aluminium technologies

29.09.2015
 Prof. Dr. YÜCEL BİROL
Metallurgy and Materials Science
3rd floor room:324
Telephone: 232 301 74 57
e- mail: [email protected]
syllabus
 Attendance is encouraged!
 Don’t panic if you are late! Sneak in!
 Mobile phones only in silent mode!
 Be involved in classroom discussions!
I’d be happy to answer your questions.
 No office hours: You can drop by anytime
for questions, discussions!
program
week # subject
1 / 29.9 Introduction to aluminium; distinctive features
of aluminium; primary production, production
of alumina (Bayer Process); production of
aluminium metal (Hall-Heroult Process)
2 / 6.10 Melting aluminium; furnaces; crucibles; melt
contamination (impurities in aluminium melts);
melt treatment procedures-degassing.
3 / 13.10 melt treatment-degassing; fluxing, flux types;
filtration, filter types; grain refinement;
modification; alloying; mixing
program
week # subject
4 / 20.10 Assesment of melt quality; Hydrogen and inclusion
measurements, modification rating; thermal
analysis; K-mold; chemical analysis/OES, fluidity,
die soldering; gating and feeding aluminium
castings
5 / 27.10 Assesment of casting quality; macro and micro
examinations: grain size, SDAS, porosity,
6 / 3.11 Advantages of aluminium casting; foundry alloys;
alloying elements; alloy groups, designations
7 / 10.11 casting processes; HPDC, LPDC, GDC, sand casting,
rheo-thixo casting; alloy selection for casting
process; applications of foundry alloys; heat
treatment of castings
program
week # subject
8 / 17.11 Semi-continuous casting process (DC casting);
extrusion processing; solution and aging heat
treatments; aluminium profiles
9 / 24.11 continuous casting processes; Hot-cold rolling of
aluminium; foil rolling; TRC and TBC
10 / 1.12 TRC and TBC (cont’d); wrought alloys; effect of
alloying elements; alloy groups; applications;
temper designations; selection of alloys
11 / 8.12 midterm
program
week # subject
12 / 15.12 Forging of aluminium alloys; thixoforging;
aluminium foil; converted foil; packaging
applications; aluminium foam; aluminium
powder metallurgy; anodising; corrosion of
aluminium alloys
13 / 22.12 Metallography and microstructure of
aluminium alloys
14 / 29.12 presentations
15 / presentations
grading
Presentation-term paper 20%
Midterm 30%
final 50%
Course grade 100%
Presentation themes
You are expected to write a comprehensive
review article on
● Additive manufacturing of aluminium
automotive components
● Manufacture of aluminium foams
● Non-equilibrium processing of aluminium
alloys (ECAP, ARB, FSP)
● Recycling of aluminium dross
Are you ready?
Aluminium metal
Low density, strength, recyclability, corrosion
resistance, durability, ductility, formability and
conductivity make aluminium a valuable material.
Due to this unique combination of properties, the
variety of applications of aluminium continues to
increase.
We cannot fly, go by high speed train, high
performance car or fast ferry without aluminium.
We cannot get heat and light into our homes and
offices without it.
We depend on it to preserve food, medicine and
provide electronic components for our computers.
aluminium

Atomic number: 13 Electron configuration : 1s22s22p63s23p1

Atomic weight: 26.98 g
Density: 2.7 g/cc at melting point: 2.375 g/cc
Melting point: 660 C Solidification contraction

