Chemistry Hai

CHEMISTRY
Chapter
CHEMISTRY, MATTER & ITs
1 COMPOSITION
•
Some other categories of medicines synthesized are:
CHEMISTRY AND ITS IMPORTANCE (i) Analgesics: reduce pain, e.g. paracetamol, aspirin, etc.
(ii) Antibiotics: cure infections and cure many diseases, e.g
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that material Chloromycetin, streptomycin, etc.
substances undergo. (iii) Tranqullizers: reduce tension and bring about calm and
Handy Facts peace to mental patients,e.g. chlorpromazine, diazepam
(Valium), etc.
New branches in chemistry are emerging because of research (iv) Antiseptics: stop infection of wounds,e.g. Dettol
being carried in the quest to make life more comfortable. (v) Anaesthetics: make patients senseless before surgical
One good example is Green Chemistry, which deals with operations,e.g. Barbiturates, Benzodiazpines, etc.
development of safer products and manufacturing processes
for a sustainable future. Science in Action
Chemistry is providing new materials for medical use.
THE IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE OF Diseased or weakened arteries can be replaced surgically with
CHEMISTRY tubes made of Dacron polymers.
Chemistry plays an important role in every aspect of our daily
lives. It is a central science that connects all the other sciences Energy
and helps them to achieve what they do. The use of chemistry in the field of energy has been found con-
Food Science tributing in:
• Proper utilization of the fossil fuels – coal and petroleum by
Food science is the study of the physical, biological, and understanding its properties. For example, chemistry helps
chemical make-up of food and the concepts underlying food to measure the standard rating- octane number of engine or
processing. The contribution of chemistry to Food Science has aviation fuel.
been manifold. • Exploitation of alternate sources of energy like solar and
Science in Action nuclear, etc. Chemistry helped to synthesize uranium
Not all additives added to food are healthy. For example, hexafluoride making possible for the enrichment of nuclear
fuel U-235. Semiconductor materials like gallium arsenide,
potassium bromate (KBrO 3) used in bread-making is an
silicon, etc. are used in making solar panels.
oxidizing agent that is used to “mature” bread flour, which helps
strengthen the dough and improve rising, giving it more volume. Environmental Science
Environmental changes and chemistry are inextricably linked.
Agriculture • Chemistry can explain the origin and impacts of phenom-
ena such as air pollution, ozone layer depletion, and global
In the field of Agriculture, chemistry has provided: warming.
• B e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s e s l i k e • Chemistry can help in finding substitution and replacement of
photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, etc. This has led to develop- gases and products causing above effects. For example, like
ment of more productive plants. helping in replacing the refrigerants like chlorofluorocarbons
• Chemical fertilizers like urea, potash, etc. have led to increase (CFCs) with other environment-friendly products, etc.
food production helping countries to fight food shortage.
Biology and Biotechnology
• Insecticides, pesticides and fungicides that are used to protect
crops. Chemistry has helped
• in the discovery of the DNA’s molecular structure and many
Medicine of its roles in heredity. This has resulted in major advances
Chemistry has contributed towards the science of Medicine in a in biology and biotechnology.
• to understand biotech processes like fermentation used to
number of ways:
produce different liquor industry products (wine, beer, etc.),
• It has given life saving drugs to control dreaded diseases. For
various antibiotics (e.g. penicillin), antibodies, therapeutic
example, cis-platin and taxol are useful in cancer therapy.
proteins, food products (e.g cheese, curd, bread, etc), enzymes
AZT (Azitothymidine) is used for AIDS victims.
and others.
B-2 CHEMISTRY
Geology Forensic Science
In geology, chemical techniques are mostly required: Forensic science means applications of scientific procedures
• To be used to analyze and identify rock samples in order to to legal problems particularly during investigations. Chemical
locate new mineral or oil deposits. methods are used to analyze sample of investigation.
• To explain the formation of certain minerals, such as hematite, etc. Science in Action
Chemistry has made our life easy by giving innumerable
Oceanography
materials. Steel, bronze and brass are mixtures that have been
In Oceanography, chemistry is mostly used to: used since ancient times as structural materials. Tiles made
• To track ocean currents from ceramic are used on a space shuttle help to protect it from
• Determine the flux of nutrients into the sea, and measure the overheating. Optical fiber is used in communication. It is made
rate of exchange of nutrients between ocean layers. mainly from silicon dioxide (SiO2) which is found in sand.
The chip used in computers is also made up of silicon. .
Archaeology
Archaeology yields information and develops theories about past Handy Facts
Linus Pauling is the only person to be awarded two unshared Nobel
human activity by means of a study of ancient material remains.
Prizes-one in 1954 for Chemistry and the other in Peace in 1962.
Some applications of chemistry in this field are in the :
• Bronze and copper items generally corrode due to oxidation. CHEMICALS OF COMMON USE
Electrolytic reduction is used to restore these antiquities. There are many chemicals that are most essential in daily life.
• Carbon dating is one of the most widely used methods for These chemicals are used either in combined form or as some
the detection of the age of the old artifacts or fossils. reagents. The list of few chemicals and their most common uses
is given in the following table:
Common Name Molecular Formula (Chemical name) Common Uses as/in

Baking powder NaHCO3( sodium bicarbonate) Baking & cooking,
Soap Esters Bathing & Washing
Detergent Sodium sulphate, sodium hydroxide & phosphate compounds Washing clothes
Table Salt NaCl (Sodium Chloride) Kitchen Salt
Vinegar C2H4O2 (Ethanoic acid) Preservative
Graphite C (Carbon) Pencil
Cleaning & sterilizing drinking water,
Bleaching Powder Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
swimming pools, etc.
Sugar Sucrose(C12H22O11) Sweetener
Aspirin C9H8O4( Acetyl salicylic acid) Medicine
Peroxide H2O2 (Hydrogen peroxide) Mouthwash (hygiene)
Caustic soda, Lye NaOH( Sodium hydroxide) Cleaning, unblocking sinks drains and
toilets in different industries, etc.
Moth balls C6H4Cl2 (1,4-dichlorobenzene) Dispel moths(an insect)

FeSO4.5H2O Anamic patients for supplementing
Green vitriol
(Ferrous Sulphate) iron
Sodium Fluoride NaF Toothpaste
Glucose C6H12O6 (D-glucose) Energy source for organisms
Ammonia NH3 Manufacturing urea
Butane C4H10 (n-butane) A component of LPG
Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid) Industrial Product
Marsh gas/Natural gas CH4(Methane) Fuel
Saccharine C7H5NO3S Artificial Sweetener
Chemistry, Matter & its Composition B-3
Tartaric acid C4H6O6 ( 2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid) Fermentation of grapes

Laughing Gas N2O(Nitrous Oxide) Laughing gas
Citric Acid C6H8O7(2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid) Preservative
Octane C8H18(n-octane) Component of petrol
Camphor C10H16O (1,7,7-Trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one) Fragrance
Formaldehyde CH2O, (Formaldehyde) Preservatives of corpses.

Alpha-Propylene Glycol C3H8O2 ( Propane-1,2-diol) Moisturizing Skin
Triethanolamine C6H15NO3 (2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino ethanol) Lotion, shaving foams, shampoo, etc.
Acetone C3H6O ( Propanone) Removal of residues, glue, stains &

paint.
Plaster of Paris CaSO4.1/2H2O(Calcium Sulphate hemihydrates) Plastering fractured bones
Blue Vitriol CuSO4.5H2O(Copper Sulphate) Colourant

Chloroform CHCl3 (Trichloro Methane) Anesthetic.
Chalk (Marble) CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate) Architecture, sculpture.
Caustic Potash KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) Cleaner, fertilizer,etc
Dry Ice CO2 (Solid Carbon dioxide) Preserving degradable items
Fertiliser & Constituent of plaster,
Gypsum CaSO4 (Calcium Sulphate) blackboard chalk and wallboard.
Heavy Water D2O (Deuterium Oxide) Moderator in nuclear reactor
Slaked Lime Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydroxide) pH-regulating agent and acid

neutralizer in soil and water.
Potash Alum K2Al(SO4)3 (Potassium Aluminium Sulphate) Water purification
Quick Lime CaO (Calcium Oxide) Whitewash
Mohr's Salt FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.6H2O (Ammonium Ferrous Sulphate) Analytical reagent in laboratory
White Vitriol ZnSO4.7H2O ( Zinc Sulphate) Medicine
Magnesia MgO( Magnesium oxide) Soil and ground water treatment
Vermelium HgS ( Mercuric Sulphide) Pigment

T.N.T. C7H5N3O6 , (Trinitrotoluene) Explosive
Sand SiO2 Manufacturing glass, etc.
Calcium Sulphate CaSO4.2H2O Cement industry
Borax Na2B4O7.10 H2O (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) Washing
Brimstone S (Sulphur) In industry
Baking to stabilize eggs and creams,
Cream of tartar KHC4H4O6 (Potassium hydrogen tartrate) as well
Epsom salt MgSO4.7 H2O (Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate) Food additives as salt.
Freon CF2Cl2 (Dichlorodifluoromethane) Refrigerant & aerosol propellants
Galena PbS (Lead sulphide) Lead-acid batteries

B-4 CHEMISTRY
Grain alcohol C2H5OH (Ethanol) Alcoholic drinks, fuel & solvent

Hypo Na2S2O3 (Sodium thiosulphate) Film photographic paper processing
Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2 (Magnesium hydroxide) Antacid
Muriatic acid HCl (Hydrochloric acid) Industrial substance
Gammexene C6H6Cl6 (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane) Insecticide
Potash K2CO3(Potassium carbonate) Fertilizer
Iron pyrites (Fool’s gold) FeS2 ( Iron disulphide) Source of sulphur and Iron
Quartz SiO2 (Silicon –di-oxide) Silicon dioxide
Quicksilver Hg (mercury) Thermometers
Rubbing alcohol (CH3)2CHOH( isopropyl alcohol or Propan-2-ol) Antiseptic

Sal ammoniac NH4Cl (ammonium chloride) Crisping agent for food and spice
Treating low blood levels of potassium
Salt substitute KCl (potassium chloride)
(hypokalemia)
Saltpeter KNO3 (potassium nitrate) Food preservatives & fireworks
TSP( Trisodium phos- Emulsifiers (in cheese), thickening agents,
Na3PO4 (Sodium phosphate)
phate) & leavening agents for baked goods.
Antifreezing, solvent, fuel, denaturant
Wood alcohol CH3OH (Methanol)
for ethanol
Phenol C6H5OH (Phenol) Antiseptic
A solution of iodine along with potassium iodide or sodium

Tincture of iodine Disinfectant
iodide in water and ethanol mixture
MSG or Chinese salt C5H8NNaO4 (Mono-sodium glutamate) Food-additive

Silica SiO4(Silicon-di-oxide) Dehydrating agent
Vitamin C C6H8O6 (Ascorbic acid ) Vitamin
Smelling Salt (NH4)2CO3·H2O(Ammonium Carbonate) Substance to revive fainted man
Chrome Green Cr2O3(Chromium trioxide) Green pigment
Oil of Clove CH2CH2CH2C6H3(OCH3)OH (Eugenol) Relieving pain in teeth
Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 (Magnesium Silicate) Talcum powder
Carborundum SiC(Silicon Carbide) Abrasive material
Permanganate of potash
KMnO4(Potassium Permanganate) Disinfectant
or Condy's crystals,
Mixture of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and
Gobar Gas(Bio gas) small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), moisture and Fuel in cooking
siloxanes
T.N.T C6H2CH3(NO2)3(Tri nitro toluene) Explosive material
Tear gas CCl3NO2(2-Chlorobenzalmalononitrile) Controlling riots,etc.
Aqua-regia Conc.H2SO4+Conc.HCl Laboratory reagent
Urea NH2CONH2 Fertilizer
CHCl2-CHCl2
Westron Solvents for paints and varnishes
(1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane)
CCl4
Pyrene Fire-extinguisher
(Carbon tetra-chloride)
Energy: It is the ability to cause change or do work. Some forms

MATTER AND ITS COMPOSITION of energy include light, heat, chemical, nuclear, electrical and
mechanical energy.
The universe is made up of matter and energy. The matter can be classified in two different ways;
Matter: Matter describes the physical things around us: the earth, • According to its physical state
the air we breathe, the pencil with which we write, etc. • According to its chemical composition
Handy Facts
Most of the evidences for the existence of particles in matter come from the experiments on the phenomene Diffusion and Brown-
ian motion. Diffusion is the process in which particles constituting a matter move from a higher concentration to a lower
concentration. This process happens at random. Diffusion can happen in a gas or liquid but cannot take place in a solid object.
Particles in both liquids and gases (collectively called fluids) move randomly. This is called Brownian motion. Brownian
motion is named after the botanist Robert Brown,
The Physical States of Matter

Matter is found in three physical states, i.e. Solid,
Liquid and Gas. These states are also known as phases of matter. The difference in the physical states of matter is due to the
arrangement of the particles of which the matter is made of.
Almost all chemical substances can exist in more than one physical state (phase) depending on external pressure and temperature.
States of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas

• Definite shape • Indefinite shape; takes the shape • Indefinite shape
• Definite volume of the container • Indefinite volume
• Highest density • Definite volume • Lower density
• Cannot flow • Density is lower than solid • Flow
• Maximum force of attraction • Flow • Negligible force of attraction
amongst the particles • Less force of attraction amongst amongst the particles
• Particles are tightly packed the particles. • Particles are loosely packed
• Cannot be compressed • Particles are loosely packed as • Can be compressed
• Particles cannot move, rather they compared to solids • Particles can move freely
vibrate only at their fixed position • Cannot be compressed
• Kinetic energy of the particles is • Particles can slide over one
minimum another
Handy Facts
Two other forms of matter are Plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate Plasma consists of highly charged particles with extremely
high kinetic energy. The noble gases (helium, neon argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are after used to make glowing signs by
using electricity to ionize them to the plasma state.
Solid
Solids can be divided into two distinct classes.
Solid
Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

• Have characteristic geometrical shape. • Solids that don’t have a definite geometrical shape.
• Possesses highly ordered three-dimensional arrangements of • Particles are randomly arranged in three dimensions.
particles. • Don’t have sharp melting points.
• Bounded by Planes or faces • Formed due to sudden cooling of liquid.
• Planes of a crystal intersect at particular angles.
• Melt over a wide range of temperature.
• Have sharp melting and boiling points.
Examples:
Examples:
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4), NiSO4, Diamond, Graphite, NaCl, Sugar, etc.
Coal, Coke, Glass, Plastic, rubber, etc.
B-6 CHEMISTRY
Liquid Handy Facts
Like solids, the volume of a liquid is slightly altered by variations Most liquids contract as they freeze. One of the important
in temperature and pressure. characteristics of water is that it expands when it freezes, so
Liquids have three typical physical properties: ice floats.
• Vapour pressure: A Liquid when kept in a closed con-
Adding dissolved substances, or solutes, to a liquid will de-
tainer vaporizes into the free space above it. The process
press the freezing point.
of vaporization will continue till the equilibrium is reached
between liquid and vapor. The pressure at which the liquid Super Cooled liquid
and vapour can co-exist is called the vapour pressure of Liquids can be cooled to temperatures well below their melting
the liquid at a given temperature. point before they begin to solidify. Such liquids are said to be
• Surface tension: The surface of a liquid is always in a state “super cooled” and often require the presence of a dust particle
of tension because a molecule at the surface is attracted or “seed crystal” to start the process of crystallization.
towards the bulk by a force much greater than that drawing
it toward the vapor where the attracting molecules are more Science in Action
widely spread. The spherical shape of liquid bubble and The freezing point of pure water is 0°C, but that melting point
capillary movement can be explained with the help of can be decreased by adding freezing or salt. The use of ordinary
surface tension. salt (sodium chloride, i.e. NaCl) on icy roads in the winter
• Viscosity: It determines the flow of the liquid. It is the helps to melt the ice from the roads by lowering the melting
internal friction between layers of the liquid. point of the ice.
Gases
Gas is the third state of the matter. Gases have three Sublimation
characteristic properties: Sublimation is a chemical process where a solid turns into a gas
• they are easy to compress without going through the liquid phase.
• they expand to fill their containers, and
Examples of substance which sublime
• they occupy far more space than the liquids or solids
• The best known of these substances is CO2 or “dry ice”
from which they form.
which sublime to gas.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE • Other common substances which sublime are ammonium
nitrate, camphor, anthracene, iodine and naphthalene.
ON STATES OF MATTER
Physical change of matter from one phase to another phase occurs Vapourisation
on adding energy to matter. For example: Vapourisation is the conversion of a liquid to a gas.
• adding thermal energy, i.e. heat to liquid water causes it to Evaporation Boiling
become steam or vapour, i.e. a gas.
• Evaporation takes place at all • boiling occurs at a par-
• taking away energy also causes physical change, such as
temperatures, ticular temperature.
when liquid water becomes ice, i.e., a solid, when heat is
removed. • Evaporation takes place from • Boiling is a bulk phe-
the surface, nomenon.
Physical change also can be caused by motion and pressure.
Physical processes undergone by matter leading to changes in the The temperature at which a liquid boils is called boiling point.
• Boiling point is dependent upon the pressure the substance
phases of the system are:
is subjected to.
Melting and freezing • A liquid under higher pressure will require more heat before
The melting point (or, also sometimes called liquefaction point) vapour bubbles can form within it.
of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid
Science in Action
to liquid at atmospheric pressure.
Food takes longer time to get cooked at high
• At the melting point the solid and liquid phases exist in
altitude. At high altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is lower
equilibrium. If we continue to apply heat to the sample, the
temperature will not rise above the melting point until the than that at sea level, so the boiling point at high altitudes
entire sample has been liquefied. is quite low, which means water boils very fast at low tem-
• The heat energy, called latent heat of fusion, is being used peratures. The food inside it does not get enough heat to get
to convert the solid into the liquid form. cooked and thus food is difficult to be cooked at high altitudes.
Using a pressure cooker at such conditions helps increase the
Science in Action boiling time as the pressure inside the pressure cooker increases
• A solid mixture, such as a metal alloy, can often be sepa- due to the vapour produced inside it.
rated into its constituent parts by heating the mixture and
Condensation and Deposition
extracting the liquids as they reach their different melting
points. Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from
gas phase into liquid phase.
The freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes Condensation is the opposite of evaporation.
to a solid. As the liquid is cooled, particle motion slows. When the gas transforms directly into a solid, without going
through the liquid phase, it is called deposition or de-sublimation. ELEMENTS

Example: Conversion of water vapour in the atmosphere into
frost or ice at subfreezing temperatures. Frost tends to outline Elements are the simplest form of chemical substances that can-
solid blades of grass and twigs because the air touching these not be broken down by ordinary chemical means. Examples are
solids cools faster than air that is not touching a solid surface. hydrogen (H), sulphur (S) or gold (Au), etc.
The building blocks of the Universe are the elements. The term
element was first used by Robert Boyle.
ELEMENT, MIXTURE AND COMPOUNDS
Handy Facts
Most of the elements are solids, while eleven of them are gas-
According to chemical composition, matter can be classified as
es and only two are liquids. Of the two liquids, mercury is a
• Pure substances (or simply known as substance) are those
metal and bromine is non-metal. However, two other metals
matter that has distinct properties and a composition that
can also exist in the liquid state at around 300C. These two are
does not vary from sample to sample. Water and ordinary
gallium and caesium.
table salt are examples of pure substances
• Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances in COMPOUNDS
which each substance retains its own chemical identity. The
A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements
substances making up a mixture are called components of
which are chemically combined. Examples of compounds are
the mixture.
water, sugar and salt, etc.
Compounds
Specific elements present Bonding in the compound Reactivity-types of chemical

For example: For example: reactions
• Oxides contain one or more • Ionic compounds contain For example:
oxygen atoms, hydrides contain ions and are held together by • Acids are compounds that
one or more hydrogen atoms, the attractive forces among produce H + ions (protons)
and halides contain one or more the oppositely charged ions. when dissolved in water to
halogen. Common salt (sodium chlo- produce aqueous solutions.
• Organic and inorganic ride) is one of the best-known The most common acids are
compounds ionic compounds. aqueous solutions of HCl
contains carbon and few other • Molecular compounds (hydrochloric acid), H2SO4
elements like hydrogen, oxygen, contain discrete molecules, (sulphuric acid), HNO3 (nitric
nitrogen, sulphur, halogens. which are held together by acid), and H3PO4 (phosphoric
Earlier, these were obtained sharing electrons (covalent acid).
from animals and plants. bonding). • Bases are proton acceptors.
• Inorganic compounds Examples: Water (H 2 O) e.g. NaOH (Sodium hydroxide),
contain any two or more ele- methane (CH4) etc. etc
ments out of 118 elements.
These are usually obtained
from minerals and rocks.
MIXTURES
Mixtures are all around us. For example, a salad is a mixture of vegetables, a glass of soda is a mixture of water,
Mixtures
Homogenous mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures

• same composition throughout
• no definite composition
• do not separate into phases when left alone.
• separate into phases when left alone.
• any homogeneous mixtures are solutions that
• can be separated by ordinary physical means.
consist of a solute and a solvent.
Example: Blood, Oil and water, etc.
Example: An alloy is a solution of two or more
elements, at least one of which is a metal, where
the resulting material has metallic properties.
B-8 CHEMISTRY
Methods of Separation of the Components of technique cannot be used for separation. Such mixtures are
Mixtures separated by centrifugation. So, centrifugation is the process of
separation of insoluble materials from a liquid where normal
To separate different components of a mixture, varieties of physi-
cal techniques are available. Based on difference in the physical filtration does not work well.
properties of the components present in the mixture. During centrifugation the denser particles are forced to the bot-
Separation by Using Separating Funnels tom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun rapidly.
A separating funnel is used for the separation of components Applications: Used in
of a mixture between two immiscible liquid phases. One phase • Diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
is the aqueous phase and the other phase is an organic solvent. • Dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
This separation is based on the differences in the densities of • Washing machines to squeeze water from wet clothes.
the liquids.
Separation by Evaporation Simple Distillation
The separation of liquid (solvent) and solid (solute) from a so- Simple distillation is a method used for the separation of
lution is done by removing the liquid (solvent) by heating or components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that
by solar evaporation. By evaporation we can recover the solute boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in
component only in solid or powder form. their boiling points.
Separation by Filtration Applications:
Filtration is a better method for separating solids from liquids • Separation of acetone and water.
in heterogeneous mixtures. In filtration the solid material is col- • Distillation of alcohol.
lected as a residue on filter paper and the liquid phase is obtained
as filtrate. Fractional Distillation
Applications: Salt (water soluble) and sand(water insoluble) Fractional distillation is used for the separation of a mixture of
using water as solvent
two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling
Sulphur (soluble in CS2) and glass powder (insoluble in CS2)
using CS2 as solvent. points is less than 25K.
Applications: Separation of
Centrifugation • Different fractions from crude oil.
Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and • A mixture of methanol and ethanol.
can pass through a filter paper. For such particles, the filtration • Ddifferent gases from liquid air.
Name of the fraction No. of Boiling range Use

