher-centred methods, learner-centred
methods, content-focused methods and interactive/participative methods.

(a) INSTRUCTOR/TEACHER CENTERED METHODS

Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the
subject matter. The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an
authority. Learners on the other hand are presumed to be passive and copious
recipients of knowledge from the teacher. Examples of such methods are
expository or lecture methods – which require little or no involvement of learners
in the teaching process. It is also for this lack of involvement of the learners in
what they are taught, that such methods are called “closed-ended”.

(b) LEARNER-CENTRED METHODS

In learner-centred methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a

learner at the same time. In the words of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher plays
a dual role as a learner as well “so that in his classroom extends rather than
constricts his intellectual horizons”. The teacher also learns new things everyday
which he/she didn’t know in the process of teaching. The teacher, “becomes a
resource rather than an authority”. Examples of learner-centred methods are
discussion method, discovery or inquiry based approach and the Hill’s model of
learning through discussion (LTD).

(c) CONTENT-FOCUSED METHODS

In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit
into the content that is taught. Generally, this means the information and skills to
be taught are regarded as sacrosanct or very important. A lot of emphasis is laid
on the clarity and careful analyses of content. Both the teacher and the learners
cannot alter or become critical of anything to do with the content. An example of
a method which subordinates the interests of the teacher and learners to the
content is the programmed learning approach.

(d) INTERACTIVE/PARTICIPATIVE METHODS

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without
necessarily laying emphasis unduly on either the learner, content or teacher.
These methods are driven by the situational analysis of what is the most
appropriate thing for us to learn/do now given the situation of learners and the
teacher. They require a participatory understanding of varied domains and
factors.

In summary, three types of methods commonly used in instruction are: –

 Teacher-centred methods
 Learner centred methods
 Content focused methods
 Interactive/participative methods

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain

Cognitive Skill Verbs that characterize the skill

Knowledge Label, list, match, recall, select, state, underline
Comprehension Describe, explain, interpret, summarize, paraphrase
Application Complete, organize, solve, calculate, compute, use
Analysis Categorize, classify, find patterns and relationships, compare
Synthesis Compose, create, formulate, hypothesize, write
Evaluation Judge based on criteria, support, conclude

Four-Phase Learning Cycle

1. Introduction: a question, challenge, or interesting event that captures the

students’ curiosity.
 2. Exploration: the opportunity for students to manipulate materials, to
explore, and to gather information.
3. Concept Development: With a common experience to relate to,
terminology is introduced and concepts developed in class discussion.
4. Application: This could take the form of an enrichment activity, an
opportunity to apply what has been learned, or a test to assess learning.

The Taxonomy of Instructional Techniques

Teacher Focused

 Direct Instruction: Teacher explains or demonstrates

 Drill and Practice: Repetition to hone a skill or memorize information
 Lecture: Teacher provides information to students in a one-way verbal
presentation

Dialogue Oriented

 Question and Answer: Requires reflection as information is exchanged in

response to a question
 Discussion: An exchange of opinions and perspectives

Student Focused

 Mental Modelling: Assists students in managing their own learning by

modelling a problem-solving technique
 Discovery Learning: Uses students’ personal experiences as the
foundation for building concepts
 Inquiry: Allows students to generate the questions that they will then
investigate and answer

SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS

We can now consider a number of specific methods which can be drawn

from in the course of classroom instruction. It is however, important to note that
the choice of any form of methods should not be arbitrary, but needs to be
governed by the criteria we have already examined. At the same time each method
is not fool-proof, but has its own advantages and disadvantages. That is why I
would recommend the use of complementary methods rather than one method.

1. LECTURE METHOD

A lecture is an oral presentation of information by the instructor. It is the

method of relaying factual information which includes principles, concepts, ideas
and all THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE about a given topic. In a lecture the
instructor tells, explains, describes or relates whatever information the trainees
are required to learn through listening and understanding. It is therefore teacher-
centred. The instructor is very active, doing all the talking. Trainees on the other
hand are very inactive, doing all the listening. Despite the popularity of lectures,
the lack of active involvement of trainees limits its usefulness as a method of
instruction.

The lecture method of instruction is recommended for trainees with very

little knowledge or limited background knowledge on the topic. It is also useful
for presenting an organised body of new information to the learner. To be
effective in promoting learning, the lecture must involve some discussions and,
question and answer period to allow trainees to be involved actively.