Boiling point: 2519 C

Crystal structure: FCC
aluminium
Properties of Aluminium
Oxidation states : +3, +2, +1 (1s22s22p63s23p1)
Electronegativity: 1.610
Electron affinity: 41.747 kJ/mol
Atomic radius: 1.43 Å
Atomic volume: 10.0 cc/mol
lattice constant: 4.049 Å
“This valuable metal possesses the whiteness of silver, the
indestructibility of gold, the tenacity of iron, the fusibility of
copper, the lightness of glass. It is easily wrought, is very widely
distributed, forming the base of most rocks, is three times lighter
than iron, and seems to have been created for express purpose of
furnishing us with the material for our projectile.”
Jules Vernes, “From the Earth to the Moon”, 1865
 brief history
 It was only in 1808 that Sir Humphrey Davy, the
British electrochemist, established the existence of
aluminium, and it was not until 17 years later that
the Danish scientist Oersted produced the first tiny
pellet of the metal.
 Al metal was first displayed at the Paris Exhibition
in 1855.
 aluminium was more precious than gold, silver or
platinum at that time.
 Napoleon III became enthusiastic about the
possibilities of this new material, mainly for
military purposes.
Brief history
 Deville a Frenchman was subsequently able to
produce aluminium at a cost of 37 $/kg but that
was still too high to launch the metal commercially.
 Thirty years later improvements in production
methods made in association with Hamilton Y.
Castner, an American chemist, had lowered the
price to 18 $/kg.
 The metal was still potentially plentiful and useful
but, even at this substantially reduced price, too
expensive for general use.
 The total annual output at this time was only 15
tonnes.
Brief history
 Two unknown young scientists - Paul Louis
Toussaint Héroult of France and Charles Martin
Hall of the United States - searched for the low-
cost production of aluminium.
 They worked separately, each unaware of the
other’s activities, in their respective countries.
 In 1886, the two scientists - almost
simultaneously - came up with the same new
process.
 Named as Hall-Heroult process!
Brief history
 The first World War had a dramatic effect on
aluminium production and consumption.
 In the six years between 1914 and 1919 world
output soared from 70,800 to 132,500 tonnes.
 after the very large expansion occasioned by WW I
the ground was held.
 Once the changeover to civilian production had
been carried through the increased capacity was
occupied before very long in supplying the normal
demands of industry. And this happened again, on
a much larger scale, as a result of the WW II.
Brief history
 World production of primary aluminium increased
from 704,000 tonnes in 1939 to a peak of
1,950,000 tonnes in 1943, after which it declined
considerably.
 At the end of World War II, the western world
industry had completed a threefold expansion in
capacity in the space of four to five years.
 Civilian markets had to be developed for this new
capacity. The demand for aluminium proved to
be elastic and the expanded facilities were
working at near capacity in a matter of a few
years.
Aluminium facts…
● Aluminum is the most widely used metal after
iron.
● The primary source of aluminum is bauxite.
● Aluminum is paramagnetic.
● The top three countries that mine aluminum ore
are Guinea, Australia and Vietnam. Australia,
China and Brazil lead the world in aluminum
production.
● Aluminum was once called the "Metal of Kings"
because pure aluminum was more expensive to
produce than gold until the Hall-Heroult process
was discovered.
Aluminium facts…
A piece of jewelry in the tomb of the 3rd Century
Chinese general Chou-Chu has been found to contain
85% aluminium.
Aluminum is used in fireworks to make produce
sparks and white flames. Aluminium is a common
component of sparklers.
About 80% of the mass of
an aircraft is aluminium.
Not any more!!
Boeing dreamliner!!
Atomic structure
Al has the atomic number 13. According to present
concepts, this means that an aluminium atom is
composed of 13 electrons, each having a unit
negative electrical charge, arranged in three orbits
around a highly concentrated
nucleus having a positive
charge of 13.
The 3 electrons in the outer
orbit give the aluminium
atom a valence or chemical
combining power of +3.
Crystal structure
Aluminium, like copper, silver and gold, crystallizes with the
face-centred-cubic arrangement of atoms, common to most
of the ductile metals. This means that the atoms form the
corners of a cube, with one atom in the centre of each face.
The face centred cubic structure is one of the arrangements
assumed by close packed spheres, in this case with a
diameter of 4.049 x 10-8 cm, the corners of the cube being at
the centre of each sphere.
Properties – low density
● Lightness is the key characteristic of aluminium
● 2.7 (g/cm3) = 1/3 the weight of steel
● The addition of other metals does not
appreciably change the density (plus 3%, minus
2%), except in the case of Lithium alloys where
the density of the alloy is reduced by up to 15%.
● Low weight is an advantage during assembly in
buildings and in many other applications.
Low density
● Weight is important for all transportation
applications.
● use of aluminium in vehicles reduces dead-weight
and energy consumption while increasing load
capacity.
● Low weight means reduced emissions of
greenhouse gases and pollutants
● Low weight combined with the high strength
possible with special alloys has placed aluminium
as the major material for aircraft construction for
the past sixty years.
Low density
Mercedes' M-133-55
Low density
Volume per Unit Weight
strong
● tensile strengths between 70 and 700 MPa.
● Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not
become brittle at low temperatures. Instead, its
strength increases.
● Aluminium alloys increase in strength without loss
of ductility.
● The strength of the metal can be increased by
alloying. Mixed with small amount of
other metals, it can provide the
strength of steel, with only
one-third of the weight.
strong

