5.1 J.A.

Beachy 1

5.1 Commutative rings; Integral Domains

from A Study Guide for Beginner’s by J.A.Beachy,
a supplement to Abstract Algebra by Beachy / Blair

23. Let R be a commutative ring. Prove the following statements (listed in Section 5.1):
(d) a · 0 = 0 for all a ∈ R;
Solution: Since 0 is the additive identity element, we have 0 + 0 = 0. To connect
this property to multiplication, we need to use the distributive law. We have a · 0 =
a · (0 + 0) = a · 0 + a · 0, and then we can subtract a · 0 from both sides of the equation
to get 0 = a · 0.
(e) −(−a) = a for all a ∈ R;
Solution: This holds in any group.
(f) (−a) · (−b) = ab for all a, b ∈ R.
Solution: Because we are proving a relationship between addition (since −a is defined
to be the additive inverse of a) and multiplication, we need to use the distributive
law. We have ab + a(−b) = a(b − b) = a · 0 = 0, and so a(−b) = −(ab). Similarly,
(−a)b = −ab, and then (−a)(−b) = −(a(−b)) = −(−ab) = ab.

24. (a) Is Z2 a subring of Z6 ?

Solution: No, because Z2 is not even a subset of Z6 .
(b) Is 3Z6 a subring of Z6 ?
Solution: The set 3Z6 = {[0]6 , [3]6 } is closed under addition, since we know it is a
subgroup of the underlying additive group of Z6 . Furthermore, 3Z6 is easily checked
to be closed under multiplication. But our definition of a subring requires that the
subset must contain the identity element of the ring, and since [1]6 6∈ 3Z6 , we conclude
that 3Z6 is not a subring of Z6 .
Comment: Be careful here, because some authors do not require that a subring of a
commutative ring with 1 must have the same identity element. In fact, we changed
our definition between the second and third editions of our text Abstract Algebra.

25. (a) Show that the ring of Gaussian integers is an integral domain.
Solution: It is easy to check that the set Z[i] = {m + ni | m, n ∈ Z} is closed under
addition and multiplication and contains 1. It follows that Z[i] is a subring of C, and
so Theorem 5.1.8 implies that Z[i] is an integral domain.
√ √
(b) Show that Z[ 2] = {m + n 2 | m, n ∈ Z} is an integral domain.
√
Solution:
√ As in part (a), Z[ 2] is a subring of C and so it follows from Theorem 5.1.8
that Z[ 2] is an integral domain.
√
Comment: The details of the proofs that Z[i] and Z[ 2] are subrings of C can be
found in Examples 5.1.5 and 5.1.6 of Abstract Algebra.
5.1 J.A.Beachy 2

26. Let R be a commutative ring. Prove that the intersection of any collection of subrings
of R is a subring of R.
Solution: To use Proposition 5.1.4, let a and b be elements in the intersection. Then a
and b each belong to every subring in the collection, so a+b, ab, and −a also belong to
every subring in the collection. Therefore a + b, ab, and −a belong to the intersection.
Finally, the multiplicative identity of R belongs to each subring, so it also belongs to
the intersection.

27. Show that in an integral domain the only idempotent elements are 0 and 1.
Solution: Let D be an integral domain, and suppose that e ∈ D is idempotent. Then
e · e = e2 = e = e · 1, and so if e 6= 0, then e = 1 since the cancellation law holds in D.
Since 0 and 1 are idempotent, they are the only idempotent elements in D.

28. Show that if n = pk (p prime), then in Zn the only idempotent elements are 0 and 1.
Solution: If e2 = e in Zn , then pk | e(e − 1), and since gcd(e, e − 1) = 1, this implies
the either pk | e, and e = 0, or else pk | (e − 1) and e = 1.

29. In Z24 ,
(a) find all nilpotent elements;
Solution: We have xn ≡ 0 (mod 24) if and only if 3 | x and 2 | x. Thus the list of
nilpotent elements is {0, 6, 12, 18} = h2 · 3i.
(b) find all idempotent elements.
Solution: If e ∈ Z24 is idempotent, then 24 | e(e − 1). Since gcd(e, e − 1) = 1 this
implies that 3 | e or 3 | e − 1, or else 8 | e or 8 | e − 1. The list of elements e with 8 | e
or 8 | e − 1 is {e | e = 0, 1, 8, 9, 16, 17}. Adding the condition that 3 | e or 3 | e − 1
reduces the list to {0, 1, 9, 16}.
 
a 0 0
30. Let R be the set of all 3 × 3 matrices of the form  b a 0  with a, b, c ∈ Z.
c b a
(a) Show that R is a commutative ring.
Solution: From linear algebra we know that addition and multiplication of matrices
satisfy all of the axioms of a commutative ring, except the commutative law. Therefore
it is enough to show that the given set satisfies the commutative law, and satisfies the
conditions of a subring given in Proposition 5.1.4.
First, it is clear that the set is closed under addition, is closed under forming additive
inverses, and contains the identity matrix. The following calculations verify closure
and commutativity of multiplication.
    
a 0 0 d 0 0 ad 0 0
 b a 0  e d 0  =  bd + ae ad 0 
c b a f e d cd + bd + af bd + ae ad
5.1 J.A.Beachy 3
    
d 0 0 a 0 0 da 0 0
 e d 0  b a 0  =  ea + db da 0 
f e d c b a f a + eb + dc ea + db da
(b) Find the units of R.
Solution: Because the entries are from Z, in which only 1 and −1 are invertible,
a matrix in R is invertible if and only its determinant is ±1. Thus an element is
invertible if and only if it has either 1 or −1 on the main diagonal.
(c) Find the nilpotent elements of R.
Solution: The nilpotent matrices in R are the strictly lower triangular matrices.