(% in crude oil) C-atoms
Fuel Gas, LPG, refinery gas 1 to 4 (mainly propane & 25%C Bottled gas
(1-2%) butane which can be liquified`
Petrol 5 to 7 25 to 75°C Fuel for cars
Naptha (20-40%) 6 to 10 75 to 190°C Making chemical
Paraffin, kerosene 10 to 16 190 to 250°C Airecraft fuel
(10-15%)
Diesel (15-20%) 14 to 20 250 to 350° Fuel for cars, lorries, buses
Fuel oil, lubricating oils, over 20 to several hundred high boiling liquids or low Fuel oil is used as fuel for
waxes and bitumen (40-50%) melting solids thal boil over ships, power stations. Bitumen
350°C is used for roads and roops.
Chromatography • Paper Chromatography

• Gas chromatography.
Chromatography involves passing a mixture of different
Paper chromatography is one of the important chromato-
dissolved substances in a "mobile phase" through another
graphic methods.
material called a stationary phase, which separates the analyte
Applications: To separate
to be measured from other molecules in the mixture and allows
• Colours in a dye.
it to be isolated.
• Pigments from natural colors.
The mobile phase may be a gas or liquid. The mobile phase is
• Drugs from blood.
then passed through stationary phase. The stationary phase may
be a solid packed in a glass plate or a piece of chromatography SOLUTION
paper.
A solution (a homogeneous mixture) is formed when one or more
The various chromatographic techniques are:
substances (the solute) are completely dissolved in another sub-
• Column Chromatography,
• Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) stance (the solvent). Depending on the nature of the solvent and
solute we can have following kinds of solutions.
Different kinds of solution

Solute Solvent State of Resulting Solution Example
Gas Gas Gas Air
Gas Liquid Liquid Soda water (CO2 in water)
Gas Solid Solid H2 gas in palladium
Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water
Solid Liquid Liquid NaCl in water
Solid Solid Solid Brass (Cu/Zn), solder (Sn/Pb)
When a substance dissolves in a solvent it is said that the par- • Vapour-pressure lowering
ticular solute is soluble in that particular solvent. If it does not • Boiling-point elevation
dissolve then it is insoluble. • Freezing-point depression
• Osmotic pressure
Water as a solvent
Water is a commonly used solvent as it dissolves a large Osmotic Pressure
number of substances. Because of this property water is called not to solute is called a semi permeable membrane. Osmotic
a universal solvent. pressure may be defined as the external pressure applied to
Strengths of Solution the solution in order to stop the osmosis of solvent into solution
Quantitative study of a solution requires its concentration, that separated by a semi permeable membrane.
is, the amount of solute present in a given amount of solution. Science in Action
The three most common units of concentration are percent by Reverse osmosis is one of the processes that makes desalination
mass, molarity, and molality. (or removing salt from seawater) possible. It is the process of
Percent by Mass: The percent by mass (also called the percent osmosis in reverse. Where osmosis occurs naturally without
by weight or the weight percent). energy required, to reverse the process of osmosis, energy is
 Mass of solute  required to be applied to the more saline solution.
% By Mass =   × 100
 Mass of solvent 
The percent by mass has no units because it is a ratio of two SUSPENSION AND COLLOID
similar quantities. Depending on the size of the particles suspended, or dispersed
Molarity (M): It is the number of moles of solute dissolved in in the surrounding medium, heterogeneous mixtures can be di-
one liter of the solution. vided into the followings:
Thus, molarity has the units of mole per liter (mol/L). • Suspension: Materials of smaller particle size, insoluble
Molality (m): Molality is the number of moles of solute dis- in a solvent but visible to naked eyes, form suspension.
solved in 1 kg (1000 g) of solvent. The size of particles in suspension is over 1000 nanometers
Molality = moles of solute (mass of solvent)/1kg (nm).
• On the other hand, molality is independent of temperature. • Colloid: A colloid contains smaller particles ranging in
Colligative Properties of Solutions size from 1 to 1000 nanometers (nm).In case of true solu-
Several important properties of solutions depend on the number tions the size of the particles are less than 1 nm.
of solute particles in solution and not on the nature of the solute The following table summarizes the major properties and points
particles. These properties are called colligative properties (or col- of distinction between each type of solution with respect to
lective properties) because they are bound together by a common different properties.
origin; The colligative properties are:
Properties of colloids, true solutions and suspension
Property True Solution Colloidal Solutions Suspension
Size of the particles < 1nm 1– 1000nm >1000nm
Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
Filterability(Diffusion Particles of true Solution dif- Colloidal particles pass Suspension particles do not
through parchment paper) fuse rapidly through filter paper through filter paper but not pass through filter paper and
as well as parchment paper. through parchment paper. parchment paper.
Visibility Particles of True Solution are Colloidal particles are not Suspension particles are big
not visible to naked eye. seen to naked eye but can be enough to be seen by naked
studied through ultra micro- eye.
scope.
Tyndal effect True Solution does not show Colloids show Tyndall effect. Suspension may or may not
Tyndall effect. show Tyndall effect.
Appearance Transparent Translucent Opaque
B-10 CHEMISTRY
Classification of Colloids
Colloids are also called colloidal dispersions because the substances remain dispersed and do not settle to the bottom of the container.
• The substance being dispersed is referred to as being in the dispersed phase,
• The substance in which it is dispersed is in the continuous phase is called dispersion phase.
Different Kinds of Colloids
Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Type of Colloid Example
Solid Solid Solid sol Ruby glass, Gem stone
Liquid Solid Solid emulsion/gel Pearl, cheese
Gas Solid Solid foam Lava, pumice
Solid Liquid Sol Paints, cell fluids
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, oil in water
Gas Liquid Foam Soap suds, whipped cream
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist
Gases cannot form a colloidal solution between themselves, be- For example Barium sulfate in suspension is frequently used
cause they form homogenous mixtures. medically as a radio contrast agent for x-ray imaging and other
diagnostic procedures. Colloids are also very important in the
Determination of a Colloid
medical field because they can be used to manipulate blood
Following two methods can be used to determine whether a conditions. To be specific, colloids are often used to regulate
mixture is colloid or not. colloidal osmotic pressure, a pressure applied by proteins in
• Tyndall Effect: When light is shined through a true solution, the blood to pull water in the vascular system.
the light passes cleanly through the solution, however when
light is passed through a colloidal solution, the substance in the PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
dispersed phases scatters the light in all directions, making it
To understand the difference between a pure substance and a
readily seen. An example of this is shining a flashlight into fog.
The beam of light can be easily seen because the fog is a col- mixture, let us understand the difference between a physical
loid. Blue colour of the sky and sea water, twinkling of stars, and a chemical change.
etc. are also examples of tyndall effect. Physical Change
• Dialysis: The substance is allowed to pass through a semi perme- During physical changes a substance changes its physical
able membrane. The larger dispersed particles in a colloid would appearance, but not its composition. All changes of state
be unable to pass through the membrane; while the surrounding (for example, from liquid to gas or from liquid to solid) are
liquid molecules can .This process is known as dialysis. physical changes.
Science in Action
Characteristics of Physical Changes
Kidney Dialysis, also known as hemodialysis, is a medical
method to remove waste materials from the blood of • It is a temporary change.
patients suffering from kidney malfunction. • No new substances are formed.
• No change in mass takes place.
Applications of suspensions and colloids • Can be reversed by reversing the conditions.
• Suspensions have many applications in medical sciences. • Change in physical state, size and appearance.
Some Examples Involving Physical Changes
Physical changes Observation Change on physical property

● Switching of an electric bulb. The bulb glows and gives out heat and light The physical appearance of the bulb
energy. changes.
● Rubbing a permanent magnet on a The steel rod gets magnetised. If it is The steel rod acquires the property of
steel rod. brought near iron nails, they get attracted. attracting pieces of iron.
● Action of heat on The brownish grey crystals of iodine Change in state and colour.
iodine change to form violet vapours. On cooling
the vapours condenses to for form crystals.
● Dissolving of common salt in water. The white crystalline salt disappears in Change of state.
water. However, the water tastes exactly
like common salt. Moreover, common salt
can be recovered by evaporation.
Chemical Change Characteristics of a Chemical Change

A chemical change is one in which the identity of the original • A chemical change is permanent change and cannot be re-
substance is changed and a new substance or new substances versed to give back the original substance.
are formed. • One or more new substances (called products) are formed.
e.g. souring of milk, burning of paper, buring of candle, etc. • Change in mass of a substance takes place.
In the burning of candle, the wax of a candle burns into ash and • The composition of the product is different from that of the
smoke. starting substance.
• A chemical change is always accompanied by the change
in energy.
Some Examples Involving Chemical Changes :

Chemical change Observation Chemical equation
• Burning of When a magnesium ribbon is heated in a flame of Bunsen Magnesium + Oxygen ––→
magnesium in air burner, it catches fire and burns with dazzling white flame to Magnesium oxide
form white ash.
• Rusting of iron When iron (silver grey) is left exposed to moist air for a few (from air) —→ Iron + Oxygen +
days, reddish brown powdery mass (rust) is found on its Water vapours ––→ Rust
surface.
• Burning of LPG When LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) is burnt, it burns with Butane (LPG) + Oxygen ––→ Carbon
a pale blue flame and liberates colourless gas carbon dioxide dioxide + Water
along with steam.
Handy Facts
Chemical weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down by chemical reactions. Rocks look different from each
other because of chemical weathering. Different types of chemical weatherings are :
• Hydrolysis - chemical reaction when combined with water
• Oxidation - It is a reaction with oxygen
• Carbonation - It is mixing of water with CO2 to make carbonic acid. This type of weathering is important in the formation
of caves
• Dissolution (also called leaching) : it is the process by which rocks are dissolved when exposed to rainwater.
Some interesting information about elements

(a) The most abundant element in the universe – Hydrogen(H)
(b) The most abundant element in the earth’s crust –Oxygen(O)
(c) The most abundant metallic element in the earth’s crust-Aluminum(Al)
(d) The most abundant element in the earth’s atmosphere -Nitrogen(N)
(e) The element having the highest density at room temperature –Osmium(Os)
(f) The lightest metal at room temperature-Lithium (Li)
(g) The metal having the highest melting point and boiling point –Tungsten(W)
(h) The element with the highest melting point –Carbon (C)
(i) The element having lowest melting point and boiling point-Helium(He)
(j) The metal having the lowest melting point and boiling point –Mercury(Hg)
(k) The most ductile metal –Silver(Au)
(l) The element having highest number of isotopes- Silver(Ag)
B-12 CHEMISTRY
EXERCISE
1. Who among the following is called 'The father of modern 14. Which chemical was an important symbol in our freedom
chemistry? struggle ? [CDS]
(a) Michael Faraday (b) Lavoisier (a) Glucose (b) Fertilizer
(c) Proust (d) Linus Pauling (c) Medicine (d) Sodium chloride
2. Match the following 15. Match the following columns ? [NDA]
A Azidothymidine 1 Antibiotic Column I Column II
B cis-Platin and taxol 2 Drugs for AIDS patient (Fuel Gas) (Major constituent)
C Streptomycin 3 Drugs for treating cancer A. CNG 1. Carbon
patients monoxide, hydrogen
D Paracetamol 4 Antipyretic B. Coal gas 2. Butane, propene
(a) A - 2, B - 3, C - 1, D - 4 C. LPG 3. Methane, ethane
(b) A - 1, B - 2, C - 4, D - 3 D. Water gas 4. Hydrogen, methane,
(c) A - 4, B - 2, C - 3, D - 1 carbon monoxide
(d) A - 1, B - 2, C - 3, D - 4 (a) A - 2, B - 1, C - 3, D - 4
3. The chemical technique applied to find out age of fossils is (b) A - 2, B - 4, C - 3, D - 1
(c) A - 3, B - 4, C - 2, D - 1
knows as
(d) A - 3, B - 1, C - 2, D - 4
(a) Carbon dating (b) Nuclear fusion
16. The phenomenon of radioactivity was invented by
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Fermentation
(a) Maril Curie (b) Pierre Curie
4. The chemical formula for 'laughing gas' is
(c) Henry Bacquerel (d) J.J Thompson
(a) N2O(Nitrous oxide) 17. Which one of the following is used in the preparation of
(b) NO (Nitric oxide) antiseptic solution? [CDS]
(c) NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide) (a) Potassium nitrate
(d) N2O5 (Nitrogen pentoxide) (b) Iodine
5. The compound used as 'artificial sweetener' is (c) Iodine chloride
(a) Saccharine (b) Tartaric acid (d) Potassium chloride
(c) citric acid (d) octane 18. Aqua-regia used by alchemists to separate silver and gold
6. The chemical name of 'Marsh gas' is is a mixture of [CDS]
(a) Ethene (b) Methane (a) hydrochloric acid (concentrated) and nitric acid
(c) Propane (d) Hexane (concentrated)
7. Wooden pencil used for writing contains (b) hydrochloric acid (concentrated) and sulphuric
(a) Graphite (b) Lead acid (concentrated)
(c) Salt (d) Cane sugar (c) nitric acid (concentrated) and sulphuric acid
8. The chemical formula of Borax is (concentrated)
(a) Na2B4O7 (b) CaOCl2 (d) hydrochloric acid (dilute) and sulphuric acid (dilute)
(c) BaSO4 (d) Ca(SO4)2 19. Nail polish remover contains [CDS]
9. The chemical formula of plaster of paris is [BPSC] (a) acetone (b) benzene
(a) CaSO4. 5H2O (b) 2CaSO4. H2O (c) formaldehyde (d) acetic acid
(c) (CaSO4). 2H2O (d) COSO4. MGO 20. Which one among the following is a sin smelling agent
10. The chemical name of lime stone is [UPPCS] added to LPG cylinder to help the detection of gas
(a) Calcium chloride leakage? [CDS]
(b) Calcium oxide (a) Ethanol (b) Thioethanol
(c) Calcium carbonate (c) Methane (d) Chloroform
(d) Calcium 21. Vermicompost is an/a [CDS]
11. Blue vitriol is [UPPCS] (a) inorganic fertilizer
(b) toxic substance
(a) Copper sulphate
(c) organic bio fertilizer
(b) Calcium sulphate
(d) synthetic fertilizer
(c) Iron sulphate
22. Which of the following is a good lubricant ? [CDS]
(d) Sodium sulphate
(a) Diamond powder
12. The main component of Gobar gas is? [CDS]
(b) Graphite powder
(a) Chlorine (b) Hydrogen (c) Molten carbon
(c) Ethylene (d) Methene (d) Alloy of carbon and iron
13. The main of component of Biogas is 23. The main constituent of vinegar is [NDA]
(a) Methane (b) Ethane (a) Acetic acid (b) Ascorbic acid
(c) Propane (d) Butane (c) Citric acid (d) Tartaric acid
24. To weld metals together, high temperature is required. 33. When we put some crystals of potassium permanganate in
Such a high temperature is obtained by burning a beaker containing water, we observe that after sometime
[NDA] whole water has turned pink. This is due to
(a) Acetylene in oxygen (a) boiling
(b) LPG in oxygen (b) melting of potassium permanganate crystals
(c) Methane in oxygen (c) sublimation of crystals
(d) Acetylene in nitrogen (d) diffusion
25. Which one is a sublime substance? 34. Which of the following processes is known as fusion?
(a) Table salt (a) change of liquid to solid
(b) Sugar (b) change of solid to liquid
(c) Iodine (c) change of liquid to vapour
(d) Potassium Iodide (d) change of gaseous state to solid state
26. What happens when a fixed amount of oxygen gas is taken
35. When a gas is compressed keeping temperature constant,
in a cylinder and compressed at constant temperature?
it results in
A. Number of collisions of oxygen molecules at per unit
(a) increase in speed of gaseous molecules
area of the wall of the cylinder increase.
(b) increase in collision among gaseous molecules
B. Oxygen (O2) gets converted into ozone (O3).
C. Kinetic energy of the molecules of oxygen gas (c) decrease in speed of gaseous molecules
increases. (d) decrease in collision among gaseous molecules.
(a) A and C (b) B and C 36. A pungent smell often present near the urinals is due to
(c) C only (d) A only (a) sulphur-di-oxide (b) chlorine
27. A gas can be compressed to a fraction of its volume. The (c) ammonia (d) urea
same volume of a gas can be spread all over a room. The 37. Kerosene is a mixture of
reason for this is that (a) aromatic hydrocarbons
(a) the volume occupied by molecules of a gas is negligible (b) aliphatic hydrocarbons
as compared to the total volume of the gas. (c) saturated hydrocarbons
(b) gases consists of molecules which are in a state of (d) alicyclic hydrocarbons
random motion 38. The oxide of which of the following elements is used as a
(c) gases consist of molecules having very large inter- coolant?
molecular space which can be reduced or increased (a) Silicon (b) Nitrogen
under ordinary conditions (c) Carbon (d) Phosphorus
(d) None of these 39. Which one of the following is not a mixture? [NDA]
28. Select the correct order of evaporation for water, alcohol, (a) Air (b) Mercury
petrol and kerosene oil (c) Milk (d) Cement
(a) water > alcohol > kerosene oil > petrol 40. Which one among the following statements regarding the
(b) alcohol > petrol > water > kerosene oil properties of mixtures and compounds is not correct?
(c) petrol > alcohol > water > kerosene oil [NDA]
(d) petrol > alcohol > kerosene oil > water (a) A mixture shows the properties of its constituents but
29. Non-reacting gases have a tendency to mix with each other. the properties of a compound are entirely different
This phenomenon is known as
from its constituents
(a) chemical reaction (b) diffusion
(b) A mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous
(c) effusion (d) explosion
but a compound is a homogeneous substance
30. Boyle’s law states that the
(c) The constituents of a mixture can be separated by
(a) pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the
temperature at constant volume physical methods but those of a compound cannot be
(b) pressure of a gas is inversely proportional the volume separated by physical methods
at constant temperature (d) Energy is either absorbed or evolved during the
(c) volume is directly proportional to the temperature at preparation of a mixture but not in the preparation of
constant pressure a compound
(d) None of the above 41. Which one among the following is not a mixture?
31. The boiling point of alcohol is 78°C. What is this (a) Graphite (b) Glass
temperature in Kelvin scale (c) Brass (d) Steel
(a) 373 K (b) 351 K 42. The latest discovered state of matter is [NDA]
(c) 375 K (d) 78 K (a) solid
32. At higher altitudes (b) Bose-Einstein condensation
(a) boiling point of a liquid increases (c) plasma (d) liquid
(b) boiling point of a liquid decreases 43. Which one of the following is not a mixture?
(c) no change in boiling point (a) Tootpaste (b) Toilet soap
(d) melting point of solid increases (c) Baking soda (d) Vinegar
B-14 CHEMISTRY
44. Iodised salt is a [CDS] 54. Iodised salt is a [CDS]
(a) mixture of potassium iodide and common salt (a) mixture of potassium iodide and common salt
(b) mixture of molecular iodide and common salt (b) mixture of molecular iodide and common salt
(c) compound formed by combination of potassium (c) compound formed by combination of potassium
iodide and common salt iodide and common salt
(d) compound formed by molecular iodine and common (d) compound formed by molecular iodine and common
salt salt
45. What type of mixture is smoke? [CDS] 55. At NTP, the least volume will be occupied by 15 g of
(a) Solid mixed with a gas which one of the following ? [NDA]
(b) Gas mixed with a gas (a) NH3 (b) O2
(c) Liquid mixed with a gas (c) N2 (d) Ne
56. What is the weight of one atom of Hydrogen in grams?
(d) Gas mixed with a liquid and a solid
[NDA]
46. Iron sheet kept in moist air covered with rust. Rust is
(a) 6.023 × 10–23 (b) 1.66 × 10–24
[CDS]
(b) 6.62 × 10–24
(a) an element
(d) None of these
(b) a compound 57. Which one of the following elements shows variable
(c) a mixture of iron and dust equivalent mass? [NDA]
(d) a mixture of iron, oxygen and water (a) Zinc (b) Silver
47. What is the term used to denote the critical temperature at (c) Calcium (d) Iron
which the air becomes saturated with vapour and below 58. The atomic weights are expressed in terms of atomic mass
which the condensation is likely to begin ? [NDA] unit. Which one of the following is used as a standard?
(a) Condensation point [NDA]
(b) Evaporation point (a) 1H (b)
1
12C
6
(c) Dew point (c) 16O (d) 35Cl
8 17
(d) Point of critical temperature 59. Which one of the following mixtures is homogeneous?
48. Tails of comets are visible due to [NDA]
(a) Tyndall Effect (b) Reflection (a) Starch and sugar
(c) Brownian movement (b) Methanol and water
(d) None of these (c) Graphite and charcoal
49. The process used to separate oil and water is (d) Calcium carbonate and calcium bicarbonate
(a) distillation (b) sublimation 60. In which one of the following situations a chemical
(c) separating funnel (d) chromatography reaction does not occur? [NDA]
50. Amalgam is a solution of (a) Common salt is exposed to air
(a) solid in solid (b) solid in liquid (b) Coal is burnt in air
(c) liquid in solid (d) liquid in liquid (c) Sodium is placed in water
(d) Iron is kept in moist air
51. Which one of the following is correct? Butter is [CDS]
61. Which of the following is the best example of the law of
(a) a supercooled oil (b) an emulsion
conservation of mass? [NDA]
(c) a molecular solid (d) None of these
(a) When 12 gm of carbon is heated in vacuum, there is
52. Which one of the following petroleum refinary products
no change in mass
has the lowest boiling point? [CDS] (b) Weight of platinum wire is the same before and after
(a) Kerosene (b) Diesel heating
(c) Gasoline (d) Lubricating oil (c) A sample of air increases in volume when heated at
53. Which one of the following is not a mixture? [CDS] constant pressure but mass remains unchanged
(a) Tootpaste (b) Toilet soap (d) 12 gm of carbon combines with 32 gm of oxygen to
(c) Baking soda (d) Vinegar give 44 gm of carbondioxide.
ANSWER KEY
1 (b) 2 (a) 3 (a) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (b) 7 (a) 8 (a)
9 (c) 10 (c) 11 (a) 12 (d) 13 (a) 14 (b) 15 (c) 16 (c)
17 (b) 18 (a) 19 (a) 20 (b) 21 (c) 22 (b) 23 (a) 24 (a)
25 (c) 26 (d) 27 (c) 28 (d) 29 (b) 30 (b) 31 (b) 32 (b)
33 (d) 34 (b) 35 (d) 36 (c) 37 (b) 38 (c) 39 (b) 40 (d)
41 (a) 42 (c) 43 (c) 44 (c) 45 (d) 46 (b) 47 (c) 48 (a)
49 (c) 50 (c) 51 (d) 52 (c) 53 (c) 54 (c) 55 (c) 56 (b)
57 (d) 58 (b) 59 (b) 60 (a) 61 (a)
ATOMS, MOLECULES &
Chapter
2 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
The size of an atom is extremely small and not visible to eye.
ATOMS AND MOLECULES The comparative idea regarding the size of atom can be had
from the following:
The combination of different elements to form compounds is
governed by some basic rules. These rules, collectively called Relative sizes
'laws of chemical combination'. Radius (in meter) Example
10 –10 Atoms of hydrogen
LAW OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS
10 –4 Grain of sand
Law of Conservation Mass:
10–1 Water melon
Lavoisier, who is widely regarded as the father of modern chemis-
0.2 × 10–1 Cricket ball
try, gave the the law of conservation of mass. This law states that
in any chemical reaction, the mass of the substances that react Atomic Symbols
equals the mass of the products that are formed.
Law of Definite Proportions: It was Jon Jacob Berzelius who devised the modern convenient
system of using letters of the alphabet to represent elements. The
This law was given by Joseph Proust, a French chemist, in 1799.
Proust’s law of definite proportions states that different samples systems of naming the elements are enumerated below:
of the same compound always contain its constituent elements in • The symbols of the most common elements, mainly
the same proportion by mass. nonmetals, use the first letter of their English name.
Law of Multiple Proportions : Examples: H (hydrogen), B (Boron), C (Carbon), N
(nitrogen), O (Oxygen), F(Flourine), P (Phosphorous), S
In 1803 Dalton gave this law. As per this law if two elements
combine to form more compounds, the masses of one element (Sulphur), I (iodine), etc.
that combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in the • If the name of the element has the same initial letter as
ratio of small whole numbers. another element, then the symbol uses the first and second
letters of their English name. Examples: He(Helium),
The Law of Gaseous Volume: Li(Lithium), Be(Beryllium), Ne(Neon), Al(Aluminum)
When gases react, the volumes consumed and produced,
measured at the same temperature and pressure, are in ratios of Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes
small whole numbers. This is also known as Gay-Lussac's Law. The subatomic particles present in atom are-neutron, proton and
Dalton’s Atomic Theory electron. All atoms can be identified by the number of protons
and neutrons they contain.
The hypotheses about the nature of matter on which Dalton’s
atomic theory is based can be summarized as: Atomic number
• Matter consists of indivisible atoms. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom decides which
• All the atoms of a given chemical element are identical in element it is. This very important number is called the atomic
mass and in all other properties. number (Z). In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to
• Different chemical elements have different kinds of atoms the number of electrons, so the atomic number also indicates the
and in particular such atoms have different masses. number of electrons present in the atom. The chemical identity of
• Atoms are indestructible and retain their identity in chemical an atom can be determined solely by its atomic number.
reactions.
Mass number
Laws of Chemical Combination and Dalton’s Theory The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons
• Dalton’s fourth postulate explains the law of conservation present in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
of mass. Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
• The fifth postulate is an attempt to explain the law of definite = atomic number + number of neutrons
proportions. The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference
between the mass number and the atomic number, or (A - Z).
ATOMS
ISOTOPES
Atoms are building blocks of all matter. On the basis of Dalton’s
atomic theory, we can define an atom as the basic unit of an ele- Atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass
ment that can enter into chemical combination. numbers are called isotopes.
B-16 CHEMISTRY
Mass number nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are other
examples of diatomic molecules and are represented as H2,
Atomic symbol N2, F2,Cl2 , Br2 and I2 respectively.
Atomic number • Some other elements exist as more complex molecules.
Phosphorus molecule consists of four atoms (denoted by P4)
The first isotope of uranium is used in nuclear reactors and atomic whereas sulphur exists as eight atom molecule (S8).
bombs, whereas the second isotope lacks the properties necessary • Normally, molecules consisting of more than three or four
for these applications. atoms are considered under the category of polyatomic
Handy Facts molecules.
The chemical properties of an element are determined primarily Handy Facts
by the protons and electrons in its atoms; neutrons do not take Buckminsterfullerene is a soccer ball-shaped molecule.
part in chemical changes under normal conditions. Therefore,
isotopes of the same element have similar chemistry, forming Molecular Formula
the same types of compounds and displaying similar relativities. Formulae are combinations of symbols that represent a com-
Isobars pound. A formula indicates:
• The elements involved in the molecule.
Thus, elements atoms of different elements having same mass
• The number of atoms of each element contained in the molecule.
number (A) but different atomic number(z) are termed as isobars.
In writing formulae, we use subscripts, coefficients, and
Examples : 147N and 146C parentheses in addition to the symbols of the elements.
24 Na and 24 Mg
11 12 • Subscripts indicate the number of atoms of an element,
Isotones as in H2 where two is the subscript meaning two hydrogen
The atoms of an element which have atomic numbers and mass atoms. If there is no subscript with a symbol, it is assumed
number both different but the number of neutrons in atomic nuclei there is only one atom of that element.
are same called isotones. • Coefficients are numbers in front of the formula; indicate the
number of molecules of compound, as in 4HCl where four
Atomic Mass is the coefficient indicating four molecules of HCl.
A property closely related to an atom’s mass number is its atomic mass. • Parentheses are used to separate a radical from the rest of
The mass of an atom depends on the number of electrons, protons, the formula when it would be confusing not to do so.
and neutrons it contains. Steps in Formula Writing
• A value is assigned to the mass of one atom of a given ele- In writing formulae for compounds, there are four steps that
ment so that it can be used as should be followed:
standard. By international agreement, atomic mass (some- • Determine the symbols for the elements in a compound.
times called atomic weight) is the mass of the atom in atomic • Determine the valence of each of the atoms or radicals.
mass units (amu). • Write the positive element's symbol first, followed by that
• One atomic mass unit (also called one Dalton) is defined of the negative element.
as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one • Make the compound electrically neutral by using subscripts.
carbon-12 atom. For example, the formula for calcium chloride may be written as follows:
Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six protons and six neu- • Symbols of Calcium = Ca and Chloride = Cl.
trons. Setting the atomic mass of carbon-12 at 12 amu provides • Ca valence is +2, Cl valence is –1.
the standard for measuring the atomic mass of the other elements. • Ca+2 2Cl–1. If we add the charges, we find that this com-
pound is not neutral (+2 – 1 = +1). Therefore, we must
MOLECULE proceed to step (4).
• To have two negative charges to balance the two positive
Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian chemist, first coined the term mol-
charges, we must have two
ecule in 1801 in order to explain the Gay-Lussac’s law.
Cl–1 ions (–1 × 2 = –2). Thus, the formula would be CaCl2.
Molecule may be defined as a combination of two or more
than two atoms of the same or different elements in a definite Empirical Formula
arrangement. These atoms are held together by chemical forces The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula
or chemical bonds. which expresses its percentage composition. It is the ratio of the
Difference between Atoms and Molecules different elements present in a chemical compound. Empirical
formula does not show the exact number of elements present.
• An atom is the smallest particle of a substance which can- For example, molecular formula of Benzene is C6H6.
not exist freely whereas molecules can be considered as the
smallest particle of an element or of a compound which can Structural Formula
exist alone or freely under ordinary conditions. Structural formula of a molecule represents the structure of the
• A molecule of a substance shows all chemical properties of molecule. Structural formula shows how the atoms are bonded
that substance. to each other.
Representing a Molecule Chemically Molecular Mass
The chemical composition of a molecule can be expressed with Molecular formula of a compound is normally used for determin-
the help of symbols of elements and formulae. ing the molecular mass of that compound.
• Oxygen molecule is made of two atoms of oxygen and there- • The molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of all the
fore it is a diatomic molecule (represented by O2), hydrogen, atoms present in that molecule.
Atoms, Molecules & Nuclear Chemistry B-17
For example: Avogadro’s Number and Molar mass of an