iPhone 6s
super-strong '7xxx'
aluminium
strong
Ductile-Easy to form
● Aluminium is ductile
● Easy to process in cold and hot condition
● This allows design flexibility and integration in
advanced transport and building industries
● Its ductility allows products of aluminium to be
basically formed close to the end of the
product’s design.
Highly corrosion resistant
Aluminium naturally generates a protective oxide
coating and is highly corrosion resistant. Different
types of surface treatment such as anodising,
painting or lacquering can
further improve this
property.
It is particularly useful
for applications where
protection and
conservation
are required.
excellent electricity conductor
● The electrical conductivity of 99.99% pure
aluminium at 20 C is 63.8% of the International
Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).
● However, twice as good a conductor as copper
based on weight
excellent electricity conductor
The addition of other metals in aluminium alloys
lowers the electrical conductivity of the aluminium.
Heat treatment also affects the conductivity since
elements in solid solution produce greater resistance
than undissolved constituents.
excellent electricity conductor
The very good electrical properties of aluminium
have made it an obvious choice
for applications in the electrical
industry, particularly in power
distribution where it is used
almost exclusively for overhead
transmission lines and busbars.
The first major aluminium
transmission line
was completed in
1898 in the USA
Excellent thermal conductor
The thermal conductivity, , of 99.99% pure
aluminium is 61.9% of the IACS,
and again because of its low specific gravity its mass
thermal conductivity is twice that of copper.
The thermal
conductivity is
reduced slightly
by the addition of
alloying elements.
Long life – low maintenance!
● All materials suffer degradation from weather
conditions, corrosion and decay.
● Aluminium forms a protective oxide coating
that is immediately reformed if cut or
scratched that makes it highly corrosion
resistant; it is very well suited to surface
treatments such as anodic oxidation.
● This prolongs the life of aluminium in cars and
buildings
● Reduces need for maintenance
● Reduces environmental impacts due
to replacements and maintenance
Long-lasting
All materials suffer degradation
from weather conditions,
corrosion and decay.
Aluminium’s natural ability to
resist these influences better
than many materials is one of
its most widely appreciated
features.
The durability of aluminium
applications, such as in
building structures, clearly
demonstrates this.
Non-magnetic
Aluminium alloys are very slightly paramagnetic, as
it has a magnetic permeability slightly greater than
one.
The low magnetic characteristic of aluminium is of
value in military ship structures where it has
advantages of lightness and lower cost over other
non-magnetic metals.
It is also used to advantage in electronic equipment
for screening and as heat sinks, usually in the form
of finned extruded profiles.
aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices to
avoid interference of magnetic fields.
Cryo-tolerant
In contrast to steel, titanium and many other
materials that become brittle at very low (cryogenic)
temperatures, aluminum remains ductile and even
gains strength as temperature is reduced.
This property makes aluminum highly useful in very
cold climates and for transporting
extremely cold materials such as
liquefied natural gas (-162°C).
joinable
Aluminum alloys can be joined by
all appropriate major methods, including welding,
riveting, mechanical connections, and adhesive
bonding.
Features facilitating easy jointing are often
incorporated into profile design.
Fusion welding, Friction Stir Welding, bonding and
taping are also
used for joining.
Fire-proof/non-combustible
● Aluminium in buildings, construction and
transport is fire-proof
● Will only burn if shaped as very thin film
● Will melt at 660° C without releasing any gases
Great reflector
● Can reflect both heat and light
● Plain aluminium reflects about 75% of the light
and 90% of the heat radiation that falls on it.
Combined with its light weight, this makes
aluminium ideal for reflectors like light fittings,
rescue blankets
● High energy efficiency in the reflectors reduces
energy consumption
● combined properties of high
reflectivity and low emissivity give
rise to the use of aluminium foil as
a reflective insulating medium
Great reflector
Reflectance and emissivity
The emissivity of the aluminium surface can be
raised considerably by anodic treatment.
Clear anodic coatings raise the emissivity to
between 35 and 65%, the phosphoric and chromic
acid methods being the most effective in this
respect. Black anodic coatings have
an even greater effect and raise it as high as 95%.

an ideal material for reflectors

in, for example, light fittings or
rescue blankets.
Perfect for food packaging
● Aluminium foil is completely impermeable –
no taste, aroma or light gets in or out
● non-toxic and odorless
● Widely used in food and drink packaging
● Efficient conservation of food reduces wastage
● Low weight reduces packaging and energy
consumption in transportation
● Impermeability also reduces cooling needs
Perfect for food packaging
Perfect for food packaging
Completely impermeable and
odourless
Aluminium foil, even when rolled to
just a 0.007 mm thickness, is still
completely impermeable and lets
neither light, aroma nor taste
substances in or out.
Moreover, the metal itself is
non-toxic and releases no aroma or taste substances which
makes it ideal for packaging sensitive products such as food
or pharmaceuticals.
Aluminium is therefore widely used in food and drink
packaging.
Easy to recycle
● Aluminium is 100% recyclable with
no downgrading of its qualities..
● Re-melting of aluminium requires
little energy; total loss in the re-
melting process is less than 3%
● Only 5 percent of the energy
required to produce the primary
metal initially is needed in the
recycling process
● About 75% of all aluminium
ever produced is still in use;
infinitely recyclable!
Other properties
Linear expansion
Compared with other metals, aluminium has a
relatively large coefficient of linear expansion. This
has to be taken into account in some designs.