31. Let R and S be commutative rings. Prove or disprove the following statements.
(a) An element (a, b) ∈ R ⊕ S is idempotent if and only if a an idempotent in R and
b is idempotent in S.
Solution: Since (a, b)2 = (a2 , b2 ), it is clear that (a, b)2 = (a, b) if and only if a2 = a
and b2 = b.
(b) An element (a, b) ∈ R ⊕ S is nilpotent if and only if a nilpotent in R and b is
nilpotent in S.
Solution: This clearly holds since (a, b)n = (an , bn ).
Comment: If m and k are the smallest positive integers with am = 0 and bk = 0, re-
spectively, then the smallest positive integer n with (a, b)n = (0, 0) is n = max{m, k}.
(c) An element (a, b) ∈ R ⊕ S is a zero divisor if and only if a is a zero divisor in R
and b is a zero divisor in S.
Solution: This part is false since (1, 0) is a zero divisor in Z ⊕ Z because (1, 0)(0, 1) =
(0, 0), but 1 is certainly not a zero divisor in Z.

32. In the ring Z ⊕ Z, let R = {(x, y) | x ≡ y (mod 2)}.

(a) Show that R is a subring of Z ⊕ Z.
Comment: Although the definition of a direct sum was first given in Exercise 5.1.16
of the text, there is also a formal definition in Section 5.2.
Solution: To show that R is a subring we will use Proposition 5.1.4. If (a, b) and
(c, d) belong to R, then a ≡ b (mod 2) and c ≡ d (mod 2), so it follows that a +
c ≡ b + d (mod 2) and ac ≡ bd (mod 2), and thus R is closed under addition and
multiplication. Furthermore, −a ≡ −b (mod 2) implies −(a, b) ∈ R, and it is clear
that the identity (1, 1) of Z ⊕ Z is in R.
(b) Is R an integral domain?
Solution: No, because (2, 0) · (0, 2) = (0, 0).
(c) Find all idempotent elements of R.
Solution: An element of a direct sum of commutative rings is idempotent if and
only if each component is idempotent. Thus the idempotent elements of Z ⊕ Z are
(0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1), and of these only (0, 0) and (1, 1) belong to R.
5.1 J.A.Beachy 4

33. Find a commutative ring with zero divisors a, b such that a + b is not a zero divisor
and a + b 6= 0.
Solution: In Z2 ⊕Z2 we have (1, 0)·(0, 1) = (0, 0), so (1, 0) and (0, 1) are zero divisors,
but their sum (1, 0) + (0, 1) = (1, 1) is not a zero divisor.

34. Although the set Z2 [x]/ x2 + 1 is not a field, Proposition 4.3.4 shows that addition



and multiplication of congruence classes of polynomials is well-defined. Show that in

this set the cancellation law for multiplication does not hold.
Solution: Since x2 + 1 ≡ 0, we have x2 ≡ −1 ≡ 1. Therefore we have x(1 + x) =
x + x2 ≡ x + 1. The cancellation law does not hold since for the nonzero elements 1,
x and 1 + x we have x(1 + x) = 1(1 + x) but x 6= 1.

35. Recall that Z3 [x]/ x2 + 1 is a field (this follows from Theorem 4.3.6 since x2 + 1 is



irreducible over Z3 ). Find the order of each element in its group of units.
Solution: The nonzero elements are 1, −1, x, x + 1, x − 1, −x, −x + 1 = −(x − 1),
and −x − 1 = −(x + 1). Of course, −1 has order 2. Since x2 ≡ −1, we have x3 ≡ −x
and x4 ≡ 1. It follows that x and −x have order 4, while x2 has order 2. We have
(x + 1)2 = x2 − x + 1 ≡ −x, so x + 1 has order 8, making it a generator of the group
of units. Starting over again and calculating powers of x + 1, we have the following.
(x + 1)2 ≡ −x
(x + 1)3 ≡ (x + 1)(−x) ≡ −x2 − x ≡ −x + 1
(x + 1)4 ≡ (−x)2 ≡ −1
(x + 1)5 ≡ −(x + 1)
(x + 1)6 ≡ −(x + 1)2 ≡ x
(x + 1)7 ≡ x(x + 1) ≡ x − 1
(x + 1)8 ≡ (−1)2 ≡ 1
Thus the congruence classes of ±x ± 1 have order 8, while those of ±x have order 4.
Finally −1 has order 2 and 1 has order 1.
Comment: Review Proposition 3.5.3 if you have questions about finding the order of
an element of a cyclic group.