The molecular mass of CO2 is obtained as: element
C= 1×12.0 u = 12.0 u
For two O =2 × 16.0 u = 32.0 u Chemists measure atoms and molecules (or any particle like
Mass of CO2 = 44.0 u ions, radicals, etc) in moles. Mole is chemist’s counting unit and
Hence, we write molecular mass of CO2 = 44.0 u. is central to all of quantitative chemistry.
In the SI system the mole (mol) is the amount of a substance
Equivalent Mass that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or
The formula to calculate the equivalent mass of an element is other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g (or 0.012 kg)
given by : of the carbon-12 isotope. The actual number of atoms in 12 g of
Atomic Mass carbon-12 is determined experimentally. This number is called
Equivalent mass =
Valency Avogadro’s number (NA), in honor of Amedeo Avogadro.
IONS The currently accepted value is, NA= 6.0221415 × 1023 Generally,
An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or Avogadro’s number is rounded to 6.022 ×1023. This mass of
negative charge. carbon-12 is its molar mass (M), defined as the mass (in grams
• The number of positively charged protons in the nucleus of or kilograms) of 1 mole of units (such as atoms or molecules)
an atom remains the same during ordinary chemical changes of a substance.
(called chemical reactions), but negatively charged electrons
may be lost or gained.
• The loss of one or more electrons from a neutral atom results in a ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
cation, an ion with a net positive charge. For example, a sodium
atom (Na) can readily lose an electron to become a sodium cation. Matter is made up of atoms, and therefore an understanding of
• On the other hand, an anion is an ion whose net charge is the structure of atom is very important.
negative due to an increase in the number of electrons. A • In 1879, Sir William Crooks discovered cathode rays.
bromine atom (Br), for instance, can gain an electron to Cathode rays are produced in vacuum tubes equipped with
become the bromide ion Br−. two electrodes.
• Using a cathode ray tube in 1897, J.J. Thomson determined
AVOGADRO'S LAW (AVOGADRO'S THEORY;
that all matter, whatever its source, contains particles of
AVOGADRO'S HYPOTHESIS): the same kind that are much less massive than the atoms of
This law states that equal volumes of gases at the same tempera- which they form a part.
ture and pressure contain the same number of molecules regard- • Thomson originally called these as corpuscles which later
less of their chemical nature and physical properties. Avogadro's came to be known as electrons.
number is 6.022 ×1023. It is the number of molecules of any gas
present in a volume of 22.4 L and is the same for the lightest gas FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF ATOM
(hydrogen) as for a heavy gas such as carbon dioxide or bromine.
Avogadro's law provides a method to determine molecular Electrons, Protons and neutrons are called fundamental particles.
weights of gaseous element. Characteristics of the fundamental particles are given below:
Subatomic particles
Electrons (Symbol : e) Proton (Symbol : p) Neutron (Symbol : n)

• Discovered by J.J. Thomson • Discovered by Ernest • Discovered by James
in 1897. Rutherford in 1911 Chadwick in 1932
• Negatively charged. • Positively charged • Mass = 1.674 × 10–27kg
• Mass = 9.109389 × 10–31kg • Mass = 1.672 × 10–27kg • Charge = 0
• Charge = –1.602 × 10–19 • Charge = 1.602 × 10–19 • Relative charge = 0
coulomb coulomb
• Relative charge = – 1 • Relative charge = +1
• 1840 times heavier then
electron
The discovery of the sub-atomic particles led to the enunciation of tively charged electrons scattered throughout it. This model
different models of the atoms which tried to explain the internal was called as Plum pudding model of the atom.
structure of the atom. • The electrons represent the plums in the pudding made of
positive charge.
MODELS OF ATOM • Thomson model was discarded because it could not explain
Thomson Model certain experimental observations like alpha particle scat-
tering experiment by thin metal foils conducted by Ernest
• J.J.Thomson proposed that atoms can be considered as a Rutherford.
large positively charged body with a number of small nega-
B-18 CHEMISTRY
Rutherford’s Model • Each stationary state is associated with a definite energy,
In 1909, Rutherford discovered proton in his famous gold foil which is called an energy level.
experiment. In this experiment, Rutherford bombarded a beam • As long as electrons revolve in the stationary states, they
of alpha particles on an ultrathin gold foil and then detected the don’t lose or gain energy.
scattered alpha particles in zinc sulfide (ZnS) screen. • Electrons may jump from one orbit to another, in which
Results case energy is absorbed or emitted in fixed quantities only
• Most of the particles pass through the foil without any deflection. (known as ‘quanta’).
• Some of the alpha particles deflect at small angle.
• Very few even bounce back (1 in 20,000). Modern Atomic Model
Conclusion The present accepted model of atom, called quantum mechanical
Based on his observations, Rutherford proposed the following or wave-mechanical concept of atom, is basically mathematical
structural feature of an atom:
in nature. This was proposed by Erwin Schrödinger- an Austrian
• Most of the atom’s mass and its entire positive charge are
confined in a small core, called nucleus. The positively physicist in 1926.
charged particle is called proton. Handy Facts
• Most of the volume of an atom is empty space.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
• The number of negatively charged electrons dispersed
outside the nucleus is same as number of positively An important consequence of the wave-particle duality of
charge in the nucleus. It explains the overall electrical matter and radiation was discovered by Werner Heisenberg in
neutrality of an atom. 1927 and is called the Uncertainty Principle. According to this
principle, it is not possible to simultaneously measure both the
Bohr’s Model position and momentum (or velocity) of an electron accurately.
The assumptions of Bohr’s Theory are as follows:
• Electrons revolve round the nucleus in definite orbits called The characteristics of each of the quantum numbers are given below:
stationary states.
Quantum numbers
Principal quantum number Azimuthal quantum number (denoted by l) Magnetic quantum num- The Spin quantum
(denoted by n) • Specifies the shape of an orbital with a ber (denoted by ml) number (denoted by
• Specifies the energy level particular principal quantum number. • Describes the direction ms) describes the spin
(or principal shell) of the • Divides the shells into smaller groups of or orientation of the of the electron, i.e.
electron within the atom and orbitals called subshells (sublevels). orbital in space. whether it is clock-
size of the orbital. • l may be zero or a positive inte- • Takes-up any integral wise or anticlockwise.
• Can take only positive ger-less than or equal to (n–1) value from –l to + l. This quantum number
non-zero integral values i.e (n is the principal quantum number), i.e. (For example, for l = was introduced later,
1,2,3,4 etc. = 0,1,2,3... (n–1). 1 ; ml can have the val- it's not an outcome of
• The shells or energy levels • Different values correspond to different ues as –1,0 and 1.That the solution of Schro-
are designated as K, L, M, types of subshells and each subshell con- means the p-orbital can dinger Equation.
N etc. depending on the tains orbitals of a given shape as shown have three orientation
values of n i.e. 1,2,3,4 etc. below: i.e. there are three p
respectively. ← l = 0 (s orbital): Spherical orbitals- px, py and pz.)
• The number of electrons that ← l = 1 (p-orbital): Dumb-bell
can be accommodated in one ← l = 2 (d-orbital): cloverleaf
shell is 2n2.
ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN AN 1 -1, 0, +1 3 2p 6

ATOM 3 0 0 1 3s 2
• Each electron in an atom is described by four different quan- 1 -1, 0, +1 3 3p 6
tum numbers. The first three (n, l, ml) specify the particular -2, -1, 0,
orbital of interest, and the fourth (ms) specifies how many 2 5 3d 10
+1, +2
electrons can occupy that orbital.
4 0 0 1 4s 2
Table of Allowed Quantum Numbers
1 -1, 0, +1 3 4p 6
Number Number
Orbital -2, -1, 0,
n l ml of of 2 5 4d 10
Name +1, +2
orbitals electrons
-3, -2, -1,
1 0 0 1 1s 2 3 0, +1, +2, 7 4f 14
2 0 0 1 2s 2 +3
• The Pauli Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli, Nobel Prize NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
in 1945) states that no two electrons in the same atom can
In 1896, a French physicist named Henri Baequeral discovered
have identical values for all four of their quantum numbers.
that uranium-containing crystals emitted rays that could expose
• The distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom and fog photographic plates. He called these rays-uranic rays.
is called the electronic configuration. The electrons are filled Marie curie, later discovered two other elements-polonium
in according to a scheme known as the Aufbau principle and radium emitting uranic rays. She renamed uranic rays as
("building-up"), which corresponds to increasing energy of radioactivity (or radioactive decay).
the subshells as below: Radioactivity may be defined as disintegration or decay of
1s → 2s→2p→3s→3p→4s→3d→ 4p → 5s → 6s → 4f → 5d unstable atoms accompanied by emission of radiation
→ 6p → 7s → 5s Radioactivity can be of two types-Natural and artificial or
induced radioactivity.
Handy Facts
Because an electron spins, it creates a magnetic field, which Nature of Radiations
can be oriented in one of two directions. For two electrons The invisible radioactive radiations are of three types:
in the same orbital, the spins must be opposite to each other; • Alpha (α) particle: a helium nucleus (42α or 42He) without
the spins are said to be paired. These substances are not at- electrons. These are positively charged and largest particle
tracted to magnets and are said to be diamagnetic. Atoms with emitted by radioactive nuclei. Also has the highest charge.
more electrons that spin in one direction than another contain • Beta (β) particle: a beta particle ( 0–1β or–10e ) is an electron
emitted from an atomic nucleus.
unpaired electrons. These substances are weakly attracted to
• Positron: the antiparticle of an electron/beta particle, 01β or
magnets and are said to be paramagnetic. 0 e. The same size as an electron but with a positive charge.
1
• Gamma (γ) rays: high-energy rays (like X-rays).
Comparison of the Properties of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays

Property α ray β ray γ ray
Nature Helium nuclei, 42He Fast electrons Electro-magnetic radiation
One-tenth of the velocity of
Velocity Velocity of light Velocity of light
light
Penetrating power Low moderate high
Several cm thick lead/concrete
Stopped by Paper of 0.01 mm thick 1 cm of aluminum
layer
Nuclear Reactions a specially designed plant called a nuclear power reactor or simply
nuclear reactor. The chief components of a nuclear reactor are:
A nuclear reaction is that which proceeds with a change in the
composition of the nucleus resulting in the formation of an atom of a • U-235 fuel rods constitute the ‘fuel core’. The fission of U-235
new element. produces heat energy and neutrons that start the chain reaction.
Therefore, the process in which the artificial transmutation of
• Moderator slows down or moderates the neutrons. The most
a stable nuclide leads to the formation of radioactive isotope is
commonly used moderator is ordinary water. Graphite rods
called artificial radioactivity or induced radioactivity.
are sometimes used. Neutrons slow down by losing energy
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NUCLEAR due to collisions with atoms/molecules of the moderator.
REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS • Control rods control the rate of fission of U-235. These are made
Following are some of the important points, given in table, which of boron-10 or cadmium that absorbs some of the slowed neutrons.
differentiate a nuclear reaction from ordinary chemical reaction. Thus the chain reaction is prevented from going too fast.
Nuclear Fusion • Coolant cools the fuel core by removing heat produced by fission.
Water used in the reactor serves both as moderator and coolant.
Nuclear fusion refers to a nuclear reaction in which two light nuclei Heavy water (D2O) is even more efficient than light water.
fuse together to form heavy nucleus with release of large amount
of energy. • Concrete shield which protects the operating personnel and
environment from destruction in case of leakage of radiation.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear power is a major source of energy for electrical
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic generation worldwide.
nucleus (such as that of uranium) disintegrates into two nearly
equal fragments with release of large amount of energy. Hydrogen Bomb or H-Bomb
Application of Nuclear Fusion For The Benefit This destructive device makes use of the nuclear fusion of the
Of Mankind (Nuclear Reactor) isotopes of hydrogen. It consists of a small plutonium fission
bomb with a container of isotopes of hydrogen.
It has been possible to control fission of U-235 so that energy is 1
released slowly at a usable rate. Controlled fission is carried out in H2+1H3 2He 0
4+ n1+Energy
B-20 CHEMISTRY
Uses for Radioactive Substances and Radiation X-rays or even gamma sources (such as Iridium-192, Cobalt-60,
or Cesium-137) to examine hard to reach or hard to see places.
Radioactive substance and radiation have been used for the benefit This is frequently used to examine welds for defects or irregulari-
of people also. ties, or examining other materials to locate structural anomalies
Medicine or internal components.
Radionuclides are used to directly treat illnesses. For example Food Safety
radioactive iodine is used, which is taken up almost exclusively Food irradiation is the process of using radioactive sources to
by the thyroid, to treat cancer or hyperthyroidism. Radioactive sterilize foodstuffs. The radiation works by killing bacteria
tracers and dyes are also used to accurately map a specific and viruses, or eliminating their ability to reproduce by severely
area or system, such as in a cardiac stress test, which may use damaging their DNA or RNA.
a radioactive isotope like Technetium-99 to identify areas of
the heart and surrounding arteries with diminished blood flow. Archaeology
Cobalt-60 is also used to treat cancer patients. In Positron One important contribution that nuclear science has made in
emission tomography (PET), a computer imaging diagnostic this area is the ability to determine the age of ancient artifacts.
technique, radioactivity of some substances is utilized. There are several techniques for doing this, but the most common
Smoke Detectors process for dating objects of up to about 50,000 years is called
radiocarbon dating.
Some smoke detectors also use radioactive elements as part of their
detection mechanism, usually americium-241. The ionizing radiation Tracer
of the alpha particles is used to cause and then measure changes in Unstable nuclei have also been used as radioactive tracers in
the ionization of the air immediately around the detector. A change scientific research. A tracer is a radioactive element whose
due to smoke in the air will cause the alarm to sound. pathway through a chemical reaction can be followed. For ex-
Radiography ample, scientists have used carbon-14 to study many aspects of
photosynthesis. Likewise, phosphorus-32 atoms can be used to
Essentially high-powered versions of the types of X-Ray ma- trace phosphorus-containing chemicals as they move from the
chines used in medicine, industrial radiography cameras use soil into plants.
EXERCISE
1. 1 u or 1 amu means (c) there are twice as many P atoms in the molecule as
(a) 1/12th mass of C-12 atoms there are O atoms
(b) Mass of C-12 atom (d) the ratio of the mass of P to the mass of O in the
(c) Mass of O-16 atom molecule is 5 : 2
(d) Mass of Hydrogen molecule
2. Which is the symbol of the element tungsten? [NDA] 9. What mass of hydrogen and oxygen will be produced on
(a) Ta (b) Tc complete electrolysis of 18g of water?
(c) W (d) V (a) 2g hydrogen and 32g oxygen
3. What is the mass (in grams) of 3 moles of N? (b) 2g hydrogen and 16g oxygen
(a) 14 (b) 28 (c) 4g hydrogen and 32g oxygen
(c) 42 (d) 56 (d) 4g hydrogen and 14g oxygen
4. The number of molecules in one mole of a gas is
10. Which of the following statements is /are correct?
(a) 6.023 × 1023 (b) 6.023 × 1022
(c) 6.023 × 10 21 (d) 6.023 × 1020 According to Dalton’s theory
5. Valency of Cr in CrPO4 is A. An atom is the smallest particle of matter
(a) 4 (b) 3 B. An atom is the smallest particle of an element
(c) 2 (d) 1 C. An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an
6. Which of the following are the constituents of matter? element that can take part in a chemical change
A. Atoms B. Molecules D. An atom is the radioactive emission
C. Solid
(a) A, B and C (b) B, C and D
(a) A and B only (b) A and C only
(c) B and C only (d) A, B and C (c) A, C and D (d) A and D
7 The number value 6.022 × 1023 is also called 11. Which one among the following statements about an atom
(a) Dalton Number is not correct? [CDS]
(b) Avagadro’s number (a) Atoms always combine to form molecules
(c) Atomic Number (b) Atoms are the basic units from which molecules and
(d) Mass Number ions are formed
8. The molecular formula P2O5 means that
(c) Atoms are always neutral in nature
(a) a molecule contains 2 atoms of P and 5 atoms of O
(d) Atoms aggregate in large numbers to form the matter
(b) the ratio of the mass of P to the mass of O in the
that we can see, feel and touch
molecule is 2:5
12. Which one among the following is correct regarding 20Ne, 20. The number of neutrons in 7 Al27 is [NDA]
23Na+, 19F– and 24Mg2+? [CDS] (a) 40 (b) 27
(a) They are isomers of each other (c) 14 (d) 13
(b) They are isotopes of each other 21. The nucleus of a singly ionized carbon atom contains
(c) They are isoelectronic with each other [NDA]
(d) All of the above (a) 6 protons and 6 neutrons
13. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (b) 5 protons and 6 neutrons
1. Isotopes : Atoms with same atomic number but (c) 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons
different atomic mass (d) 12 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons
2. Isobars : Atoms with same number of neutrons but 22. An atom of carbon has 6 protons. Its mass number is 12. How
different atomic number many neutrons are present in an atom of carbon? [NDA]
3. Isotones : Atoms with same mass number but (a) 12 (b) 6
different atomic number (c) 10 (d) 14
Select the correct answer using the code given below : 23. What is the number of mole(s) of H2(g) required to saturate
[NDA] one mole benzene? [NDA]
Code : (a) 1 (b) 2
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 only (c) 3 (d) 4
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 only 24. How many moles of hydrogen atom are present in one mole
14. The nucleus of a singly ionized carbon atom contains of Aluminium hydroxide ? [NDA]
[NDA] (a) one mole (b) Two moles
(a) 6 protons and 6 neutrons (c) Three moles (d) Four moles
(b) 5 protons and 6 neutrons 25. Protons and neutrons are bound in a nucleus by the
(c) 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons [NDA]
(d) 12 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons
(a) short range ‘weak interaction’
15. The following questions consist of two statements, one
(b) short range ‘strong interaction’
labelled as the Assertion (A) and the other as 'Reason (R),
(c) long range ‘electromagnetic interaction’
You are to examine these two statements carefully and
(d) long range ‘gravitational interaction’
select the answers to these items using the codes given
26. Which one among the following most correctly determines
below:
Assertion (A) : Atomic weights of most of the elements the atomic number of an element? [NDA]
are not whole numbers. (a) Number of protons
Reason (R) : Atoms of most of the elements contain (b) Number of protons and electrons
mixture of isotopes having different atomic weights. (c) Number of ions
[NDA] (d) Number of nucleons
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct 27. The number of protons in a negatively charged atom
explanation of A (anion) is [NDA]
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the (a) more than the atomic number of the element
correct explanation of A (b) less than the atomic number of the element
(c) A is true but R is false (c) more than the number of elecrons in the atom
(d) A is false but R is true (d) less than the number of electrons in the atom
16. An oxide of nitrogen has molecular weight 30. What is the 28. Which one among the following is correct regarding 20Ne,
number of electrons in one molecule of the compound? 23Na+, 19F– and 24Mg2+? [NDA]
[NDA] (a) They are isomers of each other
(a) 14 (b) 15 (b) They are isotopes of each other
(c) 22 (d) 23 (c) They are isoelectronic with each other
17. What is the weight of one atom of Hydrogen in grams? (d) All of the above
(a) 6.023 × 10–23 (b) 1.66 × 10–24 29. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?
(b) 6.62 × 10 –24 (d) None of these [NDA] [NDA]
18. The atomic weights are expressed in terms of atomic mass 1. Isotopes : Atoms with same atomic number but
unit. Which one of the following is used as a standard? different atomic mass
[NDA] 2. Isobars : Atoms with same number of neutrons but
(a) 1H1 (b) 12C
6 different atomic number
(c) 16O (d) 35Cl
8 17 3. Isotones : Atoms with same mass number but
19. What is the number of water molecules present in a tiny different atomic number Select the correct
drop of water ( volume 0.0018 ml ) at room temperature? answer using the code given below :
[NDA] Code :
(a) 4.84 × 1017 (b) 4.184 × 1018 (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 only
(c) 6.023 × 1019 (d) 6.023 × 1023 (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 only
B-22 CHEMISTRY
30. Which one among the following transitions of electron 35. An a-particle consists of which of the following?
of hydrogen atom emits radiation of the shortest [CDS]
wavelength? [NDA] (a) 2 protons and 2 neutrons
(a) n = 2 to n = 1 (b) n = 3 to n = 2 (b) 1 proton and 1 electron
(c) n = 4 to n = 3 (d) n = 5 to n = 4 (c) 2 protons and 4 neutrons
31. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer (d) 1 proton and 1 neutron
using the code given below the Lists : [NDA] 36. Which one of the following is heavy water used in nuclear
List I List II reactor? [CDS]
(Scientist) (Discovery) (a) Water having molecular weight 18 u
A. Goldstein 1. Atomic theory (b) Water having molecular weight 20 u
B. Chadwick 2. Proton (c) Water at 4°C but having molecular weight 19 u
C. JJ Thomson 3. Neutron (d) Water below the ice in a frozen sea
D. John Dalton 4. Electron 37. Which one of the following is not needed in a nuclear
Code : fission reactor? [CDS]
A B C D (a) Moderator (b) Coolant
(a) 2 3 4 1 (c) Accelerator (d) Control device
(b) 2 4 3 1 38. Heavy water implies [CDS]
(c) 1 4 3 2 (a) water which is used in heavy industries such as
(d) 1 3 4 2 thermal power plants
32. Which formula gives the maximum number of electrons in (b) water which contains SO42- and CI– of calcium and
a shell? magnesium
(a) n2 (b) 2n2 (c) deuterated water
(c) 3n 2 (d) 4n2 (d) water which has maximum density
33. In which one of the following is the valence electronic 39. Age of fossil may be found out by determining the ratio of
configuration, ns2np3 found ? [NDA] two isotopes of carbon. The isotopes are [CDS]
(a) Carbon (b) Oxygen (a) C-12 and C-13 (b) C-13 and C-14
(c) Nitrogen (d) Argon (c) C-12 and C-14 (d) C-12 and carbon black
34. Which of the following isotopes of carbon is/are used in 40. Which one of the following reactions is the main cause of
carbon dating? [CDS] the energy radiation from the Sun? [CDS]
(a) 6
C 12
only (b) 6
C 13
only (a) Fusion reaction (b) Fission reaction
(c) 6
C14 only (d) 6C12 and 6C14 (c) Chemical reaction (d) Diffusion reaction
ANSWER KEY
1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (c) 4 (a) 5 (b) 6 (a) 7 (b) 8 (a) 9 (b) 10 (a)
11 (d) 12 (c) 13 (b) 14 (a) 15 (a) 16 (c) 17 (b) 18 (b) 19 (c) 20 (c)
21 (a) 22 (b) 23 (c) 24 (c) 25 (b) 26 (a) 27 (d) 28 (c) 29 (b) 30 (a)
31 (a) 32 (b) 33 (c) 34 (c) 35 (a) 36 (b) 37 (c) 38 (c) 39 (c) 40 (a)
Chapter
ELEMENTS CLASSIFICATION
3 & CHEMICAL BONDING
In 1869, Mendeleev stated his observation in the form of the following
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS statement which is known as the Mendeleev’s Periodic Law
The chemical and physical properties of elements are periodic
Four major attempts made for classification of the elements are follows: function of their atomic masses.
• Dobereiner’s Triads Mendeleev arranged the elements in the form of a table which is
• Newlands’ Law of Octaves known as the Mendeleev’s Periodic Table as below:
• Mendeleev’s Periodic Law & Periodic Tables • Elements were arranged in increasing order of their atomic
• Modern Periodic Table masses in horizontal rows till element whose properties
Dobereiner’s Triads were similar to those of the first element was came across.
In 1829, J.W. Dobereiner, a German chemist made groups of three Salient Features of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
elements each and called them triads.
• All three elements of a triad were similar in their physical The following are the main features of this periodic table:
and chemical properties. He proposed a law known as Do- • The elements are arranged in rows and columns in the pe-
bereiner’s law of triads. riodic table.
• According to this law, when elements are arranged in order of • The horizontal rows are called periods. There are six peri-
increasing atomic mass, the atomic mass of the middle element ods in the periodic table. These are numbered from 1 to 6
was nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of the other two and its (Arabic numerals). Each one of the 4th , 5th and 6th periods
properties were intermediate between those of the other two. have two series of elements.
Newlands’ Law of Octaves • All the elements present in a particular group are chemical-
ly similar in nature. They also show a regular gradation in
John Alexander Reina Newlands in 1863–64 noted that every their physical and chemical properties from top to bottom.
eighth element showed similar physical and chemical properties,
when the elements are placed in the increasing order of their Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table
atomic masses. This was called the Newlands law of octaves.
The Modern Periodic Law states that the chemical and physical
The law states that when elements are placed in the increasing order properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic num-
of atomic masses, the properties of the eighth elements are repeated. bers, i.e. if elements are arranged in the order of their increasing
atomic number, the elements with similar properties are repeated
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Periodic Table after certain regular intervals.
On arranging the elements in the increasing order of atomic The periodic table based on the modern periodic law is called the
masses, it was observed that the elements with similar properties Modern Periodic Table. Presently, the accepted modern periodic
repeat periodically. table is the Long Form of Periodic Table:
B-24 CHEMISTRY
Modern Periodic table is divided into seven horizontal rows of • These elements are good conductors of heat and electric-
elements. Each row of elements is called "PERIOD”. It has 18 ity.
vertical columns called groups. These groups are numbered 1 to
18 from the left, using Arabic numerals. Inner Transition Elements
The electron arrangements of atoms are linked to position in the These elements, also called rare-earth elements, are shown
periodic table. separately below the main periodic table. These are two series of
• Elements in the same group have the same number of 14 elements each. The first series called lanthanides consists of
electrons in their outer shell. elements having atomic number 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu). The second
• For the main group elements, the number of group is the series of 14 rare-earth elements ia called actinoids.
number of electrons in the outer shell. In all rare-earths (lanthanoids and actinoids), three outermost shells
• The number of period shows the shells of electrons the are incomplete. They are therefore called inner transition elements.
atoms have.
Handy Facts
CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS It may be noted that the element lanthanum (atomic no. 57) is
The elements in the periodic table may be broadly classified as not a lanthanoid and the element actinium (atomic no. 89) is
follows: not an actinoid.
Main Group Elements
Metals
The elements present in groups 1 and 2 on left side and groups
13 to 17 on the right side of the periodic table are called repre- Metals are present in the left hand portion of the periodic table.
sentative or main group elements. Their outermost shells have The strong metallic elements; alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs,
less than eight electrons and hence are incomplete. Fr) and alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) occupy
groups 1 and 2 respectively.
Noble Gases Non-metals
Group 18 on the extreme right side of the periodic table contains
Non-metals occupy the right hand portion of the periodic table.
noble gases. Their outermost shells contain 8 electrons except He
Strong non-metallic elements i.e. halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At) and
which contains only 2 electrons.
Their main properties are: chalcogens (O, S, Se, Te, Po) occupy group 17 and 16 respectively.
• Possesses 8 electrons in their outermost shell (except He Metalloids
which has 2 electrons).
Metalloids are located along the staircase separating the metals
Transition Elements from the nonmetals on the periodic table. Boron, silicon,
The middle block of periodic table (groups 3 to 12) contains germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium all have metal and
transition elements. Their two outermost shells are incomplete. nonmetal properties.
Since these elements represent a transition (change) from the most
Trends in a Periodic Table (Periodic Properties)
electropositive element to the most electronegative element, they
are named as transition elements. Definite trends of certain properties of the elements are observed
Their important properties are as follows: in the periodic table. These properties are called periodic prop-
• All these elements are metals having high melting and erties. The following table depicts and describes the important
boiling points. periodic property and their variations:
Periodic property Definition Variation

Along a period Down a
group
Atomic Radius Half of the distance between the centers of Decreases Increases
two atoms of that element that are just
touching each other
Ionization Energy Energy required to completely remove an Increases Decreases
electron from a gaseous atom or ion.
Electron Affinity Energy change that occurs when an elec- Increases (except for Noble Gas whose
tron is added to a gaseous atom Electron Affinity is near Zero)
Electronegativity Measure of the attraction of an atom for Increase Decreases

the electrons in a chemical bond.
Metallic Character Used to define the chemical properties that Decreases Increases
metallic elements present.
Elements Classification & Chemical Bonding B-25
Properties of Ionic Compounds