Machining
Aluminium is easily worked using most machining
methods – milling, drilling, cutting, punching,
bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during
machining is low.
Screening EM radiation (EMC)
Tight aluminium boxes can effectively exclude or
screen off, reflect electromagnetic radiation.
The better the conductivity of a material, the
better the shielding qualities.
Aluminium is the material of choice for enclosures
radio-operated equipment
but also all electrical and
electronic devices,
equipment and systems in
respect of electromagnetic
compatibility.
Primary
production
reserves
the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic
element and the third most abundant of all elements
(after oxygen and silicon).
Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, it is almost
never found in the elemental state.
instead it is found in oxides or silicates.
It constitutes
about 7.8 wt%
of the earth’s
crust.
Elements found in earth’s crust
bauxite
aluminium is produced from bauxite, which contains
40 to 60 wt% impure hydrated aluminum oxide
(aluminum oxide with attached water molecules!)
The other components of bauxite typically include
iron oxide
silicon oxide
titanium oxide
water

Bauxite from Little Rock, Arkansas

Typical bauxite composition
Component wt%
Other minerals
Feldspars, micas and clay contain Al203 between 15
and 40 wt%.

Feldspar mica clay

Ontario, CANADA Ontario, CANADA Estonia
Bauxite mining
● The richest and most economical bauxite ores
are often found close to the earth’s crust in
tropical and subtropical areas.
● Worldwide reserves of bauxite ores are
estimated to last for another 500 years at recent
consumption rates.
● Clays and other minerals could, if necessary,
provide an almost limitless source of alumina.
Bauxite mining
The vast majority of world bauxite production is mined from
open surface pits, by conventional digging machinery,
while the rest,
mainly from
Southern Europe
and Hungary, is
from underground
excavations.
World production:
130x106 tons/year
70 % in Australia,
Guinea, Brazil and
Jamaica
Bauxite mining

Alcan Australia

Alcan Quebec,
canada
Bauxite mining
The area affected by
bauxite mining is about
160m²/kt.
Bauxite mining
The original flora and fauna of much of the land involved in
bauxite mining is restored once mining operations have
ceased. For all forest areas used for bauxite mining, 80% is
returned to native forests, the rest is replaced by agriculture,
commercial
forest, or recreational
area, thereby making
the area more productive
for the local community.
As far as rain forests in particular
are concerned, however, the area
used for bauxite mining in rain
forests is almost totally reverted
back to rain forest.
Bauxite mining
Bauxite reserves
Share from
country Bauxite reserve world reserves
Bauxite reserves in Turkey

Estimated total: 68.910.000 tons

Milas, Muğla / Seydişehir, Konya / Akseki, Antalya /
Saimbeyli, Adana / İslahiye, Gaziantep / Hassa, Hatay
production of aluminium from
bauxite
Bauxite has to be processed into pure aluminium
oxide (alumina) before it can be converted to
aluminium metal by electrolysis.
This is achieved through the use of the Bayer
chemical process in alumina refineries.
bauxite

Bayer process patented in

Germany in 1888 by Joseph Bayer!

alumina
Production of aluminium from
bauxite
bauxite Bayer process is used to produce
alumina from bauxite (process
patented in Germany in 1888 by
Joseph Bayer!)
alumina
Hall-Heroult process is employed
to produce aluminium from
alumina
Commercialization in 1886
aluminium Pittsburg Red Co. (Alcoa)
Bayer Process
benefication
bauxite Benefication may be employed via
washing, depending on the state
and the quality of the bauxite.
Bauxite is prepared for the caustic
treatment by crushing into smaller
pieces.
Caustic treatment “digestion”
Filtration
precipitation
alumina calcination
Alumina production
benefication

