`

PHYSICS - 2 UNIT - 9
NAME :
STANDARD : 12 SEC :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
2 and 3 Mark Questions & Answers 7. What is extrinsic semiconductors?  The Schematic representation and circuit symbol
 The semiconductor obtained by dopping either is given below.
1. What is called electronics? pentavalent impurity or trivalent impurity is called
 Electronics is the branch of physics incorporated extrinsic semiconductor.
with technology towards the design of circuits (e.g.) P - type and N-type semicondutor
using transistors and microchips. 8. Define hole.
 It depicts the behaviour and movement of electrons  When an electron is excited, covalent bond is
in a semiconductor, vacuum, or gas. broken. Now octet rule will not be satisfied. 13. What is called biasing? Give its types.
2. What are passive components and active  Thus each excited electron leaves a vacancy to  Biasing is the process of giving external energy to
components? complete bonding. charge carriers to overcome the barrier potential
 Components that cannot generate power in a  This ‘deficiency’ of electron is termed as a ‘hole’ and make them move in a particular direction.
circuit are called passive components 9. What is called P-type semiconductor?  The external voltage applied to the p-n junction is
(e.g.) Resistors, inductors, capacitors  A P - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a called bias voltage.
 Components that can generate power in a circuit pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant  Depending on the polarity of the external source to
are called active components. of trivalent elements (acceptor impurity) like the P-N junction we have two types of biasing
(e.g.) transistors Boron, Aluminium, Gallium and Indium (1) Forward bias
3. What is energy band?  In P-type semicondutors, (2) Reverse bias
 When millions of atoms are brought close to each Holes are majority charge carriers 14. Differentiate forward bias and reverse bias.
other, the valence orbitals and the unoccupied Electrons are minority charge carriers Forward bias :
orbitals are split according to the number of atoms. 10. What is N-type semiconductor?  If the positive terminal of the external voltage
Their energy levels will be closely spaced and will  A N - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a source is connected to the P-side and the negative
be difficult to differentiate the orbitals of one atom pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased
from the other and they look like a band of pentavalent elements (donor impurity) like  It reduces width of the depletion region.
 This band of very large number of closely spaced Phosphorus, Arsenic and Antimony Reverse bias :
energy levels in a very small energy range is known  In N-type semicondutors,  If the positive terminal of the battery is connected
as energy band. Electrons are majority charge carriers to the N-side and the negative potential to the P-
4. What is valance band, conduction band and Holes are minority charge carriers side, the junction is said to be reverse biased
forbidden energy gap? 11. Define junction potential or barrier potential.  It increases width of the depletion region.
 The energy band formed due to the valence orbitals  When P - type and N - type semiconductors 15. Define reverse saturation current.
is called valence band. combine to form PN junction, due to diffusion of  Under reverse bias, a small current flows across the
 The energy band that formed due to the majority charge carriers a depletion region is junction due to the minority charge carriers in both
unoccupied orbitals is called the conduction band formed near the junction. regions.
 The energy gap between the valence band and the  It prevents the charge carriers to further diffusion  Because the reverse bias for majority charge
conduction band is called forbidden energy gap. across the junction. Because a potential difference carriers serves as the forward bias for minority
5. What is called intrinsic semiconductor? is set up by the immobile ions in this depletion charge carriers.
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity region.  The current that flows under a reverse bias is called
is called an intrinsic semiconductor.  This difference in potential across the depletion the reverse saturation current or leakage current
 Its conduction is low. layer is called the barrier potential or junction (IS).
(e.g.) Silicon, Germanium potential.  It depends on temperature.
6. Define dopping.  This barrier potential approximately equals 16. What is meant by rectification?
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium.  The process of converting alternating current into
semiconductor is called doping. 12. What is P-N juction diode? Give its symbol. direct current is called rectification.
 It increases the concentration of charge carriers  A P-N junction diode is formed when a P -type  The device used for rectification is called rectifier.
(electrons and holes) in the semiconductor and in semiconductor is fused with a N-type  A P-N junction diode is used as rectifier.
turn, its electrical conductivity. semiconductor.
 The impurity atoms are called dopants.  It is a device with single P-N junction
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
17. What is mean by break down voltage? collisions and further production of charge 24. Give the applications of LEDs.
 The reverse saturation current due to the minority carriers.  Indicator lamps on the front panel of the scientific
charge carriers is small.  This cumulative process leads to an avalanche of and laboratory equipments.
 If the reverse bias applied to a P-N junction is charge carriers across the junction and  Seven-segment displays.
increased beyond a point, the junction breaks consequently reduces the reverse resistance.  Traffic signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle
down and the reverse current rises sharply.  This is known as avanlanche breakdown. lighting etc.
 The voltage at which this breakdown happens is  Here the diode current increases sharply.  Industrial process control, position encoders, bar
called the breakdown voltage 20. What is called Zener diode? Give its circuit symbol. graph readers.
 It depends on the width of the depletion region,  Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped 25. What is photo diode? Give its circuit symbol.
which in turn depends on the doping level. Silicon diode which is specially designed to be  A P-N junction diode which converts an optical
18. Write a note on Zener breakdown. operated in the breakdown region. signal into electric current is known as photodiode
Zener breakdown :  The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.  Its operation exactly opposite to that of an LED.
 It wil occur in heavily doped P-N junction which  Photo diode words in reverse bias.
have narrow depletion layers (< 10-6 m)  The circuit symbol of photo diode is given below.