PREPARATION AND DELIVERY OF A LECTURE

As stated earlier, during the lecture, the trainees merely listen to the
instructor. It is therefore very important to consider the attention span of trainees
when preparing a lecture. The attention span is the period of time during which
the trainees are able to pay full attention to what the instructor is talking about. It
is estimated to be 15-25 minutes only. It is difficult to hold the trainees attention
for a long period of time and careful preparation of lectures is very necessary.

The instructor should have a clear, logical plan of presentation. He/she

should work out the essentials of the topic, organise them according to priorities
and logical connections, and establish relationships between the various items.
Careful organisation of content helps the trainees to structure and hence, to store
or remember it. When developing a theme in a lecture, the instructor should use
a variety of approaches. A useful principle in any instruction is to go from the
KNOWN toUNKNOWN; from SIMPLE to COMPLEX, or from PARTS to a
WHOLE.

Knowing the trainees and addressing their needs and interests is very
important. For example, in explaining technical processes the instructor should
search for illustrations that will be familiar to the trainees. Unfamiliar technical
words should be introduced cautiously. New terminologies should be defined and
explained and examples given.

In order to gain and focus the attention of trainees, the instructor should be
adequately prepared, fluent in his/her presentation and should use various
teaching aids and illustrations such as charts, transparencies, codes and even the
real objects during presentation. Question and Answer periods should be included
in the lecture.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD LECTURE

1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the trainee’s attention
span (up to 25 minutes).

2. A good lecture should address a single theme.

3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.

4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.

5. A good lecture establishes fluency in technical content.

6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.

7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.

8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.

2. THE DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the

classroom situation an instructor and trainees all participate in discussion. During
discussion, the instructor spends some time listening while the trainees spend
sometimes talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning experience
for the trainees than the lecture.

A discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and

attitudes. As it helps to foster trainees involvement in what they are learning, it
may contribute to desired attitudinal changes. Discussion may be used in the
classroom for the purpose of lesson development, making trainees apply what
they have learnt or to monitor trainees learning by way of feedback.

LESSON DEVELOPMENT

In areas in which trainees already have some knowledge or experience,

discussion may be used to develop the main points to be covered in a lesson. For
example, in safety training many of the procedures and behaviour that should be
observed can be established through discussion with trainees. Trainees can draw
on their experience of working in workshops contract sites to contribute to the
discussion. In discussing some issues, differences of opinion arise. The discussion
can help to clarify the different points of view and may assist each trainee to
define his or her own opinion. Used in this way, discussion may be more effective
in motivating trainees than lectures. Trainees can see that some importance is
attached to their contributions.
APPLICATION

Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or demonstration, to help

trainees apply what they have learned. The instructor can ask questions, that help
trainees to relate concepts and principles to contexts that are familiar to the
trainees or in which they will ultimately be needed. For example following a
lecture on “types of wood joint”, the instructor may, lead a discussion directing
trainees attention to the places or pieces of furniture where each type is found,
and the reasons for using one type than the other. Used in this way discussion
contributes to the transfer of learning.

FEEDBACK

The discussion method also provides an opportunity to monitor trainees

learning. The answers provided by trainees and the questions they ask, reveal the
extent and quality of learning taking place. Instructors can use this information to
repeat or modify an explanation to improve learning. They can also provide
feedback to trainees, thereby helping to reinforce learning that has taken place.
Discussion used in this way should follow after other methods of classroom
instruction such as lectures, demonstration or practice sessions.

CONDUCTING A DISCUSSION

Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or can take place in

groups. In either case, the goal is to meet the lesson objectives by allowing the
trainees to:-

a) Relate relevant personal experiences or events which have occurred in the work
setting.b) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.

c) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations or solving problems.

d) Express what had been learned.

Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes place in groups it must be

guided by the instructor. It must be focused on the objectives of the lesson: it is
the instructors responsibility to see that the objectives are met. If it is not properly
guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of inappropriate or
unimportant topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the lesson.

3. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON

“The most effective way to teach an occupational skill is to demonstrate

it… one of the two most essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate; the
other is the ability to explain. Both are vital to the success of either an operation
lesson or an information lesson”. Weaver and Cencil in APPLIED TEACHING
TECHNIQUES.

DEFINITION

Demonstration means any planned performance of an occupation skill,

scientific principle or experiment.