Digestion  filtration  precipitation  calcination

Caustic treatment “digestion”
● Crushed, washed and dried bauxite is treated with
caustic soda (NaOH) at high temperatures, under
high vapour pressures.
Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O  2NaAlO2 + 4H2O
● Aluminium oxide inside bauxite is converted into
soluble sodium aluminate, dissolves in caustic soda
and is thus seperated from the other insoluble
oxides.
● concentration, temperature and pressure in the
digester are adjusted according to the
characteristics of the bauxite mineral.
Caustic treatment “digestion”
● for minerals rich in Gibsite; T=140C
for minerals rich in Boehmite: 200-240C
● pressure: approximately 35 atm at 240C.
● while high temperatures appear to be favourable,
corrosion risk increases!
other oxides may start to dissolve in caustic at
high temperatures!
filtration
● While alumina is dissolved in the caustic
soda, insoluble impurities are retained in
RED MUD.
● This mixture is filtered to remove the red
mud, which is then discarded.
● The clarified alumina solution is transferred
to tanks called “precipitators.”
precipitation
● Hot alumina solution is allowed to cool inside the
precipitator.
● Aluminium hydrate in the caustic liquoir solution is
precipitated:
2H2O + NaAlO2  Al(OH)3 + NaOH
● Sodium aluminate solution is seeded with crystals
of hydrated aluminum to promote the formation
of aluminum hydrate particles.
● As the seed crystals attract other crystals in the
solution, large clumps of aluminum hydrate begin
to form.
precipitation
● The precipitated aluminium hydroxide is
collected at the bottom of the tank and is
removed.
● Hydrate crystals are grouped according to their
size.
● Fine crystal fraction is returned back to
precipitation step.
● The insoluble mud from the precipitator is
washed to recover the caustic soda which goes
back to the precipitation process.
calcination
● The separated aluminum hydroxide is washed to
remove residues of caustic soda and is heated to drive
off excess water in long rotating kilns called
“calciners”.
2Al(OH)3  Al2O3 + 3H2O
● Aluminum oxide (alumina) emerges as a fine white
powder that looks like granulated sugar but is hard
enough to scratch glass. The widely-used abrasives
corundum and emery are forms of alumina.
● Refined alumina consists of about equal weights of
aluminum and oxygen, which must be separated in
order to produce aluminum metal.
Alumina production-summary
Red
mud
digestion
bauxite T: 170…180 C filtration Na[Al(OH)4]

NaOH
Al(OH)3
crystallization
Seeding to facilitate
precipitation
precipitation

Aluminium Rotary kiln

oxide calcination
Production of Alumina-summary
 immersing crushed bauxite into a caustic soda solution
which dissolves the alumina to form sodium aluminate
liquor.
 After filtering, the impurities are left behind as a "red
mud" and the liquid is treated to precipitate the
aluminium content out of the solution which is now in
the form of aluminium hydroxide.
 This material is then separated from the liquor and
changed to alumina, which resembles course
granulated sugar, by heating in kilns at 1000°C.
 Approximately 4 kilogrammes of bauxite is required to
produce 2 kilogrammes of alumina.
Production of alumina
In 2010, 87.4 mil tonnes of alumina were produced
world-wide.
Alumina refineries
are often located
near to bauxite
mines for logistics
reasons.

QAL Alumina
plants
Queensland
Australia
Production of alumina
Rusal Aluminium (Ireland) works: 1.800.000 ton/year
alumina production capacity. One of the most
modern
plants in
Europe.
Production of alumina
ETİ ALUMINIUM Seydişehir: processes 400,000 ton
bauxite!
Alumina production-red mud
Red mud
reservoir
Stade,
Almanya

Red mud is
generated at the rate of 77 million tons/year and is
thus a major concern for aluminium industry
Primary production
alumina
Primary production
Production of Al from Al2O3
Aluminum and oxygen form such a strong chemical bond
that it takes a very large amount of energy to separate
them by heating. Although Al as a pure metal melts at
about 660°C; Al2O3 requires a temperature of about
2015°C before it will melt.
Chemical methods of breaking down aluminum oxide
developed in the mid-19th century were so expensive that
metallic Al cost as much as
Ag. The small amounts of Al
that were produced were used
mainly for jewelry and
other luxury items.
Production of Al from Al2O3
Early researchers thought of using electricity to
separate aluminum from its oxide in solution but
were frustrated by seemingly
● high energy requirements;
● the inadequacy of their only source of electricity-
batteries;
● and the insolubility of alumina in water.
The invention of the rotary electric generator, the
dynamo, in 1866 solved part of that problem.
However, that was not enough for economic
production!
Production of Al from Al2O3
● The other part was solved in 1886 by Charles Martin
Hall in the United States and Paul L.T. Heroult in
France.
● Hall and Heroult found that alumina would dissolve
in cryolite (a sodium aluminum fluoride salt-
Na3AlF6) at about 950°C.
● Once dissolved, the aluminum oxide is readily
separated into Al and O by electric current.
● Cryolite has the practical advantages of stability
under process conditions and a density lower than
that of aluminum, allowing the newly-forming
metal to sink to the bottom of the reduction cell.”
Electrolysis
● Primary aluminium is produced in reduction plants
(smelters), where pure Al is extracted from alumina
by the Hall-Héroult process.
● The reduction of alumina into liquid Al is operated
at around 950 C in a cryolite bath under high
intensity electrical current.
● This process takes place in electrolytic cells (or
“pots”), where carbon cathodes form the bottom of
the pot and act as the negative electrode.
● Anodes (positive electrodes) are held at the top of
the pot and are consumed during the process when
they react with the oxygen coming from the
alumina.
Electrolysis
● oxygen merges with the carbon used to line the cell
and escapes in the form of carbon dioxide.
● molten aluminium tapped from the pots is transported
to the cast house where it is alloyed in holding furnaces
by the addition of other metals (according to the users
needs), cleaned of oxides and gases, and then cast into
ingots.
● These can take the form of extrusion billets, for
extruded products, or rolling ingots, for rolled
products, depending on the way it is to be further
processed.
● Aluminium mould castings are produced by foundries
which use this technique to manufacture shaped
components.
Hall-Heroult Process
Electrochemical process to reduce alumina into
aluminium
Alumina is dissolved in
molten kryolite:
Na3AlF6 + Al2O3 +
AlF3(-excess) + CaF2
T= 960C
I = 200-240kA
E  4V
Hall-Heroult Process
Inner lining of each cell serves as the cathode.
Anode is manufactured from carbon.
Cathode lasts longer since it does not take part in
the reaction
Solid crust of Electrolyte Graphite anodes