 When a reverse voltage across this junction is
increased to the breakdown limit, a very strong
electric field of strength 3 X 107 V m–1 is set up 21. Give the applications of Zener diode.
across the narrow layer.  Voltage regulators
 This electric field is strong enough to break or  Peak clippers 26. Give the applications of photo diode.
rupture the covalent bonds in the lattice and  Calibrating voltages  Alarm system
thereby generating electron-hole pairs. This effect  Provide fixed reference voltage in a network for  Count items on a conveyer belt
is called Zener effect. biasing  Photoconductors
 Even a small further increase in reverse voltage  Meter protection against damage from accidental  Compact disc players, smoke detectors
produces a large number of charge carriers. application of excessive voltage.  Medical applications such as detectors for
 Hence the junction has very low resistance in the 22. What is opto electronic devices? computed tomography etc.
breakdown region.  The devices which convert electrical energy into 27. What are called solar cells?
 This process of emission of electrons due to the light and light into electrical energy through  A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
rupture of bands in from the lattice due to strong semiconductors are called opto electronic devices. converts light energy directly into electricity or
electric field is known as internal field emission or  Optoelectronic device is an electronic device which electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
field ionization. utilizes light for useful applications.  It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf
 The electric field required for this is of the order of (e.g.) LEDs, photo diodes and solar cells. when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
106 V m–1 23. What is light emitting diode (LED)? 28. Give the applications of solar cells.
19. Write a note on avalanche break down.  LED is a P-N junction diode which emits visible or  Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches,
Avalanche breakdown : invisible light when it is forward biased. toys, portable power supplies, etc.
 It will occurs in lightly doped junctions which have  Here electrical energy is converted into light  Solar cells are used in satellites and space
wide depletion layers. energy, this process is also called applications
 Here the electric field is not strong enough to electroluminescence.  Solar panels are used to generate electricity.
produce breakdown.  The circuit symbol of LED is given below. 29. Write a note on bipolar junction transistor(BJT).
 But the minority charge carriers accelerated by the  The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of a
electric field gains sufficient kinetic energy, collide semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) crystal in
with the semiconductor atoms while passing which an N-type material is sandwiched between
through the depletion region. two P-type materials called PNP transistor or
 Thisleads to the breaking of covalent bonds and in a P -type material sandwiched between two N-type
turn generates electron-hole pairs. materials called NPN transistor.
 The newly generated charge carriers are also  The three regions formed are called emitter (E),
accelerated by the electric field resulting in more base (B) and collector (C)
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 The schematic symbol and circuit symbol of PNP  Input termial - Emitter  Input current = 𝐼𝐵
and NPN transistors are given below. Output terminal - Collector Output current = 𝐼𝐸
Common terminal - Base  The input signal (VBC) is applied across
 Input current = 𝐼𝐸 base - collector junction
Output current = 𝐼𝐶  The output signal (VEC) is measured across
 The input signal (VBE) is applied across emitter - collector junction.
emitter - base junction 34. Define input resistance of transistor.
 The output signal (VCB) is measured across  The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage
collector - base junction. (ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a
32. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called
configurations of NPN transistor. the input resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).
Common emitter configuration : ∆ 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
∆ 𝑰𝑩 𝑽
𝑪𝑬
 The input resistance is high for a transistor in
common emitter configuration.
30. Discuss the different modes of transistor biasing. 35. Define output resistance of transistor.
(1) Forward Active :  The ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage
 In this bias the emitter-base junction (JEB) is (ΔVCE) to the change in collector current (ΔIC) at a
forward biased and the collector-base junction constant base current (IB) is called the output
(JCB) is reverse biased. resistance (𝒓𝑶 ).
 The transistor is in the active mode and in this ∆ 𝑽𝑪𝑬
 Input termial - Base 𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
mode, the transistor functions as an amplifier. ∆ 𝑰𝑪 𝑰
Output terminal - Collector 𝑩
(2) Saturation :  The output resistance is very low for a transistor in
 Here, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) and Common terminal - Emitter
 Input current = 𝐼𝐵 common emitter configuration.
collector-base junction (JCB) are forward 36. Define forward current gain.
Output current = 𝐼𝐶
biased.  The ratio of the change in collector current (ΔI C) to
 The transistor has a very large flow of currents  The input signal (VBE) is applied across
base - emitter junction the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant
across the junctions and in this mode, collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called forward
 The output signal (VCE) is measured across
transistor is used as a closed switch. current gain (β).
collector - emitter junction.
(3) Cut-off : ∆ 𝑰𝑪
 In this bias, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) 33. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter 𝜷= [ ]
configurations of NPN transistor. ∆ 𝑰𝑩 𝑽
and collector-base junction (JCB) are reverse 𝑪𝑬
Common collector configuration :  Its value is very high and it generally ranges from
biased.
 Transistor in this mode is an open switch. 50 to 200.