TEACHER PREPARATION

1. Rehearse your presentation in advance of the lesson.

2. Anticipate any difficult steps, possible interruptions e.t.c.

3. Obtain all materials, tools, equipment, visual and teaching aids in advance
and check their useful condition.

4. Have all materials within reach and conveniently arranged.

5. Time the demonstration NOT to exceed 15 minutes.

6. Remove all extraneous materials; check lighting, visibility, student grouping,

and proximity to electric, gas and water outlets.

7. Plan to use a skill or method to advantage; work from simple to complex, one
step at a time.

PRESENTATION

1. Make sure all students can see and hear the lesson.

2. Be enthusiastic, professional, effective but not dramatic.

3. Relax; use any mishaps or humour to YOUR advantage.

4. Observe all safety rules and procedures.

5. Keep eye-contact with the class; ask and encourage class questions.

6. Explain WHY and HOW: use the techniques of SHOW and TELL.

7. Use a medial summary to strengthen your explanation.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Avoid interruptions; keep demonstration smooth and continuous.

2. Never demonstrate on a student’s material.

3. Work towards one aim.

4. Allow time for possible student participation.

CARRYING OUT A DEMONSTRATION

1. Give a good performance. Remember that the trainees learn by your good
example.

2. Explain each step or process as you proceed. Follow your lesson plan.

3. Make sure the trainees see the demonstration from the angle they will
perform it themselves.

4. Be sure everyone can see and hear. Maintain eye contact.

5. Emphasise key points, and if possible prepare before hand ask key questions
as you go along and allow trainees to ask questions.

6. Observe all safety rules, precautions and procedures; and emphasise them.

7. Use proper instructions, aids such as chalkboard, charts, handouts e.t.c. to

support your demonstration.

8. Provide for trainees participation where possible, during and after

demonstration.

9. Demonstrate the correct way only. First impressions are important, therefore,
make them correct ones.

10. Always summarise the steps and emphasise key points again.

AFTER DEMONSTRATION

1. Return all items used during demonstration to their storage places.

2. Make arrangements to have the trainees practice the skill as soon as possible
in a practical class session.

3. Observe and analyse trainee(s) performance and correct mistakes.

4. Offer reinforcement where necessary.

5. Coach weak or slow trainees.

6. Check trainee’s completed work for accurate performance and record.

7. Allow sufficient time interval before demonstrating another operation.

4. BUZZ GROUPS

Another method of instruction is the buzz group. During a longer session,

the plenary group can break into sub-groups to discuss one or two specific
questions or issues. The room soon fills with noise as each sub-group ‘buzzes’ in
discussion. If appropriate, after the discussion one member of each group can
report its findings back to the plenary. Buzz groups can be in pairs, trios, or more
depending on the activity. People turn to their neighbours for a quick buzz, or
form larger groups of three or more. This allows almost every one to express an
opinion. While they are buzzing, participants are able to exchange ideas and draw
on their wide collective experience. It may provide a good opportunity for
trainees to reflect on the content of a lecture. A good buzz session will generate
many ideas, comments and opinion, the most important of which will be reported
back.

Buzzgroups help trainers as they allow you to:

 – Draw your breath

 – Gauge the mood, by listening to some of the discussions
 – Change pace of the session
 – Encourage participants to reflect on what they have learnt and how
they might apply it in their work.

DISADVANTAGES

The main obstacle using buzz sessions lie in unfamiliarity with their use,
the time required, the need for leaders or facilitators within each sub-group, and
the need to have tables and chairs arranged for quick and easy discussion.

5. BRAINSTORMING

The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and

responses very quickly. It is particularly a good way of getting bright ideas. It
differs from the buzz groups discussion in that the focus is on generating as many
ideas as possible without judging them. In this technique, all ideas are given equal
credence.
 Participants are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and
improving from previous ideas. No idea, however crazy, should be rejected.
These ideas are listed exactly as they are expressed on a board or flipchart, or
written on bits of paper. The combination of swiftly generated ideas usually leads
to a very animated and energising session. Even the more reserved participants
should feel bold enough to contribute. The purpose of listing responses is to
collect existing experiences and thoughts.

It is useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much repetition

in the responses.

After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and

evaluated, for example listing the best options in a systematic way. Ideas can be
grouped and analysed so that they belong to the group rather then individuals.
Unlike a buzz session, a brainstorm session can work well with a large group and
usually takes less time. It is best to limit the time for plenary brainstorms, as you
might lose the attention of some participants.