a deep
steel
mold Al2O3
lined dissolved
with in molten
cryolite
carbon
Molten
aluminium
Graphite
Molten insulator
cathode
aluminium
Hall-Heroult Process
Reactions:
cathode: 4 (Al3+ + 3e  Al(l) )
anode: 3 (C(s) + 2O2-  CO2(g) + 4e)
4Al3+ + 3C(s) + 6O2-  4Al(l)+3CO2(g)
(2Al2O3 (cryolite) + 3C (anode)  4Al(liq) + 3CO2 (g))

Oxygen atoms, separated from aluminum oxide,

carry a negative electrical charge and are attracted
to the positive poles in each pot.
These poles, or anodes, are made of carbon which
immediately combines with the oxygen, forming the
gases carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Hall-Heroult Process
These gases bubble free of the melt, leaving behind
the aluminum which collects at the bottom of the
pot.
The negative electric pole, or cathode, forms the
inner lining of each pot. It is also made of carbon.
As a cathode it does not react with the melt, so it
has a long service life.
When sufficient molten aluminum has collected at
the bottom of a pot, it is siphoned into a crucible
for transport to alloying and casting facilities. The
aluminum produced by the Hall-Heroult process is
more than 99 percent pure.
Hall-Heroult Process
Energy consumption is extremely high!
Hence, primary production plants are almost
always located close to economic energy sources.
Some of these plants have access to energy via
their own establishments!
Hall-Heroult Process
Hall-Heroult Process
● The Hall-Heroult process uses a lot of electricity
but only a low voltage, so it is practical to
connect many reduction cells, or “pots”, in
series along one long electrical circuit, forming a
“potline.”
● Modern cells are operated with currents of
around 250,000 amperes but at only four or five
volts each.
● Such cells use about six or seven kilowatts of
electricity per pound of aluminum produced.
● The heat generated by electrical resistance
keeps the solution molten.
Hall-Heroult Process
● The process, therefore, steadily consumes the
carbon anodes, which must be renewed either
by regular replacement or by continuous
feeding of a self baking paste (Soderberg
anode).
● About 225 g of carbon is consumed for every
455 g of aluminum produced.
● Most aluminum reduction plants include their
own facilities to manufacture carbon anodes,
each of which may weigh 270 - 320 kg and must
be replaced after about 14 days of service.
anodes
● There are two types of anodes currently in use.
● All potlines built since the early 1970s use the
prebake anode technology, where the anodes,
manufactured from a mixture of petroleum coke
and coal tar pitch (acting as a binder), are pre-
baked in separate anode plants.
● In the Soederberg technology, the carbonaceous
mixture is fed directly into the top part of the
pot, where self-baking anodes are produced
using the heat released by the electrolytic
process.
 entire production cycle
Chemical bauxite precipitator
proses
NaOH crusher cooler
filter Rotary kiln

Al2O3.3H2O
“digester”
Red mud Al2O3
AlF3
Na3AlF6 syphon
crucible
casting
Molten
electrolyte Holding furnace
cell Aluminium ingot

electrolytic process
Steps of aluminium production
Alumina production melting alloying and casting
2 kg Al2O3 1 kg Al
4 kg bauxite

carbon
2 kg alumina anode
(Al2O3)
Gas
scrubber

Cryolite
bath

Steel pot

carbon cathode ingot billet rolling

slab
Aluminium production
The world production of primary aluminium reached about
44 million tonnes in 2011.
The average annual production growth over the last 20 years
has been %3-4.
China is by far the largest producer, and also has the highest
growth rate.
The Gulf region
also has a significant
growth, while
production in most
other areas either
has declined or been
stagnant
in recent years.
primary aluminium
Aluminium output has increased by a factor of 13 since
1950, making aluminium the most widely used non-
ferrous metal.
In 2010, the world-wide production of primary aluminium
was about 42.6 million tonnes per year for installed
capacity of 53.6 million tonnes.
Very recently China developed its aluminium production
very rapidly, and it is the biggest producer in the world
with over 17 million tonnes of production.
In Europe the main producing countries are Germany,
France, Spain, Norway and Iceland. World-wide,
production plants are mainly located where suitable
electrical energy resources are available.
aluminium production
Aluminium production
Aluminium production in EU
Aluminium production in Turkey
(tons)