31. Draw the circuit diagram of common base 37. Give the relation between 𝜶 and 𝜷
configurations of NPN transistor.  Forward current gain in common base mode,
∆ 𝐼𝐶
Common base configuration : 𝛼= [ ]
∆ 𝐼𝐸 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
 Forward current gain in common emitter mode,
∆ 𝐼𝐶
𝛽= [ ]
∆ 𝐼𝐵 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
 From the above two equations, we have
𝜷 𝜶
 Input termial - Base 𝜶= (𝒐𝒓) 𝜷=
Output terminal - Emitter 𝟏 + 𝜷 𝟏 − 𝜶
Common terminal - Collector
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
38. What is called transistor amplifier? 42. Give the Barkhausen conditions for sustained 48. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
 A transistor operating in the active region has the oscillations. operation and truth table of AND gate .
capability to amplify weak signals.  The loop phase shift must be 00 or integral AND gate - circuit symbol :
 Amplification is the process of increasing the signal multiples of 2π.
strength (increase in the amplitude).  The loop gain must be unity. |𝑨𝜷| = 𝟏
39. What is called transistor oscillator? Here, A → Voltage gain of the amplifier,
 An electronic oscillator basically converts DC β → Feedback ratio
energy into AC energy of high frequency ranging 43. Give the applications of oscillator.
Boolean expression :
from a few Hz to several MHz. Hence, it is a source  To generate a periodic sinusoidal or non sinusoidal
of alternating current or voltage. wave forms.  Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any  To generate RF carriers. 𝑌 = 𝐴 .𝐵
external signal source.  To generate audio tones Logical operation :
40. Give the types of an oscillator.  To generate clock signal in digital circuits.  The output of AND gate is high (1) only when all the
 There are two types of oscillators:  As sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO. inputs are high (1).
(1) Sinusoidal and 44. Distinguish between analog and digital signal.  The rest of the cases the output is low (0)
(2) Non-sinusoidal Truth table :
Analog signal Digital signal
 Sinusoidal oscillators generate oscillations in the It is continuously varying It contains only two Inputs Output
form of sine waves at constant amplitude and voltage or current with discreate values of A B Y=A.B
frequency respect to time voltages (i.e.) low (OFF) 0 0 0
 Non-sinusoidal oscillators generate complex and high (ON) 0 1 0
non-sinusoidal waveforms like square wave, These signals are These signals are 1 0 0
triangular wave or saw-toothed wave employed in rectifying employed in signal
41. Draw the block diagram of an oscillator 1 1 1
circuits and transistor processing.
Block diagram of oscillator : amplifier circuits communication etc., 49. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
45. Distinguish between positive and negative logic. operation and truth table of OR gate .
Positive logic Negative logic OR gate - circuit symbol :
Binary 1 stands for +5 V Binary 1 stands for 0V
Binary 0 stands for 0 V Binary 0 stands for +5 V

Boolean expression :
 Oscillator essensially consists three main parts,  Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then
(1) Tank circuit : 𝑌 =𝐴+𝐵
46. Why digital signals are preferred than analog Logical operation :
 The tank circuit generates electrical signals?
oscillations and acts as the AC input source  The output of OR gate is high (1) when either of the
 Because of their better performance, accuracy, inputs or both are high (1)
to the transistor amplifier. speed, flexibility and immunity to noice.
(2) Amplifier : Truth table :
47. What are called logic gates?
 Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal. Inputs Inputs
 A logic gate is an electronic circuit which functions
(3) Feed back network : based on digital signals. A B 𝒀=𝑨+𝑩
 The feedback circuit provides a portion of  They are considered as the basic building blocks of 0 0 0
the output to the tank circuit to sustain the most of the digital systems. 0 1 1
 oscillations without energy loss.  It has one output with one or more inputs. 1 0 1
 Hence, an oscillator does not require an 1 1 1
external input signal.
 The output is said to be self-sustained.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
50. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical Truth table : 𝒀=𝑨⨁𝑩
operation and truth table of NOT gate . Output Output Logical operation :
Input
NOT gate - circuit symbol : (AND) (NAND)  The output Y is high (1) only when either of the
A B Z=A.B 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 two inputs is high (1).
0 0 0 1  In the case of an Ex-OR gate with more than two
0 1 0 1 inputs, the output will be high (1) when odd
number of inputs are high (1)
Boolean expression : 1 0 0 1
Truth table :
 If A be the input and Y be the output, then 1 1 1 0
Input Output
𝒀=𝑨 ̅ 52. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
A B 𝒀= 𝑨⨁𝑩
Logical operation : operation and truth table of NOR gate .
NOR gate - circuit symbol : 0 0 0
 The output is the complement of the input. It is
represented with an overbar. 0 1 1
 It is also called as inverter. 1 0 1
 The output Y is high (1), when input is low (0) and 1 1 0
vice versa. 54. State Demorgan’s theorems.
Truth table : Boolean expression : Theorem - 1 :
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then  The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is
Input Output
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 equal to the product of its complements.
A 𝒀=𝑨 ̅
Logical operation : ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑨̅ . 𝑩
̅
0 1  The output Y equals the complement of OR Theorem - 2 :
1 0 operation  The complement of the product of two logical
51. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical  The circuit is an OR gate followed by a NOT gate inputs is equal to the sum of its complements.
operation and truth table of NAND gate . and is summarized as NOR ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
NAND gate - circuit symbol :  The output is high (1) when all the inputs are 55. What is an integrated circuit?
low (0).  An integrated circuit (IC) or a chip or a microchip
 The rest of the cases, the output is low (0) is an electronic circuit, which consists of thousands
Truth table : to millions of transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.
Output Output integrated on a small flat piece of Silicon.
Input
(OR) (NOR) 56. What are the application of integrated circuits (ICs)
A B Z = A + B 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩  Low cost
Boolean expression : 0 0 0 1  great performance.