36. Let p be an
odd prime number that is not congruent to 1 modulo 4. Prove that the
2

ring Zp [x]/ x + 1 is a field.
Hint: A root of x2 = −1 leads to an element of order 4 in Z×
p.
Solution: We must show that x2 +1 is irreducible over Zp , or, equivalently, that x2 +1
has no root in Zp .
Suppose that a is a root of x2 +1 in Zp . Then a2 ≡ −1 (mod p), and so a4 ≡ 1 (mod p).
The element a cannot be a root of x2 − 1, so it does not have order 2, and thus it must
p,
have order 4. By Lagrange’s theorem, this means that 4 is a divisor of the order of Z×
which is p − 1. Therefore p = 4q + 1 for some q ∈ Z, contradicting the assumption.
5.1 J.A.Beachy 5

37. Let S be a commutative ring.

(a) Let R = {n · 1 | n ∈ Z}. Show that R is a subring of S.
Solution: If m, n ∈ Z, we have m · 1 + n · 1 = (m + n) · 1 by the associative law for
addition, and (m · 1) · (n · 1) = (mn) · 1 by the distributive law. Finally, 1 = 1 · 1, and
so R is subring of S.
(b) Find the subring defined in part (a) for the ring given in Problem 30 and for the
field given in Problem 35.
 
a 0 0
Solution: In the ring  b a 0  with a, b, c ∈ Z defined in Problem 27, the identity
c b a
element is the identity matrix. The subring defined in part (a) is therefore the set of
all scalar matrices.
In the field Z3 [x]/ x2 + 1 defined in Problem 30, the elements are the congruence



classes represented by linear polynomials. The identity element is the constant polyno-
mial [1]3 , and so the subring defined in part (a) is the set of all constant polynomials.

38. (a) Let S be a set that satisfies all of the axioms of commutative ring, with the
possible exception of the commutative law for multiplication. Show that the set
R = {r ∈ S | rs = sr for all s ∈ S} is a commutative ring.
Note: The ring R is called the center of S.
Solution: Since all of the axioms except the commutative law hold, we can use the
proof of Proposition 5.1.4 to simplify the calculations. If r1 , r2 ∈ R, then (r1 + r2 )s =
r1 s + r2 s = sr1 + sr2 = s(r1 + r2 ), and (r1 r2 )s = r1 (r2 s) = r1 (sr2 ) = (r1 s)r2 =
(sr1 )r2 = s(r1 r2 ). Furthermore, (−r1 )s = −(r1 s) = −(sr1 ) = s(−r1 ). Finally, by
definition 1 ∈ R, and since it is clear that elements in R commute with each other,
we are justified in concluding that R is a commutative ring.
(b) Find the center of the set M2 (R) of all 2 × 2 matrices with real entries.
Comment: I need to comment on the following calculations, so that they don’t just
look like a trick. It would be natural to start out by just writing down an element in
the center and seeing what you get by letting it commute with a general element of
M2 (R). In fact (you can try it), you would get four equations in four unknowns, with
four general (undetermined) constants, and the situation is quite out of hand. The
point is to take these equations and carefully choose some of the constants so that
you can get some meaningful equations. The best way to do this seems me to be to
pick (carefully) a couple of elements of M2 (R) and see what specific information you
get. My choice of elements is based on trial and error.
 
a b
Solution: Let belong to the center. In particular, it must commute with
c d
       
1 0 a b 1 0 1 0 a b
the element , and so we must have = .
1 1 c d 1 1 1 1 c d
This yields four equations, and the useful ones are a + b = a, which shows that b has
to be zero, and c + d = a + c, which shows that a = d. Next, any such element must
5.1 J.A.Beachy 6
       
1 1 a 0 1 1 1 1 a 0
also commute with , so we get = . Now
0 1 c a 0 1 0 1 c a
we get a = a + c, and so c = 0. We conclude that any element in the center of M2 (R)
must be a scalar matrix. On the other hand, it is clear that any scalar matrix is in
the center, and so the center is precisely the set of scalar matrices.

ANSWERS AND HINTS

42. Let R and S be commutative rings. Show that (R ⊕ S)× ∼ = R× × S × (as groups).
Hint: Define φ : R × S → (R ⊕ S) by φ((u, v)) = (u, v) and verify that (u, v) is a
× × ×

unit of R ⊕ S if and only if u is a unit in R and v is a unit in S.

44. Let R be a Boolean ring with 16 elements. Find R× .
Answer: R× = {1}. Note: the number 16 is a red herring.
45. Let R be the ring of continuous functions from R to R. (Remember that R is a ring
under multiplication of functions, not composition of functions.)
(b) Characterize the units of R.
Answer: Either f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R, or f (x) < 0 for all x ∈ R.
(d) Characterize the nilpotent elements of R.
Answer: The only nilpotent element is the zero function.
48. Let R be a commutative ring.
(a) Can R[x] have nilpotent elements of positive degree?
Hint: Look at Z4 [x].
(b) Can R[x] have idempotent elements of positive degree?
Hint: Look at Z6 [x].