Extrusion ingot rolled foil conductors others

 Aluminium imports in Turkey (Tons)

Aluminium ingots is the

most imported item!
ton

İngot rolled foil scrap others conductors Extrusion

Aluminium use

castings Rolled
%23.1 products
%41.5

extrusions
%29.3
wire/cable
others %6.1
Aluminium use
Aluminium use (%)
construction 25
transport 24
packaging 15
Electric/electronic 10
General engineering 9
furniture/office items 6
İron & steel, metallurgy 3
Chemical and agriculture industries 1
others 7
Aluminium industry in Turkey
Aluminium industry in Turkey
Primary aluminium production: Eti Alüminyum A.Ş.
per year 461.000 ton bauxite/
200.000 ton alumina /
60.000 ton molten aluminium
Number of companies>1500
employement>30000
Production capacity750.000 ton
consumption:
2006 446.000 ton
2007 526.000 ton
2008 556.000 ton
Per person  9 kg
AB  30kg
turnover : 4 billion US Dolar
Aluminium production in Turkey
(1000 ton)
Foreign trade in Turkey (billion
US Dolars)
See you next week!
Melting aluminium
Aluminium ingot Returns/chips/scrap
(primary production) recycling

Melting furnace

mixing/homogenization
technological fluxing
melt treatments gas + inclusion removal
drossing + filtration
alloying
Melting aluminium
● Aluminium foundries are advised to operate seperate
melting and holding furnaces.
● The melting furnace is used to melt ingots, scrap and
returns.
● The holding furnace is used to maintain the molten
alloy transferred from the melting furnace at the
casting temperature with a uniform chemistry.
● Only final and minor adjustments are made at the
holding furnace.
● Fuel oil and natural gas are employed for melting
furnaces, electric energy for holding furnaces.
● The former is cheaper but electricity offers higher
quality.
 Energy required to melt 1 kg aluminium (kJ)
Melting aluminium

temperature (C)
Melting aluminium
Energy required to cast 1 ton aluminium (kwh)

To heat the liquid aluminium

to the casting temperature:
%8
To melt the charge: %34

To bring the temperature

of the charge to the
melting point: %58

temperature (C)
Reverbatory furnaces
energy: fuel oil, natural gas!
Burners are mounted on the furnace walls.
Heat transfer: radiation from the furnace walls +
convective heat transfer from the burners
capacities <150 ton! / relatively low capital cost
reverbatory furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces have gas or oil burners firing
within a refractory hood above the metal bath.
The burner flame is deflected from the roof onto the
hearth. They are used as batch melters.
They are simple and have relatively low
capital cost which

door
makes them
attractive for
bulk
melting of
ingots and
foundry
returns.
reverbatory furnaces
● They are produced in a variety of configurations
such as fixed or tilting, rectangular or cylindrical
with melting capacities from 200 to 1300 kg/hr.
● Large reverberatory furnaces give rapid melting
and can handle bulky charge material, but the
direct contact between flame and charge may
lead to high metal losses, gas pick-up and
considerable oxide contamination.
● Temperature control can also be difficult.
● This type of furnace is being used less because of
its relatively low thermal efficiency ofaround 1100
kWh/tonne.
Reverbatory furnaces
Reverbatory furnaces

Melting efficiencies typically 15%-39%

Efficiency may be up by  10%-15% via
recuperation.
Reverbatory furnaces
Advantages:
Capacity: high volume melting
Operation and maintainence costs are low!
Disadvantages:
Excessive melt loss due to oxidation
increased contamination and inclusions
increased dross %3-7
low thermal efficiency %25
larger space required!
More hydrogen gas
Fluctuations in melt temperature +/- 50º C
Reverbatory furnaces
Heat loss from
Heat loss exhausts
from walls (%35-50)
air (%1-7)