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then 0 1 1 0  Very small in size
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 1 0 1 0  High reliability
Logical operation :  They can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer,
1 1 1 0
 The output Y equals the complement of AND microprocessor and computer memory.
operation. 53. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
operation and truth table of EX-OR gate . 57. Distinguish between digital IC and analog IC
 The circuit is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. Digital IC :
Therefore, it is summarized as NAND. EX-OR gate - circuit symbol :
 Digital ICs uses digital signals (logical 0 and 1).
 The output is at low (0) only when all the inputs are They usually find their applications in computers,
high (1). networking equipment, and most consumer
 The rest of the cases, the output is high (1) electronics.
Analog IC :
Boolean expression :  Analog (or) linear ICs work with continuous values.
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then Linear ICs are typically used in audio and radio
𝒀 = 𝑨 .𝑩̅+ 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩 frequency amplification.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
 12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
58. How electron-hole pairs are created in a Semiconductors :
semiconductor material? 5 marks Questions & Answers  In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden
 A small increase in temperature is sufficient 1. Explain the classification of solids on the basis of energy gap (𝐸𝑔 < 3 𝑒𝑉) between the valence band
enough to break some of the covalent bonds and energy band theory. and the conduction band.
release the electrons free from the lattice. Classification of solids :  At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the
 Hence a vacant site is created in the valanceband  Based on the energy band theory, solids are solid can break the covalent bond between the
and this vacancies are called holes which are classified in to three types, namely atoms.
treated to possess positive charges. (1) Insulators  This releases some electrons from valence band to
 Thus electrons and holes are the two charge (2) Metals (Condutors) conduction band.
carriers in semiconductors. (3) Semiconductors  Since free electrons are small in number, the
59. A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Explain conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high as
 An ideal diode behaves as conductor when it is that of the conductors.
forward biased and behaves as an insulator when it  The resistivity value of semiconductors is from
is reverse biased. 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 − 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝛀 𝒎.
 Thus diode coducts current only from P -type to  When the temperature is increased further, more
N -type through the junction when it is forward number of electrons is promoted to the conduction
biased. band and increases the conduction.
 Hence Diode is a unidirectional device.  Thus, the electrical conduction increases with the
increase in temperature. (i.e.) resistance decreases
Insulators : with increase in temperature.
 In insulator the valence band (VB) and the  Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative
conduction band (CB) are separated by a large temperature coefficient of resistance.
energy gap.  The most important elemental semiconductor
 The forbidden energy gap (𝐸𝑔 ) is approximately materials are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge).
6 eV in insulators.  At room temperature,
 The gap is very large that electrons from valence forbidden energy gap for Si ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 and
band cannot move into conduction band even on forbidden energy gap for Ge ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒆𝑽
the application of strong external electric field or
2. Explain in detail the intrinsic semiconductor.
the increase in temperature.
Intrinsic semiconductor :
 Therefore, the electrical conduction is not possible
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity
as the free electrons are almost nil and hence these
is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
materials are called insulators.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟗 (e.g) silicon, germanium
 Its resistivity is in the range of 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 𝒎
 Consider Silicon lattice. Each Silicon atom is
Metals (Conductors) :
covalently bonded with the neighbouring four
 In metals, the valence band and onduction band
atoms to form the lattice.
overlap
 At absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves as
 Hence, electrons can move freely into the
insulator, because there is no free charges.
conduction band which results in a large number of
free electrons in the conduction band.
 Therefore, conduction becomes possible even at
low temperatures.
 The application of electric field provides sufficient
energy to the electrons to drift in a particular
direction to constitute a current.
 For metals, the resistivity value lies between
𝟏𝟎−𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 But at room temperature, some of the covalent  The dopant has five valence electrons while the  As Silicon atom has four valence electrons, one
bonds are brakes and releases the electrons free Silicon atom has four valence electrons. electron position of the dopant in the crystal lattice
from the lattice.  During the process of doping, four of the five will remain vacant.
valence electrons of the impurity atom are bound  The missing electron position in the covalent bond
with the 4 valence electrons of the neighbouring is denoted as a hole.
replaced Silicon atom.  To make complete covalent, the dopant is in need
 The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will of one more electron.
be loosely attached with the nucleus as it has not  These dopants can accept electrons from the
formed the covalent bond. neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this impurity is
 The energy level of the loosely attached fifth called an acceptor impurity.
electron is found just below the conduction band  The energy level of the hole created by each
edge and is called the donor energy level impurity atom is just above the valence band and is
 As a result, some states in the valence band become  The energy required to set free a donor electron is called the acceptor energy level.
empty and the same number of states in the only 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.  For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the
conduction band will be occupied.  At room temperature, these electrons can easily valence band in addition to the thermally
 The vacancies produced in the valence band are move to the conduction band with the absorption generated holes.
called holes which are treates as positive charges. of thermal energy.  Hence, in an P - type semiconductor, the
 Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge  The pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons majority carriers - Holes
carriers in semiconductors. to the conduction band and are called donor minority carriers - Electrons
 In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of impurities. 4. Explain the formation of PN junction diode. Discuss
electrons in the conduction band is equal to the  Therefore,each impurity atom provides one extra its V–I characteristics.
number of holes in the valence band.  electron to the conduction band in addition to the Formation of PN junction diode :
 The conduction is due to the electrons in the thermally generated electrons
conduction band and holes in the valence band  Hence, in an N - type semiconductor, the
 The total current (I) is always the sum of the majority carriers - Electrons
electron current (𝑰𝒆 ) and the hole current (𝑰𝒉 ) minority carriers - Holes
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒆 + 𝑰𝒉 P - type semiconductor :
 The increase in temperature increases the number
of charge carriers (electrons and holes).