6. ROLE PLAYS

In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life
situation. When done well, role plays increase the participants self-confidence,
give them the opportunity to understand or even feel empathy for other people’s
viewpoints or roles, and usually end with practical answers, solutions or
guidelines.

Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques
and examining the complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They
help participants to consolidate different lessons in one setting and are good
energisers.

However, role plays can be time-consuming and their success depends on

the willingness of participants to take active part. Some trainees may feel a role
play is too exposing, threatening or embarrassing. This reluctance may be
overcome at the outset by careful explanation of the objectives and the outcome.
Some role plays can generate strong emotions amongst the participants. It is
therefore essential that a role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This
provides the opportunity for the trainer and the participants to raise and assess
new issues.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

METHOD USES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

THE LECTURE 1. To orient students. 1. Saves time. 1. Involves one way
METHOD 2. To introduce a 2. Permits communication.
A formal or semi- subject. flexibility. 2. Poses problems in
formal discourse is 3. To give directions on 3. Requires less skill teaching.
which the instructor procedures. rigid space 3. Encourages student
presents a series of 4. To present basic requirement. passiveness.
events, facts, or material. 4. Permits 4. Poses difficulty in
principles, explores a 5. To introduce a adaptability. gauging student
problem or explains demonstration, 5. Permits reaction.
relationships discussion, or versatility. 5. Require highly
performance. 6. Permits better skilled instructors.
6. To illustrate centre over contact
application of rules, and sequence.
principles, or concepts.
7. To review, clarify,
emphasise or
summarise.
THE DISCUSSION 1. To develop 1. Increase 1. Require highly
METHOD imaginative solutions to students interest skilled instructor.
A method in which problems. 2. Increases 2. Requires
group discussion 2. To stimulate thinking students preparation by student.
techniques are used to and interest and to acceptance and 3. Limits content.
reach instructional secure student commitments. 4. Consumes time.
objectives. participation. 3. Utilises student 5. Restricts size of
3. To emphasise main knowledge and groups.
teaching points. experience.
4. To supplement 4. Results in more
lectures, reading, or permanent learning
laboratory exercises. because of high
5. To determine how degree of student
well student understands participation.
concepts and principles.
6. To prepare students
for application of theory
of procedure.
7. To summarise, clarify
points or review.
THE 1. To provide remedial 1. Reduce failure 1. Require local or
PROGRAMMED instruction. rate. commercial
INSTRUCTION 2. To provide make-up 2. Improves end- preparation.
METHOD instruction for late of-course 2. Requires lengthy
A method of self- arrivals, absentees, or proficiency. programmer training.
instruction translents. 3. Saves time. 3. Increases expenses.
3. To maintain 4. Provides for self 4. Requires
previously learned skills instruction. considerable lead
which are not performed time.
frequently enough.
4. To provide retraining
on equipment and
 procedures which have
become obsolete.
5. To upgrade
production.
6. To accelerate capable
students.
7. To provide enough
common background
among students.
8. To provide the review
and practice of
knowledge and skills.
THE STUDY 1. To orient students to a 1. Increase 1. Require careful
ASSIGNMENT topic prior to classroom coverage of planning and follow
METHOD or Laboratory work. material. up.
A method in which 2. To set the stage for a 2. Reduce 2. Poses evaluation
the instructor assigns lecture demonstration or classroom time. problem.
reading to books, discussion. 3. Permits 3. Produce non-
periodicals, project or 3. To provide for or individual standard results.
research papers or capitalise on individual attention.
exercises for the differences in ability,
practice. background, or
experience through
differentiated
assignments.
4. To provide for the
review of material
covered in class or to
give practice.
5. To provide
enrichment material.
THE TUTORIAL 1. To reach highly 1. Permits adaptive 1. Requires highly
METHOD complicated skills instruction. competent instructor.
A method of operations or operations 2. Stimulates 2. Demands time and
instruction in which involving danger or active money.
an instructor works expensive equipment. participation.
directly with an 2. To provide 3. Promotes safety.
individual student. individualised remedial
assistance.
THE SEMINAR 1. To provide general 1. Provides 1. Requires highly
METHOD guidance for a group motivation and competent instructor.
A tutorial working on an advanced report. 2. Poses evaluation
arrangement study or research 2. Stimulates problems.
involving the project. active 3. Is more costly than
instructor and groups, 2. To exchange participation. most other methods.
rather than instructor information on 3. Permits adaptive
and individual. techniques and instruction.
approaches being
explored by members of
 a study or research
group.
3. To develop new and
imaginative solutions to
problems under study by
the group.
THE 1. To teach manipulative 1. Minimise 1. Require careful
DEMONSTRATION operations or damage and waste preparation and
METHOD procedures. 2. Saves time rehearsal.
A method of 2. To teach 3. Can be 2. Requires special
instruction where the troubleshooting. presented to large classroom
instructor by actually 3. To illustrate groups. arrangements.
performing an principles.
operation or doing a 4. To teach operation or
job shows the students functioning of
what to do, how to do equipment.
it, and through 5. To teach teamwork.
explanations brings 6. To set standards of
out why, where, and workmanship.
when it is done. 7. To teach safety
procedures.
THE 1. To teach manipulative 1. Builds 1. Requires tools and
DEMONSTRATION operations or confidence. equipment.
METHOD procedures. 2. Enable learning 2. Requires large
A method of 2. To teach operation or evaluation. block.
instruction is required functioning of 3. Reduces 3. Requires more
to perform under equipment. damages and instructors.
controlled conditions 3. To teach team skills waste.
the operations, skills 4. To teach safety 4. Promotes safety.
or movement being procedures.
taught.
THE BUZZ GROUP 1. To develop and 1. Help trainers to 1. Unfamiliarity in
express imaginative draw breath. use.
ideas, opinions. 2. Gauge the mood 2. Time required.
2. Stimulate thinking. by listening to 3. Need for group
some discussion. leaders.
3. Change pace of
discussion.
4. Encourage
participants to
reflect what was
learnt.
BRAINSTORMING 1. Discover new ideas, 1. Leads to a very 1. It takes time
thoughts and responses animated and particularly if it is a
very quickly. energising session. large group.
2. More reserved 2. May consume a lot
participants feel of material e.g.
free to contribute. flipcharts or writing
materials.
 3. Requires high level
facilitation skills.
ROLE PLAYS 1. Exploring and 1. Good 1. Participants might
improving interviewing energizers. be reluctant.
techniques and 2. Promotes 2. May not work with
examining complexities empathy of trainees who do not
and potential conflicts of trainees for other know each other well.
groups. situation.
2. To consolidate 3. Encourages
different lessons in one creativity in
setting. learning.