CHEMICAL BONDING AND REACTIONS Ionic compounds contain ions (cations and anions) which are held
together by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction. They show
Chemical Bond may be defined as a force that acts between two the following general characteristic properties:
or more atoms to hold them together as a stable molecule. High melting and boiling points: Ionic bonds are very strong. A
• Bonds can be formed between atoms of the same element, lot of energy is needed to break them. So ionic compounds have
or between atoms of different elements. high melting and boiling points.
LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE Conductive when liquid: Ionic compounds can only conduct elec-
tricity if their ions are free to move. Ionic compounds do not conduct
A Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element and one electricity when they are solid. But these compounds conduct electric-
dot for each valence electron in an atom of the element. The Lewis ity when dissolved in water or melted.
dot structure of few elements are given below:
.. .. Handy Facts
. . . . .
.Li . Be . B . C . : N . : O . : F . : Ne : Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. The
. . . .. .. .. melting point of sodium chloride is 1074 K (801°C) and its
boiling point is 1686K (1413°C). The melting and boiling points
OCTET RULE of ionic compounds are high because of the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction present between the ions. .
Noble gases namely helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and
radon do not react with other elements to form compounds i.e. Covalent Bond
they are non-reactive.
The term "covalent bond" came into use in 1939 first given by
Electronic configuration of Noble gases
Langmuir.
Name Symbol Atomic Electronic No. of A covalent bond is a chemical link between two atoms or ions
No. Configuration electrons where the electron pairs are shared between them. A covalent
in the bond may also be termed as molecular bond.
outermost Properties of covalent molecular compounds
cell • Low melting points and boiling points: A relatively small
Helium He 2 2 2 amount of energy is required to overcome the weak attractions
Neon Ne 10 2,8 8 between covalent molecules, so these compounds melt and
boil at much lower temperatures than metallic and ionic
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8 8
compounds do.
Krypton Kr 36 2,8,8,8 8 • Low enthalpies of fusion and vapourisation: These proper-
Xenon Xe 54 2,8,18,18,8,8 8 ties are usually smaller than they are for ionic compounds.
Radon Rn 86 2,8,18,32,18,8 8 • Soft or brittle solid forms: The weak intermolecular forces
It has been concluded that make the solid form of covalent molecular compounds easy
• Atoms having 8 electrons in their outermost shell are very to distort or break.
stable and they don’t form compounds. • Poor electrical and thermal conductivity: Covalent mo-
• Other atoms such as hydrogen, sodium, chlorine, etc. which lecular compounds do not conduct electricity well.
do not have 8 electrons in their outermost shell undergo
Handy Facts
chemical reactions. They can stabilize by combining with
Because of the weak forces of attraction present between
each other and attain the above configurations of noble
discrete molecules, called intermolecular forces, the covalent
gases, i.e. 8 electrons (or 2 electrons in case of helium) in
compounds exist as a gas or a liquid or a solid. For example
their outermost shells.
O2, N2, CO2 are gases; water and CCl4 are liquids and iodine
• Thus, atoms tend to attain a configuration in which they have
is a solid.
8 electrons in their outermost shells. This is the basic cause
of chemical bonding. The melting points and boiling points of covalent compounds
This attainment of eight electrons for stable structure is called are lower than those of ionic compounds. For example, melting
the octet rule. The octet rule explains the chemical bonding in point of naphthalene which is a covalent compound is 353 K
many compounds. (80°C).Similarly, the boiling point of carbon tetrachloride which
is another covalent liquid compound is 350 K (77°C).
TYPES OF BONDING
Types of covalent bonds
Ionic Bonding • Nonpolar covalent bond: A bond between two nonmetal
The chemical bond formed by transfer of electron from a metal to atoms that have the same electronegativity and therefore
a nonmetal is known as ionic or electrovalent bond. have equal sharing of the bonding electron pair.
Example: • Polar covalent bond: A bond between two nonmetal atoms
When sodium metal and chlorine gas are brought into contact, that have different electronegativities and therefore have
they react violently and we obtain sodium chloride. This reaction unequal sharing of the bonding electron pair.
is shown below: Polar Molecule: A molecule in which the bond dipoles present do
2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl(s) not cancel each other out and thus results in a molecular dipole.
B-26 CHEMISTRY
Co-ordinate Covalent Bond Balancing Chemical Equations
Boron reacts with the halogens to form a class of compounds hav- According to Law of conservation of mass, the mass and the
ing the general formula BX3, where X is a halogen atom. These are number of atoms present in the reactant(s) should be equal to the
examples of compounds having incomplete octets. mass and number of atoms present in product(s).
This type of bond is called a coordinate covalent bond (also The Equation can be balanced by placing the appropriate
referred to as dative bond), defined as a covalent bond in which coefficient (2 in this case) in front of H2 and H2O:
one of the atoms donates both electrons. 2H2+O2 2H2O
This balanced chemical equation shows that “two hydrogen
Exceptions to Octet Rule molecules can combine or react with one oxygen molecule to
The octet rule applies mainly to the second-period elements. form two water molecules”.
However there are certain exceptions to the octet rules. That is Handy Facts
there are certain compounds in which the octet rule is not satisfied. STP in chemistry is the abbrivation for standard temperature and
Exceptions to the octet rule fall into three categories: pressure. STP is most commonly used when performing calculation
An odd number of electrons on gases, such as gas density. The standard temperature is 273K
(0° celsius or 32° Fahrenheit) and the standard pressure is 1
There are some molecules containing an odd number of electrons.
atmospheric (atm.) pressure.
For example, nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). As
we need an even number of electrons for complete pairing (to Types of Chemical Reactions
reach eight), the octet rule clearly cannot be satisfied for all the
The types of Camical Reaction are discussed below with ex-
atoms in any of these molecules. Odd-electron molecules are
amples.
sometimes called radicals.
More than eight electrons around the central atom • Combination reactions
Atoms of the second-period elements cannot have more than eight In combination reactions, as the name indicates, two or more
valence electrons around the central atom, but atoms of elements substances (elements or compounds) simply combine to form a
in and beyond the third period of the periodic table form some new substance. For example, when a substance burns it combines
compounds in which more than eight electrons surround the central with oxygen present in the air.
atom. That is the central atom has expanded octet. One example • Decomposition reactions
of such a compound is SF6. A decomposition reaction is the one in which a compound
Metallic Bonding decomposes into two or more than two substances (elements
The structures formed by metals are held together by metallic bond. or compounds). For example, lime stone when heated gives
• Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer lime and carbon dioxide.
shells of the metal atoms are free to move. • Displacement reaction
• The metallic bond is the force of attraction between these free The displacement reaction is one in which one element displaces
electrons and positive metal ions. another element from its compounds.
Handy Facts • Double displacement reaction
Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat, because the The reactions in which mutual exchange of radicals takes place
free electrons carry a charge or heat energy through the metal. are known as double decomposition reactions. As a result of
The free electrons allow metal atoms to slide over each other, double decomposition reactions two new substances are formed.
so metals are malleable and ductile Oxidation and reduction reaction
When a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be
Intermolecular Forces Between Molecules
oxidized and when a substance loses oxygen during a reaction,
A hydrogen bond is the attractive force between the hydrogen it is said to be reduced.
attached to an electronegative atom of one molecule and an elec- Thus in this reaction, during the reaction process, one reactant gets
tronegative atom of a different molecule. oxidized while the other gets reduced. Such reactions are called
Van der Wall’s forces are forces of attraction which exist be- oxidation reduction reaction or Redox Reactions.
tween all atoms and molecules. These forces result from weak There is no oxidation without reduction and there is no reduction
electrostatic attraction between temporary dipoles and induced without oxidation, i.e oxidation and reduction take place
dipoles caused by movement of electrons in atoms and molecules. simultaneously.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL As per modern concept, oxidation and reduction is explained in
terms of loss and gain of electrons not in terms of gain and loss
EQUATIONS of oxygen and hydrogen.
Chemical changes result from chemical reactions taking place • Oxidation is loss of electrons.
between different substances. It is a process in which a substance • Reduction is gain of electrons.
(or substances) is changed into one or more new substances.
In chemical reaction, the substance which undergoes a chemical OXIDATION NUMBER
change is called the reactant and the substance which is formed Oxidation Number shows the total number of electrons which
as a result of a chemical change is called the product. have been removed from an element (a positive oxidation state)
or added to an element (a negative oxidation state) to get to its that of the rusting of steel. Corrosion processes are usually
present state. electrochemical in nature.
By knowing how the oxidation number of an element changes dur-
ing a reaction, we can tell whether it is being oxidised or reduced. Factors Influencing Corrosion
• Increase in oxidation number is oxidation Following factors influence the corrosion. These are the
• Decrease in oxidation number is reduction. • Reactivity of metals
Rules to Calculate Oxidation Numbers • Presence of moisture and atmospheric gases like CO2 , SO2
etc.
• The oxidation number for an atom of any free (uncombined) • Presence of impurities.
element is ZERO. • Strains in the metal
Examples: Na, Mg have zero oxidation number. • Presence of electrolyte.
• The oxidation number of an element in self-combination is
always ZERO. Methods to Prevent Corrosions :
Examples: H2, Cl2, P4 have zero oxidation number. • To minimize corrosion, protective coatings are applied to
• In most hydrogen containing compounds, oxidation number prevent the direct contact of moisture and oxygen with
of hydrogen is +1. (Exception is when H combines with the metal. This process is called galvanising. It involves
alkali metals or alkaline earth to form hydrides of metals coating of Zn metal on iron surface.
such as: NaH, LiH, CaH2. Then, the oxidation number of • Electrochemical principles can also be applied to inhibit
H is -1). corrosion. This is known as cathodic protection.
• In compounds involving the alkali metals, the elements are • Another way to protect iron and other metals from oxidation
assigned oxidation number of +1. is to coat them with a corrosion-resistant metal, such as
• In combinations of non-metals not involving hydrogen chromium, platinum or gold. This process of coating one
and oxygen, the nonmetal that is more electronegative is metal with another by electrolysis is called electroplating.
considered negative.
Rancidity
REDOX REACTION IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE What we perceive is an unpleasant change in the flavor and odour
Redox reactions are very important in our lives. Two very com- of a food, called rancidity. Unsaturated fats are more susceptible
mon phenomena- corrosion and rancidity are results of redox to oxidation than are saturated fats. Factors which accelerate
reactions. These are discussed below: fat oxidation include trace metals (iron, zinc, etc.), salt, light,
water, bacteria, and molds. Fat oxidation can be retarded by
Corrosion: use of antioxidants (Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit
For most of us, Corrosion is the degradation of metals and is chemical reactions with oxygen such as BHT, BHA, vitamin E,
often called rust. Chemically we can define it as an irreversible and vitamin C), by use of spices such as sage and rosemary, and
interfacial reaction of a material (metal, ceramic, polymer) with by use of light and/or air tight wrapping.
its environment which results in consumption of the material.
Most metals corrode on contact with water (and moisture in ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL
the air), acids, bases, salts, oils, aggressive metal polishes, and REACTIONS
other solid and liquid chemicals. Metals will also corrode when
exposed to gaseous materials like acid vapors, formaldehyde When chemical reactions take place they are often accompanied
gas, ammonia gas, and sulphur containing gases. Corrosion by heat changes.
specifically refers to any process involving the deterioration • Exothermic reactions give out energy to the surroundings.
or degradation of metal components. The best known case is • Endothermic reactions take energy from the surroundings.
EXERCISE
1. The early attempt to classify elements as metals and non- 5. On the basis of following features identify correct option
metals was made by A. Gaps were left for undiscovered elements
(a) Mendeleev (b) Lother Meyer B. No correct position of hydrogen
(c) Lavoisier (d) Henry Moseley C. The isotopes of same element will be given different
2. The long form of periodic table consists of position
(a) seven periods and eight groups (a) Mendeleev's periodic table
(b) seven periods and eighteen groups (b) Modern periodic table
(c) Newland's arrangement of elements
(c) eight periods and eighteen groups
(d) Both (a) and (b)
(d) eighteen periods and eight groups 6. According to Newland’s law of octaves, which element is
3. Which one of the following is most electropositive element? the repetition of the first element in the periodic table?
(a) Sodium (b) Calcium (a) Oxygen (b) Nitrogen
(c) Aluminium (d) Silicon (c) Chlorine (d) Sulphur
4. Which of the following is not isoelectronic with O2– ? 7. Which one of the following is a diagonally related pair?
(a) N3– (b) Na+ (a) H, Be (b) Na, Mg
(c) F– (d) Ti+ (c) B, Si (d) K, Ca
B-28 CHEMISTRY
8. Which element is more electronegative among halogens? (a) F < O < N < C (b) C < N < C < F
(a) Br (b) Cl (c) C < N < F < O (d) C < N < O < F
(c) F (d) I 23. Consider the following statements with reference to the
9. Which of the following is correct set of Dobereiner Triads? periodic table of chemical elements: [IAS Prelim]
(a) Na, Si, Cl (b) Be, Mg, Ca 1. Ionisation potential gradually decreases along a
(c) F, Cl, I (d) Li, Na, Be period
10. On moving horizontally across a period, the number of 2. In a group of elements, electron affinity decreases as
electrons in the outermost shell increases from ...... to ....... the atomic weight increases
(a) 2, 8 (b) 2, 18 3. In a given period, electronegativity decreases as the
(c) 1, 8 (d) 1, 18 atomic number increases
11. Which of the following elements A, B, C, D and E with Which of these statement (s) is/are correct?
atomic number 3, 11, 15, 18 and 19 respectively belong to (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
the same group? (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
(a) A, B, C (b) B, C, D
24. The octet rule is not valid for which one of the following
(c) A, D, E (d) A, B, E
molecules? [NDA]
12. Which of the following statement is not true about noble
gases? (a) CO2 (b) H2S
(a) They are non-metallic in nature (c) NH3 (d) BF3
(b) They exist in atomic form 25. The rusting of iron nail [CDS]
(c) They are radioactive in nature (a) decreases its weight
(d) Xenon is the most reactive among them (b) increases its weight
13. Which among the following atoms has high atomic radi? (c) does not affect weight but iron is oxidised
(a) Na (b) Rb (d) does not affect weight but iron is reduced
(c) K (d) Cs 26. Which one of the following when dissolved in H2O gives
14. Which of the following is an actinide? hissing sound? [CDS]
(a) Plutonium (b) Polonium (a) Limestone (b) Slaked lime
(c) Promethium (d) Palladium (c) Sodalime (d) Quicklime
15. Which one of these group of elements is also called the 27. Consider the following statements:
halogen family? 1. Maximum covalency of carbon is 4, whereas maximum
(a) Group 16 (b) Group 18 covalency of silicon is 6.
(c) Group 10 (d) Group 17 2. The maximum covalency of an element is limited to 6.
16. The elements with atomic numbers 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
86 are all – [NDA]
(a) halogens (b) noble gases
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) noble metals (d) light metals
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
17. Which one of the following properties changes with
valency? [CDS ] 28. An ionic compound when dissolved in water has produced
(a) Atomic weight (b) Equivalent weight m An–, n Bm– ions. What is the formula of the compound
(c) Molecular weight (d) Density ? [NDA]
18. The elements of a group in the periodic tabic (a) AmBn (b) AnBm
[CDS ] (c) AmBm (d) AnBn
(a) have similar chemical properties 29. What are the types of bonds present in CuSO4.5H2O ?
(b) have consecutive atomic numbers [NDA]
(c) are isobars (a) Electrovalent and covalent
(d) are isotopes (b) Electrovalent and coordinate covalent
19. Which element forms the highest number of compounds (c) Electrovalent, covalent, coordinate covalent and
in the periodic table? [CDS] hydrogen bonds
(a) Carbon (b) Oxygen (d) Covalent and coordinate covalent
(c) Silicon (d) Sulphur 30. Consider the following equation for the formation of
20. Which one of the following is not a periodic property i.e., ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen: [NDA]
does not show any trend on moving from one side to the N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3
other in the periodic table? [CDS] How many hydrogen molecules are required to react with
(a) Atomic size (b) Valency 100 molecules of nitrogen?
(c) Radioactivity (d) Electronegativity (a) 100 (b) 200
21. Which one of the following elements is a metalloid? (c) 300 (d) 400
[NDA] 31. As compared to covalent compounds, electrovalent
(a) P (b) Al compounds, generally have [NDA]
(c) As (d) Po (a) low melting point and low boiling point
22. What is the correct increasing order of electronegativity (b) low melting point and high boiling point
for the most common oxidation states among the following (c) high melting point and low boiling point
elements ? [NDA] (d) high melting point and high boiling point
32. Calcium carbonate is naturally available as limestone and 36. Most of the explosions in mines occur due to the mixing of
can also be synthesized from quick lime. It is seen that [IAS Prelim]
the compositions of the elements in both the natural and (a) hydrogen with oxygen
synthetic calcium carbonate are same. The validity of (b) oxygen with acetylene
which one among the following laws is confirmed by this (c) methane with air
observation? [NDA] (d) carbon dioxide with ethane
(a) Law of conservation of mass 37. Match List-I (Oxidation number) with List II (The element)
(b) Law of definite proportion and select the correct answer using the codes given below
(c) Law of multiple proportion the lists : [IAS Prelim]
(d) Avogadro’s law List-I List-II
33. This question consist of two statements, Statement I and (Oxidation number) (The elements)
Statement II. You are to examine these two statements A. 2 1. Oxidation number of
Mn in MnO2
carefully and select the answer to these items using the
B. 3 2. Oxidation number of
codes given below.
S in H2S2O7
Statement I : Conversion of blue copper sulphate to black C. 4 3. Oxidation number of
cupric oxide on heating is a physical change. Ca in CaO
Statement II : A change in which chemical composition D. 6 4. Oxidation number of
does not change is called physical change. [NDA] Al in NaAlH4
(a) Both the statements individually true and Statement Codes:
II is the correct explanation of Statement I. (a) A-3; B-4; C-1; D-2 (b) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
(b) Both the statements are individually true but (c) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-1 (d) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1
Statement II is not correct explanation of Statement I. 38. If a limestone piece is dipped in water, a bubble evolves.
(c) Statement I is true but Statement II is false. The bubbling is due to [CDS]
(d) Statement I is false but Statement II is true. (a) hydrogen (b) oxygen
34. In KMnO4 molecule, the oxidation states of the elements (c) water vapour (d) carbon dioxide
Potassium (K), Manganese (Mn) and Oxygen (O) are 49. Which one of the following reducing agents can also act as
respectively an oxidising agent?
[NDA] [CDS]
(a) +1, +5, – 2 (b) +1, +7, – 2 (a) H2 (b) H2S
(c) 0, 0, 0 (d) +1, +7, 0 (c) SO2 (d) HI
35. In the reaction 4Fe + 3O2 → 4Fe3+ + 6O 2− 40. A woman desires to clean the surface of her gold
[NDA] ornaments by a chemical approach. For this she requires
Which of the following statements is incorrect? to use [CDS]
(a) It is a redox reaction (a) aqua-regia
(b) Metallic iron acts as a reducing agent (b) concentrated H2SO4
(c) O2 acts as an oxidising agent (c) concentrated NaOH
(d) Metallic iron is reduced to Fe3+ (d) sodium thiosulphate solution
ANSWER KEY
1 (c) 2 (b) 3 (a) 4 (d) 5 (a) 6 (a) 7 (c) 8 (c) 9 (b)
10 (c) 11 (d) 12 (c) 13 (d) 14 (a) 15 (d) 16 (b) 17 (b) 18 (a)
19 (a) 20 (c) 21 (c) 22 (d) 23 (b) 24 (d) 25 (b) 26 (d) 27 (a)
28 (a) 29 (c) 30 (c) 31 (d) 32 (b) 33 (d) 34 (b) 35 (d) 36 (b)
37 (a) 38 (d) 39 (c) 40 (a)
Chapter
ACIDS, BASES,
4 SALTS & METALS
Classes of Bronsted Acids and Bases
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS Bronsted acids can be classified as per its capacity to furnish
protons as follows:
Some naturally occurring substances that contain acids are given • Monoprotic acids are capable of donating one proton only,
in the following table: • Polyprotic acids are capable of donating two or more
Substances Acid present protons, e.g. H2SO4, H3PO4, carbonic acid (H2CO3), hy-
drosulphuric acid, etc.
Orange, lemon Citric acid,ascorbic acid (vitamin c) • Monoprotic bases can accept one proton.
Apple Malic acid • Polyprotic bases can accept two or more protons, e.g.
anions of diprotic and triprotic acids.
Tamarind Tartaric acid
Strength of Bronsted Acids and Bases
Vinegar Acetic acid
The strength of a Bronsted acid depends upon its tendency to
Curd Lactic acid donate a proton. The strength of a Bronsted base depends on its
ability to accept a proton.
Tomato Oxalic acid
For example, HCl is nearly 100% ionised in water. Its reaction
Gastric juice Hydrochloric acid with water can be depicted by the equation:
Tea Tannic acid

Red ants Formic acid
• Robert Boyle was the first scientist to term substances as acid
and base based on different characteristics of substances.
Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in the late nineteenth century
first attempted to explain the behaviour of acids and bases from
their chemical structure. The above reaction has proceeded almost completely to the right;
that indicates that HCl has a strong tendency to lose a proton. Also,
the base H2O has a strong ability to accept a proton. The overall
CONCEPTS OF ACIDS AND BASES situation is that the acid and base on the left are each stronger than
Arrhenius Concept the conjugate acid and conjugate base on the right. That is why the
equilibrium is displaced to the right. Thus it may be stated that:
According to Arrhenius, an acid is a compound that releases H+ • a strong acid has a weak conjugate base
ions in water; and a base is a compound that releases OH– ions • a strong base has a weak conjugate acid
in water. Strong Acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO3, HClO4
Bronsted–Lowry Concept Strong Bases: Alkali metal hydroxides, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2,
Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
In 1923 J.N. Bronsted and J.M. Lowry independently proposed
a broader concept of acids and bases. According to this concept, Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases
• An acid is any molecule or ion that can donate a proton (H+) In the early 1930s, G.N. Lewis gave an even a more general model
• A base is any molecule or ion that can accept a proton of acids and bases. According to Lewis theory:
• An acid is a proton donor while a base is a proton acceptor. • an acid is an electron-pair acceptor
• Water that accepts a proton is a Bronsted base. • a base is an electron-pair donor
Lewis visualized an acid and base as sharing the electron pair
Conjugate Acid-Base pairs provided by the base. As a result a covalent bond (or coordinate
An important concept that emanates from Bronsted-Lowry con- bond) between the Lewis acid and the Lewis base is formed. The
cept is conjugate acid-base pairs. In an acid-base reaction the resulting combination is called a Complex.
acid (HA) gives up its proton (H+) and produces a new base (A–).
• The new base that is related to the original acid is called a pH SCALE-THE MEASURE OF ACIDITY
conjugate (meaning related) base.
• Similarly the original base (B–) after accepting a proton (H+) The concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in aqueous solutions are
gives a new acid (HB) which is called a conjugate acid. frequently very small and hence not convenient to work with.
Acids, Bases, Salts & Metals B-31
• It was Danish chemist Soren Sorensen who in 1909 proposed Types of Buffer Solution
a more useful quantity called pH. The pH of a solution is
• Acidic buffer : Acidic buffer solution contains equimolar
defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
quantities of a weak acid and its salt with strong base. For example,
concentration (in mol/L): acetic acid (CH3COOH) and sodium acetate (CH3COONa). A
pH = –log[H3O+] or pH = –log [H+] solution containing equimolar quantities of acetic acid and sodium
• The above equation gives a convenient numbers to work acetate maintains its pH value around 4.74.
with. The negative logarithm gives a positive number for pH, • Basic buffer : Basic buffer solution contains equimolar
which otherwise would be negative due to the small value quantities of a weak base and its salt with a strong acid. For
of [H+].The pH of a solution is a dimensionless quantity. example, ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and ammonium
• pH is simply a way to express hydrogen ion concentration, chloride (NH4Cl).
acidic and basic solutions at 250C can be distinguished by • SALTS
their pH values, as follows:
• A pOH scale analogous to the pH scale can be devised using A salt is an ionic compound which dissociates to yield a positive
the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration ion other than hydrogen ion [H+] and a negative ion other than
of a solution. Thus, we define pOH as: hydroxide ion [OH–]
pOH = –log [OH–] Example :
• In general, from the definitions it follows that NaCl → Na+ + Cl– (fused/ Aq. soln)
pH + pOH = 14.00 Classification of Salts
• The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 on this scale. pH 7 is con-
sidered neutral, below 7 acidic and above 7 basic. Farther • Acidic Salt : If a polybasic acid (Example, H2SO4, H3PO4,
from 7, more acidic or basic the solution is. H2SO3 etc.) is neutralised partly by a base, the salt formed
is acidic.
pH in Humans and Animals • Normal Salt : In case the acid and base neutralise
Most of the biochemical reactions taking place in our body are completely the salt formed is a normal salt.
in a narrow pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Even a small change in pH • Basic Salts : This type of salts are formed by incomplete
hampers the processes. Any condition in which blood pH drops neutralization of a base with an acid or by partial replacement of
below 7.35 is known as acidosis, if pH rises above 7.45-then it hydroxy radicals of a diacids or triacidic base with an acid radical.
is called alkalosis. Examples :
Acid Rain Cu(OH)NO3 - Basic copper nitrate.
When the pH of rain water goes below 5.6, it is called acid rain. • Double Salt - Such a salt is formed by mixing saturated
Acid rain is a major environmental disaster. solution of two simple salts followed by crystallisation of
the saturated solution.
pH in Plants
Example:
Soils need to be of optimum pH for plants to have an adequate
growth .It should be neither highly alkaline nor highly acidic. FeSO4 (NH4)2SO46H2O (Mohr’s salt) is a mixture of FeSO4
(Simple salt) and (NH4)2SO4 (Simple salt)
In digestive system • Mixed Salts - There is no general method for the formation
pH plays an important part in the digestion of food. Our stomach of this type of salt.
produces hydrochloric acid (formic acid) which helps in digestion Examples: Sodium potassium sulphate NaKSO4 (two basic
of food. When we eat spicy food, stomach produces too much of radicals, Na+, K+)
acid which causes ‘acidity’ i.e. irritation and sometimes pain too. In • Complex salt - Such a salt is formed by mixing saturated
order to get cured from this we use ‘antacids’ which are bases like solution of simple salts followed by crystallisation of the
‘milk of magnesia’ (suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water). solution similar to double salts.
Self-defence of Animals and Plants SOME COMMON USEFUL SALTS
Bee sting causes severe pain and burning sensation. It is due to
the presence of methanoic acid (formic acid) in it. Use of a mild A large number of salts are useful for our homes and industry for
base like baking soda can provides relief from pain. Some plants various purposes. Some are discussed below:
like ‘nettle plant’ have fine stinging hair which inject methanoic Baking Soda
acid into the body of any animal or human being that comes in
its contact. Chemically baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate; NaHCO3.
• It is an important part of food.
• Baking soda is manufactured by Solvay’s process.
BUFFER SOLUTIONS • It is mainly used for manufacturing washing soda but baking
Generally pH of an aqueous solution decreases on addition of a soda is obtained as an intermediate.
small amount of HCl because of the increase in the concentration • On heating, sodium hydrogen carbonate is converted into
of H+ ions. On the other hand, if a small amount of NaOH is sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide is given off:
added, the pH of the solution increases. However, there are 2NaHCO3 heat Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2↑
some solutions which resist the change in pH on addition of Uses:
small amount of strong acid or alkali. Such solutions are called • It is used as a component of baking powder.
buffer solutions. For example, solution of ammonium acetate, • It is used as a tenderizer and leavening agent in baking (In
blood, a equimolar mixture of NH4OH + NH4Cl, CH3COOH + combination with a liquid and acid it releases CO2 )
CH3COONa, etc.
B-32 CHEMISTRY
• It is used as deodorizer because of its neutralizing action. • Causticisation process(Gossage process)
• It is used in laundry work for enhancing the detergents • Castner Kellner cell
effectiveness because it stabilizes the pH level (acts as a buffer) • Chlor-Alkali process
• It is used in fire extinguishers. Baking soda undergoes a
chemical reaction that gives off CO2 that makes it useful in Handy Facts
extinguishing small grease or electrical fires. Some properties of NaOH are:
heat • NaOH (Caustic soda) is a white translucent solid available
2NaHCO3 
→ Na 2CO3 + H 2O + CO2 ↑
in pellets, flakes and granules as 50% saturated solution.
• It is used as abrasive cleaner. • Its solution when exposed to air reacts with atmospheric
CO2 and form a crust of Na2CO3 at the surface.
Washing Soda
• Washing soda is used for washing of clothes. Chemi- Uses:
cally, washing soda is sodium carbonate decahydrate, • It is used in many industries, mostly as a strong chemical
Na2CO3.10H2O. base in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles,
• Washing soda is manufactured by Solvay’s process. soaps, dyes, cellulose, detergents etc.
Uses • It is used in petroleum refining.
• It is used in the manufacture of caustic soda, glass, soap Sodium Carbonate
powders, borax and in paper industry.
• For removing permanent hardness of water. Also called soda ash, its chemical formula is Na2CO3
• As a cleansing agent for domestic purpose. It exists in various forms, namely anhydrous sodium carbonate
Na2CO3 (Soda-ash). Monohydrate Na2CO3.H2O (crystal
Plaster of Paris
carbonate), heptahydrate. Na2CO3.7H2O and decahydrate
Also called POP, chemically, it is 2CaSO4.H2O or CaSO4.1/2H2O Na2CO3.10H2O (washing soda or sal soda)
(calcium sulphate hemi hydrate) Sodium carbonate is generally prepared now a days by ammonia
• Gypsum, (CaSO4.2H2O) is used as the raw material to
soda or Solvay process. The ingredients of this process are
manufacture POP.
• The only difference between gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and readily available and inexpensive. These are Salt brine (NaCl)
plaster of Paris (CaSO4.1/2H2O) is the less amount of water (from sea), ammonia (NH3) and lime stone CaCO3 (from mines).
of crystallization. The process consists of many sections, CaCl2 is an important
Uses by–product obtained.
• In medicine, used for making plaster casts to hold fractured
bones in place while they set. It is also used for making Uses:
casts in dentistry. • It is used for softening of hard water. For this purpose
• For making fire proof materials. hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O known as
Bleaching Powder washing soda is used.
Bleaching is a process of removing colour from a cloth to make • A mixture of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and potassium
it whiter. Bleaching powder has been used for this purpose since carbonate (K2CO3) is used as fusion mixture.
long. Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride CaOCl2. • It is used in paper, paint and textile industries
Uses: • It is used for the manufacture of glass, borax, soap and
• Used in textile industry for bleaching of clothes. caustic soda (NaOH)
• In paper industry for bleaching of wood pulp.
• It makes wool unshrinkable.
• Used as disinfectant and germicide for sterilization of drink- PROPERTIES, EXTRACTION AND USES OF METALS
ing water and swimming pool water. Out of 118 chemical elements known till date, 103 has been well
• For the manufacture of chloroform(CHCl3) characterized in terms of their properties. The systematic clas-
• Used as an oxidizing agent in chemical industry. sification of these 103 elements shows their numbers as:
Sodium Hydroxide • Metals=79
Also known as Caustic Soda, chemically it is NaOH.Industrial • Non-metals=17
methods of its production are: • And metalloids=7
COMPARISON OF METALS AND NON-METALS