3. Elucidate the formation of a N-type and P-type
semiconductors.
N - type semiconductor :

 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and

P-type semiconductor materials.
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a  Here the N-region has a high electron concentration
pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant and the P-region a high hole concentration.
from trivalent elements like Boron, Aluminium,  So the electrons diffuse from the N-side to the
Gallium and Indium P-side. Simillarly holes also diffuse from P - side to
 The dopant has three valence electrons while the the N- side. This causes diffusion current.
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a Silicon atom has four valence electrons.  In a P-N junction, when the electrons and holes
pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant  During the process of doping, the dopant with three move to the other side of the junction, they leave
from pentavalent elements like Phosphorus, valence electrons are bound with the neighbouring behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites, which
Arsenic, and Antimony three Silicon atoms. are fixed in the crystal lattice and are unable to
move.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 On the n-side, positive ion cores are exposed and Forward bias characteristics : 5. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier
on the p- side, negative ion cores are exposed  If the positive terminal of the external voltage and explain its working.
 An electric field E forms between the positive ion source is connected to the P-side and the negative Half wave rectifier :
cores in the n-type material and negative ion cores terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased.
in the p-type material.  A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias
 The electric field sweeps free carriers out of this voltage (V) along the x-axis and the current (I)
region and hence it is called depletion region as it through the diode along the y-axis. This graph is
is depleted of free carriers. called the forward V-I characteristics.
 A barrier potential (Vb) due to the electric field E  From the graph,
is formed at the junction. (1) At room temperature, a potential difference
 As this diffusion of charge carriers from both sides equal to the barrier potential is required
continues, the negative ions form a layer of before a reasonable forward current starts
negative space charge region along the p-side. flowing across the diode. This voltage is known  In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half
 Similarly, a positive space charge region is formed as threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or or the negative half of the AC input is passed
by positive ions on the n-side. knee voltage (Vth). through while the other half is blocked.
 The positive space charge region attracts electrons For Silicon ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽  Only one half of the input wave reaches the output.
from P-side to n-side and the negative space charge For Germanium ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑽 Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.
region attracts holes from N-side to P -side. (2) The graph clearly infers that the current flow is  This circuit consists of a transformer, a
 This moment of carriers happen in this region due not linear and is exponential. Hence it does not P-N junction diode and a resistor (𝑅𝐿 )
to the formed electric field and it constitutes a obey Ohm’s law.  Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.
current called drift current. (3) The forward resistance (𝒓𝒇 ) of the diode is the During positive half During negative half
 The diffusion current and drift current flow in the ratio of the small change in voltage (ΔV)to the cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
opposite direction and at one instant they both small change in current(ΔI), Terminal A becomes Terminal B becomes
become equal. ∆𝑽 positive with respect to positive with respect to
 Thus, a P-N junction is formed. 𝒓𝒇 = terminal B. terminal A.
∆𝑰
V -I characteristics : (4) Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when The diode is forward The diode is reverse
 It is the study of the variation in current through it is forward biased. biased and hence it biased and hence it does
the diode with respect to the applied voltage across Reverse bias characteristics : conducts not conducts
the diode when it is forward or reverse biased.  If the positive terminal of the battery is connected No current passes through
The current flows through
to the n-side and the negative potential to the p- RL and there is no voltage
the load resistor RL and
side, the junction is said to be reverse biased. drop across RL
the AC voltage developed
 A graph is drawn between the reverse bias voltage (The reverse saturation
across RL constitutes the
and the current across the junction, which is called current in a diode is
output voltage V0
the reverse V - I characteristics. negligible)
 Under this bias, a very small current in μA, flows  The output waveform is shown below.
across the junction. This is due to the flow of the
minority charge carriers called the leakage
current or reversesaturation current.
For Silicon ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟐𝟎 𝝁 𝑨
For Germanium ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎 𝝁 𝑨
 Besides, the current is almost independent of the
voltage.
 The reverse bias voltage can be increased only up
to the rated value otherwise the diode will enter
into the breakdown region.

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady  Hence in a full wave rectifier both postive and  The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown
dc voltage but a pulsating wave. negative half cycles of the input signal pass through below.
 A constant ora steady voltage is required which can the circuit in the same direction
be obtained with the help of filter circuits and  The output waveform is shown below.
voltage regulator circuits.
 Efficiency (𝜼) is the ratio of the output dc power to
the ac input power supplied to the circuit. Its value
for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %
6. Explain the construction and working of a full wave
rectifier.
Full wave rectifier :

 Though both positive and negative half cycles of ac

input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
nature.
 The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that
of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
7. Write a note on Zener diode. Explain the V - I  The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is
characteristics of Zener diode.
similar to that of an ordinary P-N junction diode.
Zener diode :  It starts conducting approximately around 0.7 V.
 Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped  However, the reverse characteristics is highly
 The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input Silicon diode, designed to be operated in the
signal pass through this circuit and hence it is called significant in Zener diode.
breakdown region.  The increase in reverse voltage normally generates
the full wave rectifier.  Zener breakdown occurs due to the breaking of
 It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a center very small reverse current.
covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in  While in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage is
tapped transformer, and a load resistor (RL). the depletion region by the reverse voltage.