Styles of Teaching
No two teachers are alike, and any teacher with classroom teaching
experience will agree that their style of teaching is uniquely their own. An
effective teaching style engages students in the learning process and helps them
develop critical thinking skills. Traditional teaching styles have evolved with
the advent of differentiated instruction, prompting teachers to adjust their styles
toward students’ learning needs.

Fig1: Teaching Style Vs Students Learning Style – Match and Mismatch

Logically, the self-directed learner is a bad match for the

“Authority/Expert” teacher, benefiting instead from a “Delegator” approach. The
“Dependent Learner” needs the Authority Figure/Expert teacher, but would
presumably be listless when matched with the “Delegator.”
What are the typical styles of teaching?

The following list of teaching styles highlights the five main strategies
teachers use in the classroom, as well as the benefits and potential pitfalls of each
respective teaching method.

Authority, or lecture style

The authority model is teacher-centered and frequently entails lengthy lecture

sessions or one-way presentations. Students are expected to take notes or absorb
information.

 Pros: This style is acceptable for certain higher-education disciplines and auditorium
settings with large groups of students. The pure lecture style is most suitable for
subjects like history that necessitate memorization of key facts, dates, names, etc.
 Cons: It is a questionable model for teaching children because there is little or no
interaction with the teacher.

Demonstrator, or coach style

The demonstrator retains the formal authority role while allowing teachers to
demonstrate their expertise by showing students what they need to know.

 Pros: This style gives teachers opportunities to incorporate a variety of formats

including lectures, multimedia presentations and demonstrations.
 Cons: Although it’s well-suited for teaching mathematics, music, physical education,
arts and crafts, it is difficult to accommodate students’ individual needs in larger
classrooms.

Facilitator, or activity style

Facilitators promote self-learning and help students develop critical thinking

skills and retain knowledge that leads to self-actualization.

 Pros: This style trains students to ask questions and helps develop skills to find
answers and solutions through exploration; it is ideal for teaching science and similar
subjects.
 Cons: Challenges teacher to interact with students and prompt them toward discovery
rather than lecturing facts and testing knowledge through memorization.