Metals and non-metals differ both in physical and chemical properties.
The characteristic physical properties of metals and non-metals are listed in following table:
Serial
Metals Non-metals
No.
Metals have luster. They reflect light from
1 Non-metals do not have luster( exceptions – Diamond and Iodine )
polished or freshly cut surface
2 Metals generally have high density. Non-metals generally have low density.
They are usually bad conductors of heat

3 They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(exception – carbon in the form of gas carbon and graphite )
Metals are malleable and ductile. They can be Non-metals are not malleable and
4
beaten into thin sheets and drawn into wires. ductile. They can be crushed into powder.
They have a three dimensional crystal structure They have different types of structures
5
with metallic bonds with covalent and van-der-Waals’ bonds
Non- metals are generally soft (Exception:

6 Metals are generally hard.
Diamond)
Metals generally have 1 to 3 electrons in their Non-metals generally have 4 to 8
7
outermost shell in their outermost shell of the atom.
8 They show valency 1 to 4. They show valency 1 to 7.
9 They are electropositive in nature. They are electronegative in nature.
10 They generally form basic oxides. They generally form acidic oxides.
11 They act as reducing agents. They act as oxidizing agents.
12 Active metals react with cold and hot water. Non-metals usually do not react with cold or hot water.
Active metals react with non- oxidizing acids
13 Solid non-metals react with oxidizing acids to form hydrogen gas.
to form their oxides or oxyacids.
They react with non-metals under different They react with metals as well as non metals under different condi-
14
conditions to form salts. tions to form salts.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL Sn(s) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2O (l) → Na2SnO3

sodium stannate
The chemical reactions undergone by metals are furnished below: Zn(s) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2ZnO2
Reaction with Oxygen Sodium zincate
REACTIVITY SERIES
Most of the metals react with oxygen and form oxides. The A metal that can lose electrons more easily in comparison to other
reaction may take place without heating as in sodium, calcium metal is more electropositive and would be more active in nature
or potassium, while some metals react with oxygen on heating to then other metal. Such a metal when dipped in a solution of salt
form oxides. of a less active metal would displace it.
• Oxides of metals are basic in nature as they react with water The arrangement of metals in the decreasing order of their activ-
and form bases, e.g. Na2O, CaO, MgO, K2O, etc. ity is known as activity or reactivity series. It is also known as
• Oxides of aluminium (Al2O3), zinc (ZnO), tin (SnO) and iron electrochemical series.
(Fe2O3) are amphoteric in nature as they react with acids as
well as with bases. EXTRACTION OF METALS-METALLURGY
Reaction of Metals with Acids The process of extraction of metal from its ore is called metal-
lurgy.
Metals react with common acids like dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4
• Minerals are naturally occurring compounds of metals.
with evolution of H2. • Ores are those minerals from which metals can be economi-
Reaction of Metals with Water cally extracted.
Examples
Many metals react with water to form hydroxides. Hydroxides • Aluminum is the most common metal in the Earth’s crust,
are basic in nature. Sodium and potassium react with cold water. occurring in all sorts of minerals. However, it isn’t ec onomi-
• Magnesium reacts with hot water cally worthwhile to extract it from most of these minerals.
Mg(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) Instead, the usual ore of aluminum is bauxite - which con-
• Metals like Al or Fe react on heating with water or with tains from 50 - 70% of aluminium oxide.
steam. In these conditions metals form metal oxides.
Examples of Ores
Reaction of Metals with Common Bases Some important ores and the metals present in these ores are
Some metals like aluminum and zinc react with common bases. listed in the following table:
B-34 CHEMISTRY
Type of ore Metals

Native Metals (Found in Free State) Gold (Au), silver (Ag)
Oxide ores Iron (Haematite, Fe2O3); Aluminium (Bauxite, Al2O3. 2H2O); Tin(Cassiterite, SnO2); Cop-
per Cuprite, Cu2O); Zinc (Zincite, ZnO); Titanium (Ilmenite, FeTiO3, Rutile, TiO2)
Sulphide ores Zinc (Zinc blende, ZnS); Lead (Galena, PbS); Copper (Copperglance, Cu2S); Silver (Silver
glance or Argentite, Ag2S); Iron(Ironpyrites, FeS2)
Carbonate ores Iron (Siferite, FeCO3); Zinc (Calamine, ZnCO3), Lead (Cerrusite, PbCO3)
Sulphate ores Lead(Anglesite, PbSO4)

Halide ores Silver (Horn silver, AgCl); Sodium (Common salt or Rock salt,NaCl); Aluminium(Cryolite,
Na3AlF6)
Silicate ores Zinc (Hemimorphite, 2ZnO.SiO2.H2O)
The method used to extract metals from the ore in which they are found depends on their reactivity.
Steps Involved in the Extraction of Metals from • Ores of metals like zinc, lead, copper and nickel, when
Ores roasted in air, are converted to their oxides.
• The purpose of roasting is to convert the ore in a form suit-
Metallurgical Steps able to reduce. The gaseous product of sulphide roasting,
sulphur dioxide is often used to produce sulphuric acid.
Few steps involved in extracting the metal as shown above are
The differences between roasting and calcinations are given in
discussed below:
the following table:
Concentrating the Ore
Reducing the metal compound to the metal
This means getting rid of as much of the unwanted rocky material
(called gangue or matrix) as possible before the ore is converted • Carbon reduction
into the metal. Carbon (as coke or charcoal) is cheap. It not only acts as a
reducing agent, but it also acts as the fuel to provide heat
Some methods are:
for the process.
Froth floatation : The ore is first crushed and then treated with • Reduction using a more reactive metal
something which will bind to the particles of the metal compound Titanium is produced by reducing titanium chloride
that are required and make those particles hydrophobic. “Hydro- using a more reactive metal such as sodium or
phobic” stands for “water fearing”. magnesium. This is the only way of producing high purity
Magnetic separation: Magnetic ores like pyrolusite (MnO2) and metal.
chromite (FeO.Cr2O3) are enriched by this method by making • Reduction by electrolysis
use of the difference in the magnetic properties of the ore and This is a common extraction process for the more
gangue particles. reactive metals - for example, for aluminum and
Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide metals above it in the electrochemical series.
It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide form as compared An advantage is that it can produce very pure metals.
to its sulphide, carbonate or any other form. Therefore, prior to
Refining of metals
reduction usually the metal is converted to its oxide form.
Refining of metals is done to obtain metals in very pure form by
Following methods are used to convert the concentrated ore to its
removing impurities present in it. Electrolytic refining is widely
oxide form.
used method for this purpose.
Calcination: It is a process in which the ore is heated strongly
in absence of air. The ore is heated at a temperature well below
ALLOYS
its melting point.
This method is generally used for carbonate and hydrated ores. Alloys are metallic materials prepared by mixing two or more
Roasting: It is a process wherein the ore is heated either alone or molten metals.
with some other material in excess of air below the fusion point These are used for many purposes, such as construction, and are
of the ore. central to the transportation and electrical industries. Compo-
sition of some common alloys and their uses are given in the
• Usually, this method is used for sulphide ores.
following table.
Alloy Composition Uses

1. Brass Cu = 80%, Zn = 20% For making utensils and cartridges.
2. Bronze Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For making statues, medals, ships, coins and machines
3. Solder Sn = 50%, Pb = 50% For joining metals, solding wire and electronic
components etc.
4. Duraluminum Al = 95.5%, Cu = 3%, Used in bodies of aircrafts, kitchen parts etc.
ware and automobile
Mn = 1.0%, Mg = 0.5%
5. German Silver Cu = 60%, Zn = 20%, Ni = 20% For making utensils and ornaments
6. Gun metal Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For Gears and castings etc.
7. Bell metal Cu = 80%, Sn = 20% For bells, gangs etc.
8. Magnalium Al = 90%, Mg = 10% For balance beams, light instruments.
9. Type metal Pb = 82%, Sb = 15%, Sn = 3% For casting type
10. Stainless steel Fe, Ni, Cr, C For utensils, cutlery etc.
• In homogeneous alloys, atoms of the different elements are and drainpipes, cylinder blocks in car engines, Aga-type cookers,
distributed uniformly. Examples include brass, bronze, and and very expensive and very heavy cookware.
the coinage alloys.
Wrought iron
• Heterogeneous alloys, such as tin-lead solder and the
mercury amalgam sometimes used to fill teeth, consist of a If all the carbon is removed from the iron to give high purity iron,
mixture of crystalline phases with different compositions. it is known as wrought iron. Wrought iron is quite soft and easily
An amalgam is an alloy of mercury with one or worked and has little structural strength.
more metals. Most of the metals form amalgams with Use: It was once used to make decorative gates and railings, but
mercury except iron and platinum. Amalgams of sodium and these days mild steel is normally used instead.
aluminium are good reducing agents. Amalgam of silver, tin, Mild steel
cadmium and copper have been utilized as dental fillings. Mild steel is iron containing up to about 0.25% of carbon. The
presence of the carbon makes the steel stronger and harder than
SOME IMPORTANT METALS AND THEIR pure iron. The higher the percentage of carbon, the harder the
USES steel becomes.
Use: Mild steel is used for lots of things - nails, wire, car bodies,
Iron(Fe) ship building, girders and bridges amongst others.
Iron is the most abundant metal which occurs in the earth’s crust. High carbon steel
The most commonly used iron ores are haematite, Fe2O3, and High carbon steel contains up to about 1.5% of carbon. The pres-
magnetite, Fe3O4. ence of the extra carbon makes it very hard, but it also makes it
Cast Iron: more brittle.
The molten iron from the bottom of the furnace can be used as Use: Used for cutting tools and masonry nails (nails designed to be
cast iron. However, it is very impure, containing about 4% of driven into concrete blocks or brickwork without bending). It tends to
carbon. This carbon makes it very hard, but also very brittle. If fracture rather than bend if you mistreat it.
you hit it hard, it tends to shatter rather than bend or dent. Special steels
Use: Cast iron is used for things like manhole covers, cast iron These are iron alloyed with other metals. Examples are given in
pipes, valves and pump bodies in the water industry, guttering the following table:
Variety Iron mixed with Special Properties Uses

stainless steel chromium and resists corrosion cutlery, cooking utensils, kitchen sinks, industrial equipment for
nickel food and drink processing
titanium steel titanium withstands high gas turbines, spacecraft
temperatures
manganese steel manganese very hard rock-breaking machinery, some railway track (e.g. points), military
helmets
Handy Facts
The hardness and elasticity of steel can be controlled by heat treatment. The steel is heated to a temperature below redness. It is then
cooled slowly. The process is called tempering of steel. It is used to bring the steel to a suitable state of hardness and elasticity.
Hard steel can be softened by heating it to a high temperature and then allowing it to cool down slowly. This process is called
annealing.
Steel produced in this way is known as quenched steel and the process of making such steel is known as quenching or hardening of steel
B-36 CHEMISTRY
Some important compounds of iron: Uses
Green Vitriol: Iron sulphate or ferrous sulphate is the chemical Cuprous oxide is commonly used as a pigment, a fungicide, and
compound with the formula (FeSO4).FeSO4. 7H2O is called an antifouling agent for marine paints.
Green vitriol. Rectifier based on this material have been used industrially.
It is used as:
• A reducing agent, mostly for the reduction of chromate in
Aluminium
cement. The usual aluminium ore is bauxite. Bauxite is essentially an impure
• As nutritional supplement to patients suffering from iron aluminium oxide. The major impurities include iron oxides, sili-
deficiency. con dioxide and titanium dioxide.Bauxite actually contains one
• As a colorant. of a variety of hydrated aluminium oxides some of which can be
Mohr’s Salt: Ammonium iron sulphate, or Mohr’s Salt, is a written as Al2O3, xH2O.
double salt of iron sulphate and ammonium sulphate, with the
formula [NH4]2[Fe][SO4]2·6H2O. It is used in the laboratory. Uses: Aluminum is used in aircraft making, container vehicle
bodies, tube trains, in making saucepans, etc.
Copper(Cu) Science in Action
Copper is malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of both Anodizing of Aluminium: In anodising the
heat and electricity. The important ores of copper is chalcopyrite, aluminium is first etched with sodium hydroxide solution to
CuFeS2 (also known as copper pyrites) remove the existing oxide layer, and then making the aluminium
article the anode in electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid. The oxy-
Copper has multifarious uses like:
gen given off at the anode reacts with the aluminium surface,
• M a k i n g b r a s s : B r a s s i s a c o p p e r- z i n c a l l o y. and form a film of oxide up to about 0.02 mm thick..
Alloying produces a metal harder than either copper or
zinc individually. Bronze is another copper alloy - this Zinc (Zn)
time with tin. It is extracted from ores like zinc blende (ZnS).
• Coinage: Used for masking coins in its alloy forms. • Zinc is an essential trace element, necessary for plants,
animals, and microorganisms.
Some important compounds of Copper • It is typically the second most abundant transition metal in
• Blue vitriol organisms after iron and it is the only metal which appears
Copper sulphate is the compound with the formula CuSO4. This in all enzyme classes.
salt exists as a series of compounds that differ in their degree • Zinc is used in galvanizing. Galvanization is a metal coat-
of hydration. The anhydrous form is a pale green or gray-white ing process in which a ferrous part is coated with a thin layer
powder, whereas the penta hydrate(CuSO4·5H2O), the most com- of zinc.
monly encountered salt, is bright blue. Handy Facts
• Black oxide of copper
Copper oxide or cupric oxide (CuO) is the higher oxide of copper. Important uses of some other metals are also listed
As a mineral, it is known as tenorite. below:
Uses: • Tin is used for soldering, for preparing foils, for metal
• Cupric oxide is used as a pigment in ceramics to produce blue, coatings to prevent chemical action and corrosion, for
red, and green (and sometimes gray, pink, or black) glazes. panel lighting, etc.
• To produce cuprammonium hydroxide solutions, used to • Lead is used in making water pipes, in pigments,
make rayon. batteries, in alloys, etc.
• Occasionally used as a dietary supplement in animals, against • Titanium finds extensive use in aircraft industries.
copper deficiency. • Pure metals, which display zero resistance to electrical
• Copper oxide has application as a p-type semiconductor, currents, are called superconductors. Mercury (Hg),
because it has a narrow band gap. Niobium (Nb) are examples of superconductors.
• Red oxide of copper They become superconductors below a critical
Copper oxide or cuprous oxide is the inorganic compound with temperature of 4.2 K and 9.2 K respectively.
the formula- Cu2O. It is one of the principal oxides of copper.
EXERCISE
1. Plaster of paris is obtained – 9. Which among the following statements with
(a) by adding water to calcium sulphate regard to pH scale is/are correct? [NDA]
(b) by adding sulphuric acid to calcium hydroxide I. It is a logarithmic scale.
(c) by heating gypsum to a very high temperature II. The scale is limited to 0-14 because the ionic product
(d) by heating gypsum to 373 K. of water is about 10–14
2. Bleaching powder gives smell of chlorine because it – III. The lower the value of pH, the greater is the acidity of
(a) is unstable the solution.
(b) gives chlorine on exposure to atmosphere Select the correct answer using the code given below
(c) is a mixture of chlorine and slaked lime (a) I and II only
(d) contains excess of chlorine (b) I, II and III
(c) I and III only
3. Why bases are kept in glass bottles?
(d) II only
(a) Bases produce OH– ions in aqueous solutions
10. Statement I : Metal ions are Lewis acids.
(b) Basic solutions are conducting in nature
Statement II : Metal ions are electron pair acceptors.
(c) Bases are corrosive in nature
[NDA ]
(d) Bases have soapy texture (a) Both the statements individually true and Statement
4. Which one of the following salts when dissolved in water II is the correct explanation of Statement I.
makes the solution basic? (b) Both the statements are individually true but
(a) Sodium chloride [NDA] Statement II is not correct explanation of Statement I.
(b) Copper sulphate (c) Statement I is true but Statement II is false.
(c) Ferric chloride (d) Statement I is false but Statement II is true.
(d) Sodium acetate 11. Neutral water with pH about 7 becomes slightly acidic
5. Which of the following salts are insoluble in water ? when aerated. This is because [NDA]
[NDA] (a) oxygen from air is dissolved in the water which
(a) Chlorides of Fe and Mn makes the water acidic
(b) Nitrates of Ag and Pb (b) dirt, which get contaminated with the water during
(c) Carbonates of Pb and Cu aeration makes the water acidic
(d) Phosphates of Na and NH4 (c) ultraviolet radiation dissociates water molecules and
6. Two elements gallium and oxygen combine to form a makes water acidic
compound Ga2O3. Which among the following is the (d) carbon-dioxide from air is dissolved
valency of gallium ? [NDA] 12. The concentration of hydrochloric acid in a given solution
(a) 1 (b) 2 is 10–8 M. What is the value of pH for this solution ?
(c) 3 (d) 4 [NDA]
7. Arrange the following bases in increasing order of their, (a) 7 (b) > 7 but not 14
basic strength [NDA] (c) < 7 (d) 14
13. Human stomach produces acid ‘X’ which helps in digestion
1. Sodium hydroxide
of food. Acid ‘X’ is
2. Magnesium hydroxide
[NDA]
3. Aluminium hydroxide
(a) acetic acid
4. Ammonium hydroxide
(b) methanoic acid
Select the correct answer using the code given below (c) hydrochloric acid
Codes: (d) citric acid
A B C D 14. Bases turn red litmus blue and acids turn blue litmus red. A
(a) 4 2 1 3 student tested a liquid with a red litmus paper and it stayed
(b) 4 1 2 3 red with no change. This shows that the liquid [NDA]
(c) 4 3 2 1 (a) must be pure water
(d) 1 2 3 4 (b) must be an acid
8. Which one among the following is not a property of salt? (c) is not a base
[NDA] (d) is neither a base nor an acid
(a) Salts have ordered packing arrangements called 15. Which of the following statements regarding oxidation
lattices and reduction are correct?
(b) Salts have low melting points but high boiling points 1. In oxidation, loss of electron takes place whereas in
(c) Salts are brittle reduction, gain of electron takes place.
(d) Salts conduct electricity when dissolved in water or 2. In oxidation, gain of electron takes place whereas in
even in the molten state reduction, loss of electron takes place.
B-38 CHEMISTRY
3. Oxidizing agent decreases the oxidation number but (c) the dissolved carbon dioxide of the ground water
reducing agent increases the oxidation number. escapes into air
4. Oxidizing agent increases the oxidation number but (d) the dissolved oxygen of the ground water escapes
reducing agent reduces the oxidation number. into air
[NDA] 23. On the labels of the bottles, some soft drinks are claimed to
Select the correct answer using the code given below : be acidity regulators. They regulate acidity using [CDS]
Code : (a) carbon dioxide
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (b) bicarbonate salts
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 4 (c) Both (a) and (b)
16. The following equation is an example of a redox reaction, (d) carbon dioxide and lime
in which Cl2 is the oxidizing agent and FeBr3 is the 24. Antacids are commonly used to get rid of acidity in the
reducing agent : stomach. A commonly used antacid is [CDS]
2FeBr3 (aq) + 3Cl2 (g) = 2FeCl 3(aq) + 3Br2 (1) (a) sodium hydrogen phthalate
Which one among the following statements is incorrect (b) magnesium hydroxide
for this redox reaction? [NDA] (c) calcium hydroxide
(a) Oxidizing agents are themselves reduced (d) manganese acetate
(b) Reducing agents gain or appear to gain electrons 25. Which of the following is not correct about Baking Soda ?
(c) Reducing agents are themselves oxidized [CDS]
(d) Oxidizing agents oxidize other substances (a) It is used in soda acid fire extinguisher
17. Which one among the following is the correct order of (b) It is added for faster cooking.
strength of acids ? [NDA] (c) It is a corrosive base
(a) H2SO4 > H3PO3 > CH3COOH (d) It neutralizes excess acid in the stomach
(b) H3PO3 > H2SO4 > CH3COOH 26. The acid in gastricjuice is [NDA]
(c) CH3COOH > H3PO3 > H2SO4 (a) acetic acid (b) nitric acid
(d) CH3COOH > H2SO4 > H3PO3 (c) hydrochloric acid (d) sulphuric acid
27. Removal of impurities from ore is known as –
18. Which one among the following is an electrochemical cell
(a) crushing and grinding
that cannot be charged ?
(b) concentration of ore
[NDA]
(c) calcination
(a) Electrolytic cell
(d) roasting
(b) Storage cell
28. Aluminium is used in thermite welding because –
(c) Primary cell
(a) aluminium is a light metal
(d) Fuel cell
(b) aluminium has more affinity for oxygen
19. The pH of fresh milk is 6. When it turns sour, the pH
(c) aluminium is a strong oxidising agent
[NDA]
(d) aluminium is a reactive metal
(a) becomes < 6 29. Which method is employed for obtaining a pure metal?
(b) remains the same i.e., 6 (a) Froth floatation (b) Electrolytic refining
(c) becomes > 6 (c) Magnetic separation (d) Gravity separation
(d) becomes neutral, i.e., 7 30. Column-I Column-II
20. Which one among the following is a double salt ? A. Hardest Non-metal P. Graphite
[NDA] B. Non-metal conducts Q. Sulphur
(a) K4[Fe(CN)6] electricity
(b) K2SO4· A12(SO4)3·24H2O C. Non-metal with lustre R Diamond (Carbon)
(c) CuSO4·5H2O D. Non-metal used as S Iodine
(d) NaCl fungicide
21. Statement I : Addition of water to an aqueous solution of (a) A – R; B – P; C – S; D – Q
HC1 decreases the pH. [CDS] (b) A – Q; B – P; C – S; D – R
Statement II : Addition of water suppresses the ionisation (c) A – P; B – R; C – S; D – Q
of HC1. (d) A – R; B – P; C – Q; D – S
(a) Both the statements are individually true and 31. Column-I (Alloy) Column-II
Statement II is the correct explanation of Statement I (Composition of Elements)
(b) Both the statements are individually true but Statement A. Steel P. Cu and Sn
II is not the correct explanation of Statement I B. Brass Q. Cu and Zn
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is false C. Bronze R Fe, C and Cr
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II is true D. Magnalium S Al and Mg
22. The pH of fresh ground water slightly decreases upon (a) A – Q; B – R; C – P; D – S
exposure to air because [CDS] (b) A–R; B–Q; C–P; D–S
(a) carbon dioxide from air is dissolved in the water (c) A – Q; B – R; C – S; D – P
(b) oxygen from air is dissolved in the water (d) A – R; B – Q; C – S; D – P
32. Column-I Column-II 38. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
(Product) (Name of alloy) using the codes given below the lists: [IAS Prelim]
A. Aircrafts P. Stainless steel List- I List-II
B. Utensils Q. Bronze A. Blue vitriol 1. Sodium bicarbonate
C. Medals R Magnalium B. Epsom salt 2. Sodium hydroxide
D. Balance beam S Duralumin C. Baking soda 3. Magnesium sulphate
(a) A – S; B – P; C – Q; D – R D. Caustic soda 4. Copper sulphate
(b) A–P; B–S; C–Q; D–R Codes:
(c) A – S; B – P; C – R; D – Q (a) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-1
(d) A – P; B – S; C – R; D – Q (b) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1
33. What is anode mud ? (c) A-3; B-4; C-1; D-2
(a) Fan of anode (d) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
(b) Metal of anode 39. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer
(c) Impurities collected at anode in electrolysis during using the codes given below the lists: [IAS Prelim]
purification of metals List-I List-II
(d) All of these A. Potassium bromide 1. Fertiliser
34. Food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc because B. Potassium nitrate 2. Photography
[CDS] C. Potassium sulphate 3. Bakery
(a) zinc is costlier than tin. D. Monopotassium 4. Gun powder
(b) zinc has a higher melting point than tin. tartarate
(c) zinc is more reactive than tin. Codes :
(d) zinc is less reactive than tin. (a) A-2; B-4; C-1; D-3
35. Column-I Column-II (b) A-2; B-3; C-1; D-4
A. Titanium P Coinage metal (c) A-4; B-2; C-3; D-1
B. Palladium Q Fuel (d) A-4; B-2; C-1; D-3
C. Uranium R. Catalyst 40. [CDS]
D. Platinum S. Strategic metal List I List II
(a) A – S; B – R; C – Q; D – P
(b) A – P; B – R; C – Q; D – S Industries in which largely
(Mineral)
(c) A – R; B – S; C – Q; D – P used)
(d) A – S; B – Q; C – R; D – P A. Limestone 1 Cement
36. ‘Yellow cake’, an item of smuggling across border is[ B. Copper 2 Electrical goods
[IAS Prelim] C. Bauxite 3 Manufacture of aeroplanes
(a) a crude form of heroin
D. Manganese 4 Steel
(b) a crude form of cocaine
(c) uranium oxide Codes
(d) unrefined gold A B C D
37. Which one of the following materials is very hard and (a) 3 4 1 2
very ductile? [IAS Prelim] (b) 1 2 3 4
(a) Carborundum (b) Tungsten (c) 3 2 1 4
(c) Cast iron (d) Nichrome (d) 1 4 3 2
ANSWER KEY
1 (d) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5 (c) 6 (c) 7 (c) 8 (b)