 The centre (C) is usually taken as the groundor zero increased to the breakdown voltage (VZ), the
 It produces an extremely large number of increase in current is very sharp.
voltage reference point. electrons and holes which constitute the reverse
 Due to the centre tap transformer, the output  The voltage remains almost constant throughout
saturation current. the breakdown region.
voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of the  The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.
total secondary voltage.  Here, IZ(max) represents the maximum reverse
During positive half During negative half current.
cycle of input AC cycle of input AC  If the reverse current is increased further, the
diode will be damaged.
Terminal M is positive, Terminal M is negative, V-I Characteristics of Zener diode :
 The important parameters on the reverse
G is at zero potential and G is at zero potential and  The circuit to study the forward and reverse
characteristics are
N is at negative potential N is at positive potential characteristic s of a Zener diode is shown below.
VZ→Zener breakdown voltage
Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D1 is reverse biased
IZ(min)→minimum current to sustain breakdown
Diode D2 is reverse biased Diode D2 is forward biased
IZ(max)→maximum current limited by maximum
D1 conducts and current D2 conducts and current
power dissipation.
flows along the path flows along the path
 The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias
MD1AGC ND2 BGC
having the voltage greater than VZ and current less
The voltage appears The voltage appears than IZ(max).
across RL in the direction across RL in the same
G to C direction G to C
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
 The reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical 9. What is meant by light emitting diode? Explain its 10. Explain in detail about the photo diode.
which means that the diode possesses some small working principle with diagram. Photo diode :
resistance called Zener dynamic impedance. Light Emitting Diode (LED) :  A P-N junction diode which converts an optical
 Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope in the  LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible or signal into electric current is known as photodiode.
breakdown region. It means an increase in the invisible light when it is forward biased.  Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly
Zener current produces only a very small increase  Since, electrical energy is converted into light opposite to that of an LED.
in the reverse voltage which can be neglected. energy, this process is also called electro  Photo diode works in reverse bias. Its circuit
 Thus the voltage of an ideal Zener diode does not luminescence. symbol below.
change once it goes into breakdown.
 It means that VZ remains almost constant even
when IZ increases considerably.
8. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator :
 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is
incident on the photo diode.
 The device consists of a P-N junction
semiconductor made of photosensitive material
 It consists of a P-layer, N-layer and a substrate. kept safely inside a plastic case
 A transparent window is used to allow light to  It has a small transparent window that allows light
travel in the desired direction. to be incident on the P-N junction.
 In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.  Photodiodes can generate current when the P-N
 When the P-N junction is forward biased, the junction is exposed to light and hence are called as
conduction band electrons on N-side and valence light sensors.
 A Zener diode working in the breakdown region band holes on P-side diffuse across the junction.  When a photon of sufficient energy (h) strikes the
can serve as a voltage regulator.  When they cross the junction, they become excess depletion region of the diode, some of the valence
 It maintains a constant output voltage even when minority carriers (electrons in P-side and holes in band electrons are elevated into conduction band,
input voltage (𝑉𝑖 ) or load current (𝐼𝐿 ) varies. N-side). in turn holes are developed in the valence band.
 Here, in this circuit the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is regulated  These excess minority carriers recombine with  This creates electron-hole pairs.
at a constant voltage Vz (Zener voltage) at the oppositely charged majority carriers in the  The amount of electronhole pairs generated
output represented as V0 using a Zener diode. respective regions, i.e. the electrons in the depends on the intensity of light incident on the
 The output voltage is maintained constant as long conduction band recombine with holes in the P-N junction.
as the input voltage does not fall below Vz . valence band  These electrons and holes are swept across the
 When the potential developed across the diode is  During recombination process, energy is released P-N junction by the electric field created by reverse
greater than VZ, the diode moves into the Zener in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non- voltage before recombination takes place.
breakdown region. radiative).  Thus, holes move towards the N-side and electrons
 It conducts and draws relatively large current  For radiative recombination, a photon of energy hv towards the P-side.
through the series resistance 𝑹𝑺 . isemitted. For non-radiative recombination,  When the external circuit is made, the electrons
 The total current I passing through 𝑹𝑺 equals the energy is liberated in the form of heat. flow through the external circuit and constitute the
sum of diode current IZ and load current IL (i.e.)  The colour of the light is determined by the energy photocurrent.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒁 + 𝑰𝑳 band gap of the material.  When the incident light is zero, there exists a
 It is to be noted that the total current is always less  Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of reverse current which is negligible.
than the maximum Zener diode current. colours such as blue (SiC), green (AlGaP) and red  This reverse current in the absence of any incident
 Under all conditions 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒁 (GaAsP). Now a days, LED which emits white light light is called dark current and is due to the
 Thus, output voltage is regulated. (GaInN) is also available. thermally generated minority carriers.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
11. Explain the working principle of Solar cell. Mention  When an external load is connected to the solar cell, towards the base region and constitutes the
its applications. photocurrent flows through the load. emitter current (IE).
Solar cell :  Many solar cells are connected together either in  The electrons after reaching the base region
 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, series or in parallel combination to form solar recombine with the holes in the base region.
converts light energy directly into electricity or panel or module.  Since the base region is very narrow and lightly
electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.  Many solar panels are connected with each other to doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient
form solar arrays. For high power applications, holes to recombine and hence most of the electrons
solar panels and solar arrays are used. reach the collector region.