Delegator, or group style

The delegator style is best-suited for curriculum that requires lab activities,
such as chemistry and biology, or subjects that warrant peer feedback, like debate
and creative writing.
  Pros: Guided discovery and inquiry-based learning places the teacher in an observer
role that inspires students by working in tandem toward common goals.
 Cons: Considered a modern style of teaching, it is sometimes criticized as newfangled
and geared toward teacher as consultant rather than the traditional authority figure.

Hybrid, or blended style

Hybrid, or blended style, follows an integrated approach to teaching that

blends the teachers’ personality and interests with students’ needs and
curriculum-appropriate methods.

 Pros: Achieves the inclusive approach of combining teaching style clusters and enables
teachers to tailor their styles to student needs and appropriate subject matter.
 Cons: Hybrid style runs the risk of trying to be too many things to all students,
prompting teachers to spread themselves too thin and dilute learning.

Because teachers have styles that reflect their distinct personalities and
curriculum — from math and science to English and history — it’s crucial that
they remain focused on their teaching objectives and avoid trying to be all things
to all students.

Teaching Styles

 Expert: Similar to a coach, experts share knowledge, demonstrate their expertise,

advise students and provide feedback to improve understanding and promote
learning.
 Formal authority: Authoritative teachers incorporate the traditional lecture format
and share many of the same characteristics as experts, but with less student
interaction.
 Personal model: Incorporates blended teaching styles that match the best techniques
with the appropriate learning scenarios and students in an adaptive format.
 Facilitator: Designs participatory learning activities and manages classroom projects
while providing information and offering feedback to facilitate critical thinking.
 Delegator: Organizes group learning, observes students, provides consultation, and
promotes interaction between groups and among individuals to achieve learning
objectives.

What teaching style is best for today’s students?

Whether you’re a first-year teacher eager to put into practice all of the
pedagogical techniques you learned in college, or a classroom veteran examining
differentiated instruction and new learning methodologies, consider that not all
students respond well to one particular style. Although teaching styles have been
categorized into five groups, today’s ideal teaching style is not an either/or
proposition but more of a hybrid approach that blends the best of everything a
teacher has to offer.

Here is a recap from the list of teaching methods described earlier.

 Authority, or lecture style: This traditional, formal approach to teaching is sometimes

referred to as “the sage on the stage.”
 Demonstrator, or coach style: This style retains the formal authority role while
allowing teachers to demonstrate their expertise by showing students what they need
to learn.
 Facilitator, or activity style: This approach encourages teachers to function as advisors
who help students learn by doing.
 Developer, or group style: This style allows teachers to guide students in a group
setting to accomplish tasks and learn what works or doesn’t.
 Hybrid, or blended style: This approach incorporates different aspects of the various
styles and gives teachers flexibility to tailor a personal style that’s right for their
coursework and students.

The traditional advice that teachers not overreach with a cluster of all-
encompassing teaching styles might seem to conflict with today’s emphasis on
student-centered classrooms. Theoretically, the more teachers emphasize student-
centric learning the harder it is to develop a well-focused style based on their
personal attributes, strengths and goals.

In short, modern methods of teaching require different types of teachers —

from the analyst/organizer to the negotiator/consultant. Here are some other
factors to consider as teachers determine the best teaching method for their
students.

Empty vessel: Critics of the “sage on the stage” lecture style point to the “empty
vessel” theory, which assumes a student’s mind is essentially empty and needs to
be filled by the “expert” teacher. Critics of this traditional approach to teaching
insist this teaching style is outmoded and needs to be updated for the diverse 21st-
century classroom.

Active vs. passive: Proponents of the traditional lecture approach believe that an
overemphasis on group-oriented participatory teaching styles, like facilitator and
delegator, favor gifted and competitive students over passive children with varied
learning abilities, thereby exacerbating the challenges of meeting the needs of all
learners.

Knowledge vs. information: Knowledge implies a complete understanding, or

full comprehension, of a particular subject. A blend of teaching styles that
incorporate facilitator, delegator, demonstrator, and lecturer techniques helps the
broadest range of students acquire in-depth knowledge and mastery of a given
subject. This stands in contrast to passive learning, which typically entails
memorizing facts, or information, with the short-term objective of scoring well
on tests.

Interactive classrooms: Laptops and tablets, videoconferencing and podcasts in

classrooms play a vital role in today’s teaching styles. With technology in mind,
it is imperative that teachers assess their students’ knowledge while they are
learning. The alternative is to wait for test results, only to discover knowledge
gaps that should have been detected during the active learning phase.