9 (b) 10 (a) 11 (d) 12 (c) 13 (c) 14 (a) 15 (d) 16 (b)
17 (a) 18 (c) 19 (a) 20 (b) 21 (c) 22 (a) 23 (b) 24 (b)
25 (c) 26 (c) 27 (b) 28 (b) 29 (b) 30 (a) 31 (b) 32 (a)
33 (c) 34 (c) 35 (a) 36 (c) 37 (d) 38 (d) 39 (a) 40 (b)
Chapter
5 NON - METALS
Reaction with metals :

NON - METALS Non metals with high electronegativity (F, Cl, Br etc.) generally
reacts with alkali and alkaline earth metals to form ionic
Non-metals occupy the upper right hand corner of the periodic
compounds.
table.
Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals. Their Handy Facts
names as per their states in the normal conditions are: Allotropes are different form of the same element. Different
Gases : hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon, bonding arrengements between atoms result in different
chlorine, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. structures with different chemical and physical properties. For
Liquid : bromine. example : The allotropic forms of carbon are white, red and
Solid : carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, and iodine. black phosphorous. The term allotropy is referred to element
PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS only another term polymosphism is used to mean the ability
of solid to exist in more than one term or crystal structure.
Physical Properties
• Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile.
SOME IMPORTANT NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS
• They are brittle (break easily). Hydrogen
• They do not conduct heat and electricity.
• They are not lustrous (not shiny). They are dull. The discovery of hydrogen is credited to Henry Cavendish in
• They are generally soft (except diamond which is extremely 1766, although it had been isolated as early as 1671 by Robert
hard non-metal). Boyle.
• They may be solid, liquid or gases at the room temperature. Isotopes of Hydrogen
• They have comparatively low melting points and boiling Three isotopes of hydrogen exist and all occur naturally.
points (except diamond which is a non-metal having a high • 1H is sometimes called Protium, It is abundent in nature. It
melting point and boiling point). is the only hydrogen isotope lacking neutrons.
• Non-metals have low densities, that is, non-metals are light • The second isotope, 2H, is called deuterium
substances.
• Non-metals are non-sonorous. They do not produce sound Handy Facts
when hit with an object. D-element bonds are more difficult to break than H-element
bonds and this fact allows the mechanisms of many chemical
Chemical Properties of Non-Metals reactions to be examined. D2O itself is important as a material
Non-metals are more reactive with metals than with other non- that slows neutrons in nuclear reactors.
metals. Generally non-metals react with each other at a high • The third isotope, 3H, Tritium is radioactive.
temperature. Properties
Action of Air : • Hydrogen occupies a unique place in the periodic table,
Non-metals do not react with air at room temperature except and while it usually appears above the alkali metals or the
white phosphorus. halogens (or both), its properties don’t fall well within either
Action of water: group.
Generally, non-metals do not react with water. However, • The ionization energy of hydrogen is much higher than any
chlorine dissolves in water and form an acidic solution. of the alkali metals.
• Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas at ambient
Displacement of one non-metal by another from
temperature. It has very low boiling and melting points (only
salt solution :
helium boils colder). It is poorly soluble in most solvents.
Just like metals, non-metals also differ in their reactivities.
Among halogen family (i.e. Cl, Br, I and F) the most reactive is Uses
chlorine (Cl). The order of reactivity is Cl > Br > I. Thus chlorine • Over two-thirds of this hydrogen produced is used to prepare
can displace Br and I from solutions of bromides (NaBr) and ammonia (NH3) by the Haber process. The large majority of
Iodides (NaI). this ammonia is then used in fertilizer production.
Non - Metals B-41
• Methanol, which is an industrially important compound, striking the earth. We can even smell this ozone also.
is prepared from the reaction of hydrogen with carbon Internal combustion engines (cars, trucks, etc.) produce large
monoxide: quantities of ozone that frequently affect air quality in cities.
Group 18 : Noble Gases Handy Facts

The word oxygen comes from the Greek meaning ‘acid
• The elements in Group 18 are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon
former,’ while ozone comes from the Greek meaning ‘to
(Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn).
smell.’
• All Group 18 elements are gases at room temperature.
• They are completely chemically inert with few exceptions. Water (H2O) :
Water is the most abundant molecule on the earth Approximatly
• The first noble gas compound was prepared in 1962 by sci-
70% of the Earth’s surface is water. Water is also the only
entist Neil Barlett. Bartlett noticed that the ionization energy
substance on Earth which naturally occurs in a solid, liquid and
of xenon is about the same as that of oxygen. gas form. Water is also medium for many chemical reactions.
• Group 17: Halogens That is why it is called “universal solvent”.
The halogens are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine
(I) and astatine (Ats). Hardness of Water
• Fluorine typically occurs in nature in minerals such as Hardness of water is due to dissolved sulphate, chloride or car-
fluorite (fluorspar, CaF2). The other halogens are generally bonate salt of calcium and magnesium. There are two kinds of
isolated from salts dissolved in seawater. They are obtained hardness of water.
by oxidation of the halide ion to the halogen in a molten salt, • Temporary
except fluorine which requires special conditions to prevent • Permanent
explosions. Temporary hardness is due to dissolved bicarbonate salt of
• All halogens have high electronaffinities and ionization calcium and magnesium. Temporary hardness can be removed
energies. . by boiling. Boiling causes formation of carbonate from the bi-
carbonate.
Uses of halogenated compounds
Permanent hardness is caused by chlorides and sulphate of
• Teflon– non-stick coating, is a polymer made of carbon and
calcium and magnesium. Permanent hard water can not be soft-
fluorine (CF3 (CF2)n(CF2– CF2–), n is very large).
ened by boiling.
• The compounds used in air-conditioners (now HCFCs) are
Though hard water is not considered harmful for drinking, it may
compounds made up of carbon, fluorine, hydrogen, and
cause other harms. Hard water can leave the clothes rough and
chlorine (e.g. HCFC-22: CHF2Cl). These substances are
worn out. More soap is required for washing clothes.
more environment friendly than the Freons. (HCFCs are
Freons in which either a chlorine or fluorine atom has been Properties of Water
replaced by a hydrogen atom to allow easier environmental • It is attracted to other polar molecules. This is also called
degradation to occur.) adhesion. Adhesion leads to occurrence of capillary action.
• Many plastics, organic solvents, pesticides, fungicides, and • Water has high specific heat and high heat of vapourisation
bactericides contain chlorine atoms. Chlorinated compounds because of this water is used as coolant in moter vehicles
are also used as disinfectants and bleaching agents. • It has high heat of evaporation. This property is responsible
for its ability to resist evaporation in moderate temperature.
Group16: Chalcogens
• Ice has lower density compared to water. This low density
• The elements of the Group 16 of the periodic table are Oxygen allow icebergs to float and is also the reason that only top
(O), Sulphur(S), Selenium (Se), Telurium (Te) and Polonium part of the lakes are frozen.
(Po) which are also called chalcogens. • Water has high polarity. This makes water a powerful solvent
• Oxygen is the second most abundant element in the Earth’s as it attracts other less and polar molecules.
crust and in hydrosphere.
• Two allotropes of oxygen are; O2: Oxygen and O3: Ozone. Group 15: Nitrogen
Both occur naturally. Oxygen has a high electron affinity,
• Nitrogen is rare in the hydrosphere and lithosphere, though
electronegativity, and ionization energy. It tends to form abundant in the atmosphere. Only NaNO3 and KNO3 are
compounds in the –2 oxidation state, although compounds found in significant amounts as mineral deposits.
with –1, –½, and +2 oxidation states also exist • Compounds of nitrogen occur in all oxidation states from
(in H2O2, KO2, and OF2 respectively). –3 to +5. In this property, nitrogen differs from all other
• O2 is an odorless, colorless, and tasteless gas at room tem- second-row elements except carbon which have very limited
perature. It is quite reactive and form oxide ions or strong numbers of accessible oxidation states.
covalent single bonds to other elements. Oxygen is obtained • Diamond consists of an infinite array of tetrahedral carbon
by the fractional distillation of air. atoms. It is the hardest naturally occurring substance and pure
• Ozone is a pale blue gas with an irritating odor. It is a diamond is a colourless crystalline material. It is a very soft,
significantly stronger oxidant than Dioxygen(O2) because of black material that is quite slippery and is a good electrical
its structure. Small amounts of ozone are generated by lightning conductor.
B-42 CHEMISTRY
Group 14: Carbon • Carbonate minerals are plentiful in nature and include
aragonite (CaCO3), calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMgCO3),
• Carbon has been known since pre-historic times. Carbon
gaylussite (Na2Ca(CO3)2), lanthanite ((La,Ce)2(CO3)3),
ranks only 17th amongst all elements (between sulfur and
magnesite (MgCO3), and witherite (BaCO3). Of the
zirconium) in abundance in the Earth’s crust.
minerals, the calcium and magnesium containing varieties
• Carbon is one of the elements which shows allotropy.
are most important.
Carbon-monoxide (CO)
• In particular, the stalactites and stalagmites in caves are
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless
gas with a relatively low boiling point. composed of calcium carbonate are coral reefs.
• It forms when carbon or hydrocarbons burn in a deficiency Science in Action
of oxygen. Elemental silicon is a semiconductor and very pure material
• It is toxic in either high doses or prolonged (hours) (99.9999%). It is used in the production of computer chips.
exposure to low doses. Its toxicity arises because it binds to
hemoglobin much like oxygen does, but more strongly Glass
Uses: • Glass is simply quartz to which one or more other sub-
• Industrially, carbon monoxide is sometimes used as a fuel stances have been added. Because of this added substance,
because it burns to carbon dioxide. the temperature at which the quartz melts is lowered. This
• It also is a valuable reducing agent. When reacted with is important because quartz melts near 1000ºC and getting
hydrogen it generates methanol, an important organic flames that hot is very difficult.
solvent and basic reagent. • Common glass (also soft glass or soda-lime glass) is prepared
Carbon-dioxide(CO2) by adding calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate to molten
• Like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide (CO2) is colourless, quartz. The heat drives carbon dioxide off, leaving calcium
odourless, and tasteless. oxide and sodium oxide behind.
• It is much less toxic than CO, but will induce unconsciousness • Lead crystal results from adding lead oxide to quartz. The
and death at very high concentrations even if it is not extra mass of the lead gives high quality crystal its heavier
inhaled. feel and the high refractive index that gives crystal its special
• Carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants in the presence of look.
sunlight and chlorophyll (green colouring matter) to form • Pyrex is obtained by adding boron oxide, B2O3, to quartz.
glucose and higher carbohydrates. This process is known as This causes its coefficient of thermal expansion to decrease.
photosynthesis. Baking dish made of pyrex glass when moved from freezer
Uses: The two major uses of carbon dioxide are as a refrigerant to the oven do not crack. Also, stovetop cookware is possible
and for carbonating soft drinks. with borosilicate glass, because it won’t crack or melt under
normal kitchen conditions.
Carbonic Acid and Carbonates • Coloured glass results from the addition of transition metal
• When CO2 dissolves in water, the weak acid, i.e. carbonic ions to the glass. The metal usually exists as an oxide in the
acid (H2CO3) forms. structure. Examples are:
Colour Metal used Colour Metal used
blue-violet cobalt green chromium
canary uranium pale pink tellurium
peacock blue copper violet manganese
cranberry gold
photochromatic AgCl/AgBr (changes color as surrounding lighting changes)
Science in Action
Uses of some other non-metals are given below:
• Sulphur is used in making compounds like sulpha drugs, sulphuric acid, in matches, in gun powder, for vulcanization of
rubber, etc.
• Boron, in the form of compound borax, is used in making skin ointments.
• Phosphorus is used in making crackers.
• Chlorine, in the form of bleaching powder, is used for purification of water.
• Carbon is used as a fuel, as electrodes (graphite), as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
• Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are used by all living things; they are the ‘building blocks’ of life.
• Iodine is used to prevent thyroid problems.
• Bromine is used in the preparation of dyes.
• Some compounds of fluorine (such as sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride) are added to toothpastes to prevent dental decays
or formation of cavities.
Non - Metals B-43
EXERCISE
1. Which of the following reacts with cold water vigorously? (b) a certain amount of heat must be supplied to the glass
(a) carbon (b) sodium of water so as to solidify
(c) magnesium (d) sulphur (c) a certain amount of heat must be taken out from the
2. Which of the following non-metals has shining lustrous glass of water so as to solidify
surfaces? (d) water solidifies at 0 K only
(a) Graphite and phosphorus 15. Which one among the following does not have an
(b) Graphite and iodine allotrope? [NDA]
(c) Iodine and phosphorus (a) Oxygen (b) Sulphur
(d) Phosphorus and chlorine (c) Nitrogen (d) Carbon
3. A non metal that catches fire at room temperature is- 16. Deionised water is produced by
(a) Sodium (b) Sulphur (a) Calgon process [NDA]
(c) Phosphorus (d) Fluorine (b) Ion-exchange resin process
4. Which of the following metals on reacting with sodium (c) Clark’s process
hydroxide solution produce hydrogen gas? (d) Permutit process
A. Cu B. Al 17. Which one of the following is the secondary source of
C. Fe D. Zn light in a fluorescent lamp? [CDS]
(a) B and C (c) A and D (a) Neon gas (b) Argon gas
(c) B and D (d) B only (c) Mercury vapour (d) Fluorescent coating
5. Which are the most abundant elements in the universe ? 18. Which one of the following is the softest? [CDS]
[NDA] (a) Sodium (b) Aluminium
(a) Oxygen and Nitrogen (b) Hydrogen and Oxygen (c) Iron (d) Copper
(c) Hydrogen and Helium (d) Carbon and Nitrogen 19. Which among the following elements is abundant on the
6. What is the colour of oxygen in solid state ? [NDA] lunar surface and holds the potential to put an end to the
(a) Pale yellow (b) Pale blue energy crisis of the earth? [CDS]
(c) Light green (d) Greenish yellow (a) Helium-I (b) Helium-II
7. Why is nitrogen molecule chemically less active? [NDA] (c) Helium-III (d) Helium-IV
(a) It has small atomic radius 20. Which allotropy of carbon is in rigid three- dimensional
(b) It has high electronegativity structure? [CDS]
(c) It has high dissociation energy (a) Graphite (b) Fullerene
(d) It has stable electronic configuration (c) Diamond (d) Carbon black
8. Yellow colour of usual nitric acid is due to the presence of 21. What are the elements which are liquids at room
which one of the following? [NDA] temperature and standard pressure? [CDS]
(a) N2O (b) NO 1. Helium 2. Mercury
(c) N2O5 (d) NO2 3. Chlorine 4. Bromine
9. Which one of the following elements cannot displace Select the correct answer using the codes given below
hydrogen gas from a dilute acid? [NDA] (a) 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(a) Zinc (b) Copper (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
(c) Magnesium (d) Iron 22. The form of carbon known as graphite [CDS]
10. Which of the following is not a nitrogenous fertilizer? [NDA] (a) is harder than diamond
(a) Ca(CN)2 (b) CaCN2 (b) contains a higher percentage of carbon than diamond
(c) NH4NO3 (d) Urea (c) is a better electrical conductor than diamond
11. Which one of the following is the correct order in which (d) has equal carbon-to-carbon distances in all directions
the gases H2, Ne, O2 and N2 are evolved on fractional 23. Which one of the following is also called Stranger Gas?
distillation of liquid air? [NDA] [IAS Prelim]
(a) H2, Ne, O2, N2 (b) H2, Ne, N2, O2 (a) Argon (b) Neon
(c) N2, O2, Ne, H2 (d) O2, N2, H2, Ne (c) Xenon (d) Nitrous oxide
12. Which of the following is an element which never exhibits 24. Statement I: Soaps do not form lather with water
positive oxidation state in any of its compounds? [NDA] containing salts of calcium and magnesium. [CDS]
(a) Oxygen (b) Chlorine Statement II: Calcium and magnesium salts of long chain
(c) Fluorine (d) Carbon fatty acids are insoluble in water.
13. Oxygen and ozone are [NDA] (a) Both the statements are individually true and
(a) allotropes (b) isomers Statement II is the correct explanation of Statement I.
(c) isotopes (d) isobars (b) Both the statements are individually true but Statement
14. A glass of water does not turn into ice as it reaches 0 °C. It II is not the correct explanation of Statement I.
is because [NDA] (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is false.
(a) water does not solidify at 0°C (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II is true.
ANSWER KEY
1 (b) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (b) 5 (a) 6 (a) 7 (c) 8 (d)
9 (b) 10 (a) 11 (b) 12 (c) 13 (a) 14 (c) 15 (c) 16 (b)
17 (d) 18 (a) 19 (c) 20 (c) 21 (c) 22 (c) 23 (c) 24 (a)
Chapter
6 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Solution in water generally do not When dissolved in water con-