gaseous furnace
burner
fuel
oxygen load

incomplete combustion heat Useful heat output

loss (%0-25) (%10-40)
Electric reverbatory furnaces
Hardly ever used for melting!
Employed as a holding furnace.
Refractory lined furnaces which rely on resistance
heating elements mounted often at the ceiling and
on the walls for heating.
Electric reverbatory furnaces
Used for melting low volumes when emissions
control, metal quality and melting efficiency are
critical.
Advantages:
low exhaust emissions!
low melt loss due to oxidation!
less furnace cleaning
Disadvantages:
high energy cost!
low production capacity and production rate!
high investment cost!
heating elements frequently replaced!
Crucible furnaces
Crucible furnaces are widely used as melters,
melter/holders and holders.
Crucible furnaces are:
simple and robust
widely available in a range of sizes
either fixed or tilting
suitable for heating by different fuels
capable of low melting losses
relatively inexpensive
Alloy changes are readily carried out and both
degassing and metal treatment can be done in the
crucible before it is removed for casting.
Crucible furnaces
Crucible furnaces fall into three main types:
● Lift-out The crucible is removed from the furnace
for pouring
● Tilting The furnace body containing the crucible
is tilted to pour the molten metal
● Bale-out The molten metal is ladled out
crucible furnaces/fuel oil-natural
gas
Crucible furnaces
fuel oil-natural gas
Indirect heating (crucible is heated to heat the load!)
Suitable for melting small (<500 kg) quantities
Advantages:
alloy can be changed easily!
maintainence costs are low!
investment cost is low!
small space required!
Disadvantages:
efficiency very low (falls down to %12!)
excessive emissions!
size limitations!
Crucible furnaces
fuel oil-natural gas
exhaust
crucible

Exhaust
gases burner
Crucible furnaces/electric
● Similar to gas fired crucible furnaces.
● Crucible is heated with resistance elements.
● Capacity is limited
● preferred when alloy change is needed
frequently.
Advantages:
low emissions!
low oxidation loss!
Disadvantages:
high energy costs
size limitations
Crucible furnaces/ electric

Surface of aluminium melt

is clean and shiny:
evidences clean melting
conditions
Gas vs electric crucible
furnaces
molten aluminium is highly
reactive, it instantly reacts
with the water vapor which
is present in all products of
combustion according to
the following equation:
2 Al + 3 H2O → Al2O3 + 3 H2
Al2O3 produces hard spots
in castings.
Gas vs electric crucible
furnaces
H2 gas is highly soluble in molten
aluminium and completely
insoluble in solid aluminium,
appearing as porosity in finished
castings which can produce
surface roughness, casting
fractures, leaky castings,
unsealable machined surfaces,
etc.
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION LEAK
THROUGH CRUCIBLE GASKET TO REACT
WITH MOLTEN ALUMINUM
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Primary A356 aluminum alloy melted in silicon carbide
crucibles in gas-fired and electric resistance furnaces,
brought to the same pouring temperature, degassed with
ultra dry nitrogen, skimmed, and poured into green sand
molds and permanent molds.
hundreds of test bar samples cast, test bars pulled, and
the results recorded, plotted, and subjected to statistical
analysis.
The results were profound: Tensile strength, yield
strength and elongation properties were almost uniformly
superior in the electrically melted samples regardless of
the type of molds used.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
The mechanical properties of test bars melted in the gas-
fired furnace reached only 80% of the mean values of
electrically melted test bars.
the mechanical properties of the electrically melted
castings, were much more uniform and consistent.
The electrically melted test bar samples demonstrated
mechanical properties that were much more consistent
and tightly grouped while the natural gas melted test bars
had a much wider variation in mechanical properties.
Some natural gas melted test bars tested significantly
below the red curve mean.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
The natural gas melted test bars almost invariably
broke at a dross inclusion, a hydrogen gas bubble, or
even just a thin film of aluminium oxide, while the
electrically melted test bars rarely showed any
dross, oxide or hydrogen porosity at the breaks.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
Leakage of Combustion Products
● the molten aluminium in the gas-fired furnace is not
isolated from the furnace’s combustion chamber at all.
● This is because the sealing gasket between the top of
the crucible and the underside of the steel furnace
cover is made of compressible fibre insulation to allow
the crucible to expand without cracking.
● Because of the positive pressure in the combustion
chamber and the porous fiber gasket, combustion
gasses freely penetrate the gasket, immediately
coming into contact with the surface of the metal
bath.
gas-fired vs electric resistance
crucible furnace
● With the electric furnace, the relative humidity is
always the same inside and outside.
● But with the gas-fired furnace, even though there is a
flue that pipes most of the combustion gases outside,
the relative humidity inside the foundry is always
significantly higher.
● This means, in addition to the combustion gases that
are penetrating the crucible gasket, there is additional
water vapour present in the air that is coming from
various leaks in the burners, refractories, flue pipes,
etc. which can react with the molten aluminium.