Constructivist teaching methods: Contemporary teaching styles tend to be

group focused and inquiry driven. Constructivist teaching methods embrace
subsets of alternative teaching styles, including modeling, coaching, and test
preparation through rubrics scaffolding. All of these are designed to promote
student participation and necessitate a hybrid approach to teaching. One criticism
of the constructivist approach is it caters to extroverted, group-oriented students,
who tend to dominate and benefit from these teaching methods more than
introverts; however, this assumes introverts aren’t learning by observing.

Student-centric learning does not have to come at the expense of an instructor’s

preferred teaching method. However, differentiated instruction demands that
teachers finesse their style to accommodate the diverse needs of 21st-century
classrooms.

150 Teaching Methods

1. Lecture by teacher (and what else can you do!)

2. Class discussion conducted by teacher (and what else!)
3. Recitation oral questions by teacher answered orally by students (then what!)
4. Discussion groups conducted by selected student chairpersons (yes, and what else!)
5. Lecture-demonstration by teacher (and then what 145 other techniques!)
6. Lecture-demonstration by another instructor(s) from a special field (guest speaker)
7. Presentation by a panel of instructors or students
8. Presentations by student panels from the class: class invited to participate
9. Student reports by individuals
10. Student-group reports by committees from the class
11. Debate (informal) on current issues by students from class
12. Class discussions conducted by a student or student committee
13. Forums
14. Bulletin boards
15. Small groups such as task oriented, discussion, Socratic
16. Choral speaking
17. Collecting
18. Textbook assignments
19. Reading assignments in journals, monographs, etc.
20. Reading assignments in supplementary books
21. Assignment to outline portions of the textbook
22. Assignment to outline certain supplementary readings
23. Debates (formal)
24. Crossword puzzles
25. Cooking foods of places studied
26. Construction of vocabulary lists
27. Vocabulary drills
28. Diaries
29. Dances of places or periods studied
30. Construction of summaries by students
31. Dressing dolls
32. Required term paper
33. Panel discussion
34. Biographical reports given by students
35. Reports on published research studies and experiments by students
36. Library research on topics or problems
37. Written book reports by students
38. Flags
39. Jigsaw puzzle maps
40. Hall of Fame by topic or era (military or political leaders, heroes)
41. Flannel boards
42. Use of pretest
43. Gaming and simulation
44. Flash cards
45. Flowcharts
46. Interviews
47. Maps, transparencies, globes
48. Mobiles
49. Audio-tutorial lessons (individualized instruction)
50. Models
51. Music
52. Field trips
53. Drama, role playing
54. Open textbook study
55. Committee projects–small groups
56. Notebook
57. Murals and montages
58. Class projects
59. Individual projects
60. Quiz down gaming
61. Modelling in various media
62. Pen pals
63. Photographs
64. Laboratory experiments performed by more than two students working together
65. Use of dramatization, skits, plays
66. Student construction of diagrams, charts, or graphs
67. Making of posters by students
68. Students drawing pictures or cartoons vividly portray principles or facts
69. Problem solving or case studies
70. Puppets
71. Use of chalkboard by instructor as aid in teaching
72. Use of diagrams, tables, graphs, and charts by instructor in teaching
73. Use of exhibits and displays by instructor
74. Reproductions
75. Construction of exhibits and displays by students
76. Use of slides
77. Use of filmstrips
78. Use of motion pictures, educational films, videotapes
79. Use of theatre motion pictures
80. Use of recordings
81. Use of radio programs
82. Use of television
83. Role playing
84. Sand tables
85. School affiliations
86. Verbal illustrations: use of anecdotes and parables to illustrate
87. Service projects
88. Stamps, coins, and other hobbies
89. Use of community or local resources
90. Story telling
91. Surveys
92. Tutorial: students assigned to other students for assistance, peer teaching
93. Coaching: special assistance provided for students having difficulty in the course
94. Oral reports
95. Word association activity
96. Workbooks
97. Using case studies reported in literature to illustrate psychological principles and
facts
98. Construction of scrapbooks
99. Applying simple statistical techniques to class data
100. Time lines
101. “Group dynamics” techniques
102. Units of instruction organized by topics
103. Non directive techniques applied to the classroom
104. Supervised study during class period
105. Use of sociometric text to make sociometric analysis of class
106. Use of technology and instructional resources
107. Open textbook tests, take home tests
108. Put idea into picture
109. Write a caption for chart, picture, or cartoon
110. Reading aloud
111. Differentiated assignment and homework
112. Telling about a trip
113. Mock convention
114. Filling out forms (income tax, checks)
115. Prepare editorial for school paper
116. Attend council meeting, school boar meeting
117. Exchanging “things”
118. Making announcements
119. Taking part (community elections)
120. Playing music from other countries or times
121. Studying local history
122. Compile list of older citizens as resource people
123. Students from abroad (exchange students)
124. Obtain free and low cost materials
125. Collect old magazines
126. Collect colored slides
127. Visit an “ethnic” restaurant
128. Specialize in one country
129. Follow a world leader (in the media)
130. Visit an employment agency
131. Start a campaign
132. Conduct a series
133. Investigate a life
134. Assist an immigrant
135. Volunteer (tutoring, hospital)
136. Prepare an exhibit
137. Detect propaganda
138. Join an organization
139. Collect money for a cause
140. Elect a “Hall of Fame” for males
141. Elect a “Hall of Fame” for females
142. Construct a salt map
143. Construct a drama
144. Prepare presentation for senior citizen group
145. Invite senior citizen(s) to present local history to class including displaying artifacts
(clothing, tools, objects, etc.)
146. Prepare mock newspaper on specific topic or era
147. Draw a giant map on floor of classroom
148. Research local archaeological site
149. Exchange program with schools from different parts of the state
150. In brainstorming small group, students identify a list of techniques and strategies
that best fit their class.
Teaching Aids
Teaching aids assist students in learning. These aids consist of video,
audio and hands-on tools to help involve the students and enhance the learning
experience.