Applications :  Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector
(1) Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, region will be attracted by the collector terminal as
toys, portable power supplies, etc. it has positive potential and flows through the
(2) Solar cells are used in satellites and space external circuit.
applications  This constitutes the collector current (IC).
(3) Solar panels are used to generate electricity.  The holes that are lost due to recombination in the
12. Explain transistor action in common base base region are replaced by the positive potential
configuration. of the bias voltage VEB and constitute the
Working of NPN transistor in CB mode : base current (IB ).
 The magnitude of the base current will be in
 It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf micoamperes as against milliamperes for emitter
when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction. and collector currents.
 A solar cell is of two types : P-type and N-type.  It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero,
 Both types use a combination of P-type and N-type then the collector current is almost zero.
Silicon which together forms the P-N junction of  It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a
the solar cell. current controlled device.
 The difference is that P-type solar cells use P-type  Applying Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter
Silicon as the base with an ultra-thin layer of N-type current as the sum of the collector current and the
Silicon, while N-type solar cell uses the opposite base current.
combination. 𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
 The other side of the P-Silicon is coated with metal  Basically, a BJT can be considered as two  Since the base current is very small, we can write,
which forms the back electrical contact. P-N junction diodes connected back to- back. 𝑰𝑬 ≈ 𝑰𝑪
 On top of the N-type Silicon, metal grid is deposited  In the forward active bias of the transistor, the  There is another component of collector current
which acts as the front electrical contact. emitter-base junction is forward biased by VEB and due to the thermally generated electrons called
 The top of the solar cell is coated with anti- the collector-base junction is reverse biased by VCB. reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO.
reflection coating and toughened glass.  The forward bias decreases the depletion region  This factor is temperature sensitive.
 In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated across the emitter-base junction and the reverse  The ratio of the collector current to the emitter
due to the absorption of light near the junction. bias increases the depletion region across the current is called the forward current gain (𝜶𝒅𝒄 ) of
 Then the charge carriers are separated due to the collector-base junction. a transistor.
electric field of the depletion region.  Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter- 𝑰𝑪
base junction is decreased and the collector-base 𝜶𝒅𝒄 =
 Electrons move towards N–type Silicon and holes 𝑰𝑬
move towards P-type Silicon layer. junction is increased.  The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a
 The electrons reaching the N-side are collected by  In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers transistor. Higher the value of α better is the
the front contact and holes reaching P-side are in the emitter are electrons. As it is heavily doped, transistor.
collected by the back electrical contact. it has a large number of electrons.  The value of α is less than unity and ranges from
 Thus a potential difference is developed across  The forward bias across the emitter-base junction 0.95 to 0.99.
solar cell. causes the electrons in the emitter region to flow

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
13. Sketch the static characteristics of a common  Beyond the knee voltage, the base current ∆𝑽𝑪𝑬
𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
emitter transistor and bring out the essence of increases with the increase in base-emitter ∆𝑰𝑪 𝐼
𝐵
input and output characteristics. voltage.  The output resistance for transistor in
Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode :  It is also noted that the increase in the common emitter configuration is very low.
collector-emitter voltage decreases the base (3) Current transfer characteristics :
current. This shifts the curve outward.  This gives the variation of collector current
 This is because the increase in collector- (IC) with changes in base current (IB) at
emitter voltage increases the width of the constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE)
depletion region in turn, reduces the effective
base width and thereby the base current.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage
(ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is
𝑽𝑩𝑬 − Base - emitter voltage called the input resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).
𝑽𝑪𝑬 − Collector - emitter voltage ∆𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑰𝑩 − Base current 𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑽
𝑪𝑬
𝑰𝑪 − Collector current
 The input resistance is high for a transistor in
𝑽𝑩𝑩 & 𝑽𝑪𝑪 −Biasing voltages  It is seen that a small IC flows even when IB is
common emitter configuration.
𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐 − Variable resistors zero.
(2) Output characteristics :
(1) Input characteristics :  The output characteristics give the  This current is called the common emitter
 Input Characteristics curves give the leakage current (ICEO), which is due to the flow
relationship between the variation in the
relationship between the base current (IB) and of minority charge carriers.
collector current (ΔIC) with respect to the
base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant  The ratio of the change in collector current
variation in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) at
collector to emitter voltage (VCE) (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at
constant input current (IB)
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is
called forward current gain (β).
∆𝑰𝑪
𝜷= [ ]
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
 Its value is very high and it generally ranges
from 50 to 200.
14. Transistor functions as a switch. Explain.
Transistor as a switch :

 There are four important regions in the curve

(i) Saturation region
(ii) Cut-off region
(iii) Active region
 The curve looks like the forward (iv) Break down region
characteristics of an ordinary P-N junction  The ratio of the change in the collectoremitter
diode. voltage (ΔVCE) to the corresponding change in  The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions
 There exists a threshold voltage or knee the collector current (ΔIC) at constant base functions like an electronic switch that helps to
voltage (Vk) below which the base current is current (IB) is called output resistance (𝒓𝑶 ). turn ON or OFF a given circuit by a small control
very small. signal.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Presence of dc source at the input (saturation  Amplification is the process of increasing the signal  The increase in collector current (IC) decreases
region) : strength (increase in the amplitude). the potential drop across RC and increases the
 When a high input voltage (Vin = +5 V) is applied,  If a large amplification is required, multistage collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
the base current (IB) increases and in turn amplifier is used.  Thus, the input signal in the negative direction
increases the collector current.  Here, the amplification of an electrical signal is produces an amplified signal in the positive
 The transistor will move into the saturation region explained with a single stage transistor amplifier direction at the output.