Students tend to get more involved when learning if teaching aids are
implemented into the curriculum. Hands-on aids, such as computers, maps and
other tools that require some sort of interaction from the students, have the highest
levels of effectiveness.

The tools are designed to involve the students, promote interaction, and
promote faster learning and better comprehension. Being able to see, hear or get
involved in a topic creates a much better method for learning.

How a teacher chooses to use learning aids in a classroom can vary

dramatically. The main factor in the effective use of teaching aids is that a skilled
teacher is behind the tools being used.

Need of Teaching Aids

1) Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids helps
to retain more concept permanently.

2) Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through different
teaching aids.

3) Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear taste and
smell properly.

4) Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.

5) The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students.

6) Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students.

7) Teaching aids helps the teacher to get sometime and make learning permanent.

8) Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.

The teaching aids used in the teaching can be classified into the following
ways:

a. Traditional Aids: Blackboard/chalkboard, books, periodicals.

 b. Visual Aids: Objects, picture, map, figure, chart, posters, model, bulletin
board, flannel board, globe, graph or any other type of graphics such as|
diagrams, cut-outs, cartoons, etc.
c. Mechanical Aids:
i. Audio: Radio, tape recorder, teaching machine.
ii. Visual: Projector, epidiascope, film strips, motion picture, etc.
iii. Audio-Visual: Films, television, video, cassettes, etc. Visual
Material Aids: Use of Chart: The most commonly used types of
charts include outline charts, tabular charts, flow charts and
organization charts. Flip charts and flow charts are also being used.

Types of Teaching Aids

There are many aids available these days. We may classify these aids as
follows-

1) Visual Aids: The aids which use sense of vision are called Visual aids. For
example :- actual objects, models, pictures, charts, maps, flash cards, flannel
board, bulletin board, chalkboard, overhead projector, slides etc. Out of these
black board and chalk are the commonest ones.

2) Audio Aids: The aids that involve the sense of hearing are called Audio aids.
For example :- radio, tape recorder, gramophone etc.

3) Audio – Visual Aids: The aids which involve the sense of vision as well as
hearing are called Audio- Visual aids. For example :- television, film projector,
film strips etc.

Importance of Teaching aids

Teaching aids are important because they create a visual and interactive
experience for the students. As the students become more engaged, they are more
likely to understand the topic being taught.

Teaching aids play an very important role in Teaching- Learning process.

Importance of Teaching aids are as follows :-

1) Motivation: Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.

2) Clarification: Through teaching aids , the teacher clarify the subject matter
more easily.

3) Discouragement of Cramming: Teaching aids can facilitate the proper

understanding to the students which discourage the act of cramming.
4) Increase the Vocabulary: Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the
students more effectively.

5) Saves Time and Money

6) Classroom Live and active: Teaching aids make the classroom live and active.

7) Avoids Dullness

8) Direct Experience: Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students