(turned ON).  Single stage indicates that the circuit consists of  Therefore, 1800 phase reversal is observed
 The increase in collector current (IC) increases the one transistor with the allied components. during the negative half cycle of the input
voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the  An NPN transistor is connected in the common signal
output voltage, close to zero. emitter configuration.
 The transistor acts like a closed switch and is  A load resistance, RC is connected in series with the
equivalent to ON condition. collector circuit to measure the output voltage.
Absence of dc source at the input (cutoff region) :  The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass
 A low input voltage (Vin = 0 V ), decreases the base through.
current (IB) and in turn decreases the collector  The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low
current (IC). reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The transistor will move into the cut-off region  The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple one
(turned OFF). stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
 The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases the constructing multistage amplifiers.
16. Explain the action transistor as an oscillator.
drop across RC, thereby increasing the output  VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied
Transistor as an oscillator :
voltage, close to +5 V. across the base-emitter.
 An electronic oscillator basically converts dc energy
 The transistor acts as an open switch which is  The output is taken across the collector-emitter.
into ac energy of high frequency ranging from a few
considered as the OFF condition.  Collector current,
Hz to several MHz.
 It is manifested that, a high input gives a low output 𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷 𝑰𝑩
 Hence, it is a source of alternating current or voltage.
and a low input gives a high output.  Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law in the output
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any
 Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter loop, the collector-emitter voltage is
external signal source.
in computer logic circuitry. 𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪
 Basically, there are two types of oscillators:
15. Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier Working of the amplifier :
Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.
with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch the input and (1) During the positive half cycle :
 An oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, an
output wave form.  Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage
amplifier and a feedback circuit as shown
Transisitor as an amplifier : across the emitter-base.
 As a result, the base current (IB) increases.
 Consequently, the collector current (IC)
increases β times.
 This increases the voltage drop across RC
which in turn decreases the collector-emitter
voltage (VCE).
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive
direction produces an amplified signal in the
negative direction at the output. Hence, the
output signal is reversed by 180°
(2) During the negative half cycle : Amplifier :
 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward  Amplification is the process of increasing
voltage across the emitter-base. amplitude of weak signals (i.e) Amplifier amplifies
 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in the input ac signal
turn increases the collector current (IC).
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 9 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Feedback network : Proof :  The corresponding logic circuit diagram
 The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output  The Boolean equation for NOR gate is
to the input is called the feedback network. 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩
 If the portion of the output fed to the input is in  The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is
phase with the input, then the magnitude of the 𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅
input signal increases. A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅ .𝑩
𝑨 ̅ 18. State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they are used to
 It is necessary for sustained oscillations. simplify Boolean expressions with suitable
Tank circuit : 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
example.
 The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and a 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Boolean laws :
capacitor connected in parallel 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 (1) Complement law :
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 (i) 𝐴̿ = 𝐴
(2) OR -Laws:
 From the above truth table, we can conclude
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ .𝑩̅ (i) 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨
(ii) 𝐴 + 1 = 1
 Thus De Morgan’s First Theorem is proved.
(iii) 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴
 It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled
(iv) 𝐴 + 𝐴̅ = 1
AND gate.
(3) AND -Laws:
 The corresponding logic circuit diagram
(i) 𝐴 .0 = 0
(ii) 𝐴 .1 = 𝐴
(iii) 𝐴 . 𝐴 = 𝐴
 Whenever energy is supplied to the tank circuit
from a DC source, the energy is stored in inductor (iv) 𝐴 . 𝐴̅ = 0
and capacitor alternatively. (4) Commutative Laws :
De Morgan’s First Theorem : (i) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
 This produces electrical oscillations of definite
 The complement of the products of two logical (ii) 𝐴 . 𝐵 = 𝐵 . 𝐴
frequency.
inputs is equal to the sum of its complements. (5) Associative Laws :
 But in practical oscillator circuits there will be loss ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅+𝑩 ̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 (i) 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶
of energy across resistors, inductor coils and
Proof : (ii) 𝐴 . (𝐵. 𝐶) = (𝐴 . 𝐵). 𝐶
capacitors.
 The Boolean equation for NAwD gate is (6) Distributive Laws :
 Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 (i) 𝐴 (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐶
decreases gradually.
 Hence, the tank circuit produces damped electrical  The Boolean equation for a bubbled OR gate is (ii) 𝐴 + (𝐵 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐶)
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ +𝑩 ̅ Example :
oscillations.
 Therefore, in order to produce undamped A B A .B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨. 𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅+𝑩
𝑨 ̅ Simplify the following Boolean expression.
oscillations, a positive feedback is provided from 𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
the output circuit to the input circuit. Solution :
 The frequency of oscillations is determined by the 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 (1 + 𝐵)
values of L and C using the equation. 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 .1 [𝑂𝑅 −law (2) ]
𝟏 𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑪 [𝐴𝑁𝐷 −law (2) ]
𝒇= 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Circuit description
𝟐 𝝅 √𝑳 𝑪
17. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second  From the above truth table, we can conclude
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
theorems.
De Morgan’s First Theorem :  Thus De Morgan’s second Theorem is proved.
 The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is  It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled
equal to the product of its complements. OR gate.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502