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY conduct electricity ducts electrical current
Almost all burn Most not combustible
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon containing compounds
and their properties. This includes the great majority of chemical Slow to react with other Often undergo fast chemical
compounds on the planet, but some substances such as car- chemicals reactions
bonates and oxides of carbon are considered to be inorganic
substances even though they contain carbon. There exists a large CATENATION IN CARBON
number of organic compounds. Majority of organic compounds contain chains or rings of carbon
Differences Between Organic and Inorganic atoms that contain other elements such as O, N, P, S, Cl, Br and
Compounds I. The compounds of carbon are far more numerous than the
Following table compares the properties of the organic and in- known compounds of all the other elements put together. This
organic compounds: is because that carbon has the power to combine with other
carbon atoms to form long chains; this property is not shown
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds to such an extent by any other element. This property of carbon
Use mostly covalent bonding Mostly ionic bonding is known as catenation.
Are gases, liquids or solids with Are generally solids with high
low melting points melting points FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Mostly insoluble in water Many are water soluble Classes of organic compounds can be distinguished according
Many are soluble in organic Most are not soluble in organic to functional groups they contain. A functional group is a group
solvents such as petroleum, solvents of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical behavior of
benzene and hexane the parent molecule.
Important Functional Groups and the Corresponding Classes of Organic Compounds :
S.No. Functional Group Class of compounds
Formula Name
1. –X (–F, Cl, –Br, –I) Halo (fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo) Alkyl halides or halogen compounds
2. –OH Hydroxy Alcohol
3. –OR Alkoxy Ethers
4. –SH Mercapto Thioalcohols, mercaptans or thiols
5. –SR Thioethers or sulphides
6. –CHO Aldehydic Aldehydes
7. –CO– Ketonic Ketones
8. –COOH Carboxyl Carboxylic acids
9. –COOR Ester Esters
10. –COX (X = Cl, Br or I) Acyl halide Acid halides or Acyl halides
11. –CONH2 Amide Amides or acid amides
12. –CO.O.CO– Anhydride Acid anhydrides
13. –NH2 Amino Amines
14. –NH– Imino Imines
15. −C ≡ N Cyano Cyanides or Nitriles
Organic Chemistry B-45
16. −N →
= C Isocyano Isocyanides or Isonitriles
17. –NO2 Nitro Nitro compounds
18. –N = O Nitroso Nitroso compounds
19. –N = N– Azo Azo compounds
20. –SO2 – OH Sulphonic acid Sulphonic acids
HYDROCARBONS Representations of Benzene

There are two accepted ways of representing the structure of
The simplest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons, which
benzene. The first is the Kekule structure that is written as shown
are composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.
below. Two structures-called resonating structures- are required,
Hydrocarbons can be classcified in two general groups aliphatic
as one structure cannot fully represent the molecule. The molecule
and aromatic. These compounds are the starting point for all
is said to alternate very rapidly between the two structures.
organic compounds.
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Properties of benzene
Benzene is totally insoluble in water, it is a volatile liquid at room
Aliphatic hydrocarbons consist of straight or branched chains of temperature. The properties of other aromatics are reflective of
carbon atoms with the other valence electrons involved in bonds benzene but vary according to the substituent added to the ring
with hydrogen. Examples are: in place of one of the hydrogen atoms.
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH2 = CH2
Pentane Ethene Handy Facts
Aliphatic hydrocarbons can be subdivided into two groups based The term “aromatic” has its origin in the fact that certain
on the types of carbon-carbon bonds the compounds contain. aromatic substances (for example: oil of bitter almonds,
vanilla, and oil of wintergreen) contain the benzene ring. The
Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
possession of an odor is not characteristic, however, of all
Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons in which all of aromatic substances. Aromatic compounds containing benzene
the carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. These compounds ring are known as benzenoids and those not containing benzene
are also referred to as alkanes, as mentioned for single bonds ring are known as non-benzenoids.
earlier. The simplest alkane is methane, CH4.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are the starting point for many medici-
• All other alkanes are formed by adding CH2s to the formula.
nally important compounds.
Hence the general formula for the alkanes is CnH2n + 2.
• Alkanes are not very reactive chemically and are insoluble in ALCOHOL (ALKANOL)
water. They burn to form carbon dioxide and water (combus- • Alcohols are hydroxyl (-OH) derivatives of hydrocarbons
tion reaction). formed by replacing a hydrogen with the hydroxyl radical
• Alkanes also under go reactions induced by UV light. and are of the general form R-OH where R represents the
Examples include the slow breakdown of plastics in the sun, hydrocarbon.
and halogenations reactions (reactions where halogen atoms • There are three categories of alcohols: primary, secondary,
such as Cl, Br, or I replace H in the molecule). and tertiary.
Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons Handy Facts
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are those hydrocarbons, which contain Methanol is very poisonous; consumption of less than two
at least one double or triple bond (that is, they are alkenes or al- teaspoons can cause blindness. Of all the alcohols, methanol
kynes) between two carbon atoms. Simplest of alkene (General is produced in the greatest quantities in industry. Many people
die due to consumption of spurious alcohol contaminated with
formula of alkenes are: CnH2n-2) is ethene which consists of two methanol.
double-bonded carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms.
CH2 = CH2 • Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) has been prepared since antiquity
by fermentation of sugars and starches, catalyzed by yeast.
• The general formula of alkyne is CnH2n and the simplest Sugars for fermentation come from a variety of sources,
of alkyne is acetylene CH=CH including grains, grape juice, various vegetables and
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: agricultural wastes.
• Yeast secrets two enzymes called invertase and zymase.
• The second major group of the hydrocarbons is the aromatic
These enzymes act as catalyst for converting sugar to
hydrocarbons, which are hydrocarbons that contain a ethanol.
benzene ring as part of their structure.
• Benzene has the formula C6H6 and consists of six carbon Properties of Alcohols
atoms in a ring with three alternating double bonds. The low-molecular-weight alcohols are volatile liquids, and the
• Aromatic compounds show completely different behavior to high-molecular-weight alcohols (more than 13 carbons) are solids.
aliphatic compounds, and hence it is not difficult to deduce The first three alcohols (C1 to C3) are completely miscible (mix
that they have a special chemical structure. in any proportion) with water.
B-46 CHEMISTRY
Uses of Alcohols Use of Amines
• Alcohols are most commonly used as solvents in the phar- Amines are very important biological compounds and are
macy. responsible for most of the fishy odours that we detect in
• They are also used as disinfectants and antiseptics. nature. They are also found in decomposing tissues (such as
off meat). Amines are building blocks of many natural and
ETHERS synthetic materials – proteins, textiles, plastics, adhesives, and
pharmaceuticals.
Ethers are a class of organic compounds that contain an ether
group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups—of
general formula: R–O–R′.When the two alkyl groups are similar, ALKANOIC ACID (CARBOXYLIC ACIDS)
then its Symmetrical ether otherwise we call it Unsymmetrical Carboxylic acids are compounds which contain a -COOH group.
ether. • Most of the simpler saturated carboxylic acids are found in
Properties of Ethers nature.
Ether molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds with each other For example ethanoic acid (also referred to as acetic acid)
is commonly found in vinegar and wine. Its structural
since they do not have a hydrogen atom attached directly to an
formula is CH 3COOH.Butanoic acid (C 4H9COOH) is
oxygen atom. Therefore, they have about the same boiling points found in cheeses, rancid butter, and under armpits of human;
and melting points as alkanes of similar molecular weights. whilst hexanoic acid (C6H13COOH) is the odour associated
Uses of Ethers with goats and goat cheeses.Ethanoic acid is an important
industrial chemical.
Ethers are used as general anesthetics in medicine. They also
find use as solvents. Some important ethers include diethyl ether • Alkanoic acids (Carboxylic acids) are produced in major
(which has been traditionally known as ether) that was used as quantities by the combustion of coal and wood. Long chain
a general anesthetic, and methyl phenyl ether (commonly called carboxylic acids have also been found in the atmosphere,
anisole) which is used extensively in the perfume industry. the major source of the compounds being pollens and other
plant products.
AMINES Properties of Carboxylic Acids
• Amines result from the replacement of one or more of the Carboxylic acids are very polar compounds due to the two oxygen
hydrogen atoms of ammonia with hydrocarbons and have atoms and can form two hydrogen bonds between themselves.
the general formula R-NH2.
A carboxylic acid has a higher melting point than a different type
• Amines are derivatives of ammonia that has three hydrogen.
• Amines are classified according to the number of hydrogen of organic compound with a similar molecular weight. Conse-
that are replaced by alkyl or phenyl groups in ammonia quently, they are all solids under normal conditions.
(NH3) Uses of Carboxylic Acids : Many carboxylic acids have use in
• Whenever one of the hydrocarbon groups connected to the food industry.
nitrogen atom contains a benzene ring, the compound is • benzoic acid – a common preservative used in beverages.
referred to as an aromatic amine. • citric acid – used to provide a sour taste in fruit and veg-
etables.
Properties of Amines
• sorbic acid – used as an acidic anti-microbial agent.
The low-molecular-weight amines are all volatile liquids, and • lactic acid – commonly found in cultured dairy products.
those having up to five carbons are soluble in water. The element • malic acid – commonly found in fruits.
nitrogen is in the same period of the periodic table as oxygen and • tartaric acid – used extensively in cooking processes (it is
has some similar properties--the most significant being the ability also called cream of tartar)
to form hydrogen bonds. The formation of hydrogen bonds between
amines, and between amines and water, accounts for their higher ALDEHYDE (ALKANOLS)
boiling points (than alkanes) and their water solubility.
Aldehydes and Ketones are characterised by the presence of
Science in Action carbonyl group >C = O in their molecules. Aldehydes contain
Amines react with inorganic acids to form salts. (Amines
react with organic acids to form amides, a class of organic group and ketones the .
compounds.)This reaction results in a hydrochloride salt of
the amine and is a very important reaction in pharmacy. Many • Aldehydes have lower boiling points than corresponding
drugs contain an amine functional group, and if they contain alcohols or acids as they cannot form hydrogen bonds
many carbon atoms, they are not very soluble in water. The between themselves.
salts formed from amines, however, are very soluble in water. • The lower-molecular-weight aldehydes (up to five carbons)
Therefore, if we wish to use a water solution of an amine drug are soluble in water. Aldehydes are neutral in pH and
that is insoluble, we can make it soluble by forming the salt undergo both oxidation and reduction reactions.
of the amine. • They are easily oxidized to acids and reduced to alcohols.
Organic Chemistry B-47
Use Science in Action

• Some aldehydes, such as vanillin and benzaldehyde, are Ketones are also often responsible for the smell component of
frequently used in the pharmacy as flavouring agents. Others, many natural body substances. e.g. the strange smelling breath
such as formaldehyde, are often used as disinfectants. of a diabetic is due to the presence of propanone.
• Both aldehyde (and ketones) occurs in natural and man-
made products very frequently. ESTERS
• All naturally occurring plant sugars (such as glucose) are Esters are formed from the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an
aldehydes, ketones, or their products. alcohol and have the general structural formula RCOOR′ where
R and R′ can be the same or different hydrocarbon groups.
Handy Facts
• The simplest esters are liquids and have fragrant odours. An
Aldehydes are also produced in the atmosphere from example is ethyl acetate, CH3-CH2-OOC-CH3, which has
hydrocarbons as a result of a complicated process called the odour of pineapple.
photo-oxidation. These aldehydes contribute to smog; ethanal • Esters have boiling points similar to alkanes of similar mo-
is the aldehyde most commonly identified in smog. Methanal lecular weight as they cannot form hydrogen bonds between
is almost present in all air samples tested. Aldehydes produced themselves.
by plants such as 2-hexenal has been found in forested • They can form hydrogen bonds with water. Therefore, esters
atmospheres, in addition to methanal and ethanal. that contain less than five carbon atoms are soluble in water.
KETONES (ALKANONE) Uses of Esters
Ketones result from the oxidation of a secondary alcohol and • The sweet and pleasant odours and tastes of many foods are
have the general structural formula O where R and R’ can be the due to complex mixtures of organic compounds, of which
same or different hydrocarbon groups. esters are generally the most prevalent component. Some
examples of esters that are used as flavouring agents and the
R-C-R′
corresponding flavours are:
• Ketones are similar to aldehydes in their boiling points, • methyl butanoate : apple
which are lower than those of corresponding alcohols and • ethyl butanoate : strawberry
carboxylic acids. • butyl butanoate : pineapple
• Ketones are neutral compounds, being neither acids nor • pentyl ethanoate : banana
bases. • methyl 2-phenylethanoate: jasmine
EXERCISE
1. The enzyme involved in the oxidation of ethanol to form (c) drinking propyl alcohol
vinegar is (d) drinking isopropyl alcohol
(a) zymase (b) oxidase 7. Which of the following has shortest carbon-carbon bond
(c) acetobacter (d) invertase length?
2. The main constituent of Vinegar is: [NDA] (a) C2H2 (b) C2H4
(a) Acetic acid (b) Ascorbic acid (c) C2H6 (d) C6H6
(c) Citric acid (d) Tartaric acid 8. Which of the following can be used distinguish between
3. Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Which of the following ethane and ethene?
fatty acid does not form soap? (a) A lighted splinter
(a) Butyric acid (b) Oleic acid (b) Aqueous bromine
(c) Palmitic acid (d) Stearic acid (c) Litmus solution
4. Identify the enzyme which converts glucose to ethyl alcohol. (d) Lime water
(a) Zymase (b) Invertase 9. Column-I Column-II
(c) Maltase (d) Diastase A. Carbon black P. Water filters.
5. Mineral acids are stronger acids than carboxylic acids B. Diamond Q. Fuel
because C. Coke R. Jewellery
A. mineral acids are completely ionised D. Charcoal S. Filler in automobiles
B. carboxylic acids are completely ionised (a) A-Q; B-R; C-S; D-P
C. mineral acids are partially ionised (b) A-P; B-Q; C-Q; D-S
D. carboxylic acids are partially ionised (c) A-S; B-R; C-P; D-Q
(a) A and D (b) B and C (d) A-S; B-R; C-Q; D-P
(c) A and B (d) C and D 10. Column-I Column-II
6. ‘Drinking alcohol’ is very harmful and it ruins the health. A. Polyethylene P. wood glue
‘Drinking alcohol’ stands for: B. Cellulose acetate Q. Soft drinks
(a) drinking methyl alcohol C. Polyvinyl acetate R. Descaling agents
(b) drinking ethyl alcohol D. Dil Acetic acid S. Photographic film.
B-48 CHEMISTRY
(a) A-Q; B-S; C-P; D-R 17. The characteristic odour of garlic is due to [IAS Prelim]
(b) A-S; B-Q; C-P; D-R (a) a chloro compound (b) a sulphur compound
(c) A-Q; B-S; C-R; D-P (c) a fluorine compound (d) acetic acid
(d) A-S; B-Q; C-R; D-P 18. Which one of the following is an active component of oil
11. Gas welding used for welding broken pieces of iron, we of clove? [IAS Prelim]
normally use a mixture of : (a) Menthol (b) Eugenol
(a) ethane and oxygen (c) Methanol (d) Benzaldehyde
(b) ethene and oxygen 19. Consider the following statements about acetylene:
(c) ethyne and oxygen 1. It is used in welding industry
(d) ethene and air 2. It is a raw material for preparing plastics
3. It is easily obtained by mixing silicon carbide and water
12. On the basis of following features identify the correct option
of these statements [IAS Prelim]
A. Drinks containing ethanol
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 1 and 3 are correct
B. These drinks are major source of income to government
(c) 2 and 3 are correct (d) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(a) Alcoholic beverages 20. Which one of the following is the correct sequence in
(b) Soft drinks increasing order of molecular weights of the hydrocarbons?
(c) Carbonated beverages [IAS Prelim]
(d) Rectified spirit (a) Methane, ethane, propane and butane
13. The flavour of apple is mainly due to which one of the (b) Propane, butane, ethane and methane
following? [CDS] (c) Butane, ethane, propane and methane
(a) Formalin (b) Benzene (d) Butane, propane, ethane and methane
(c) Ethanol (d) Benzaldehyde 21. Assertion (A) : The main constituent of the liquefied
14. Which of the following has maximum density? petroleum gas is methane.
[CDS] Reason (R) : Methane can be used directly for burning
(a) Chloroform (b) Water in homes and factories where it can be supplied through
(c) Benzene (d) Ice pipelines. [IAS Prelim]
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
15. Addition of ethylene dibromide to petrol [CDS]
of A
(a) increases the octane number of fuel
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct
(b) helps elimination of lead oxide
explanation of A
(c) removes the sulphur compound in petrol (c) A is true but R is false
(d) serves as a substitute of tetraethyl lead (d) A is false but R is true
16. The offending substance in the liquor tragedies leading to 22. A bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation.
blindness etc., is [IAS Prelim] The injected acid is [NDA]
(a) ethyl alcohol (b) amyl alcohol (a) acetic acid (b) sulphuric acid
(c) benzyl alcohol (d) methyl alcohol (c) citric acid (d) methanoic acid
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2 (a) 3 (a) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (b) 7 (a) 8 (b)
9 (d) 10 (a) 11 (c) 12 (a) 13 (c) 14 (b) 15 (d) 16 (d)
17 (b) 18 (b) 19 (a) 20 (a) 21 (d) 22 (d)
ENVIRONMENTAL
Chapter
7 CHEMISTRY
Complex Carbohydrates
CHEMISTRY AND MANKIND
Complex carbohydrates are polymers of the simple sugars. In
• Living systems are made of a number of complex organic other words, the complex carbohydrates are long chains of simple
compounds which are called bio-molecules. The various sugar units bonded together. Therefore the complex carbohydrates
biomolecules are carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, can also be referred to as polysaccharides. Starch is an example
enzymes, lipids, hormones; etc.We may call these molecules of complex carbohydrate.
of life also.
Handy Facts
SOME IMPORTANT MOLECULES OF LIFE Both starch and glycogen are polymers of glucose; however,
starch is a long, straight chain of glucose units, wheras glycogen
Carbohydrate is a branched chain of glucose units. Another important
The chemicals used by the body may be divided into two polysaccharide is cellulose. Cellulose is yet a third polymer
categories; of the monosaccharide glucose. Cellulose differs from starch
• Macronutrients: those substances that we need to eat and glycogen in terms of extra stability. Cellulose, also known
regularly in fairly large quantities. as plant fiber, cannot be digested by human beings, therefore
• Micronutrients: those substances that we need only in cellulose passes through the digestive tract without being
small quantities. absorbed into the body. Cellulose fiber is essential in the diet
Carbohydrates are the main energy sources for the human body. because it helps exercise the digestive track and keep it clean
Chemically, carbohydrates are organic molecules in which carbon, and healthy.
hydrogen, and oxygen bond together in the ratio : CX(H2O)Y,
where X and Y are whole numbers. AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
Animals obtain carbohydrates by eating foods like potatoes, rice,
breads, and so on. These carbohydrates are manufactured by plants Amino Acids
during the process of photosynthesis. Plants harvest energy from Amino acids play central roles both as building blocks of proteins
sunlight to run the reaction just described in reverse : and as intermediate in metabolism. There twenty amino acids
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + energy (from sunlight) 
→ C6 H12 O6 + 6O 2 which are present in the protein. Humans can produce 10 of the
There are two types of carbohydrates, the simple sugars and 20 amino acids. The others must be supplied by food.
those that are made of long chains of sugars - the complex Structure of Amino Acids
carbohydrates.
• Structure : The amino acid is an organic acid in which one
Simple Sugars or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by NH2 group.
All carbohydrates are made up of units of sugar (also called Proteins
saccharide units). Carbohydrates that contain only one sugar
unit (monosaccharides) or two sugar units (disaccharides) are Proteins (also known as polypeptide) are organic compounds
referred to as simple sugars. Simple sugars are sweet in taste made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a
and are broken down quickly in the body to release energy. Two globular form. The amino acids in a polymer are joined together
of the most common monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of
Glucose is the primary form of sugar stored in the human body adjacent amino acid residues.
for energy. Fructose is the main sugar found in most fruits. Both Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides
glucose and fructose have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6); and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and
however, they have different structures. Disaccharides have two participate in virtually every process within cells. Many proteins
sugar units bonded together. For example, common table sugar are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital
is sucrose, a disaccharide that consists of a glucose unit bonded to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical
functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins
to a fructose unit.
in the cyloskeleton, which form a system of scaffolding that
Sweetening power of common sugars : maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell signaling
Fructose > Invert sugar > Sucrose > Glucose > Maltose > Lactose immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Proteins are
B-50 CHEMISTRY
also necessary in animals diets, since animals cannot synthesize Ni
all the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino Oil + H 2 → Fat
unsaturated 200°C (Saturated )
acids from food. Through the process of digestion, animals break 5 atm
down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then used
in metabolism
HORMONES
• Insulin is a globular protein and myosin is a fibrous protein. Hormones are the substances produced by ductless or endocrine
• Globular proteins on heating or on treatment with mineral glands and poured directly into the blood stream.
acids undergo coagulation to give fibrous protein that is
insoluble in water called denaturation of protein.
Effects of Hormone
• Haemoglobin is a globular protein found in red blood cells. Hormones have the following effects on the body :
• stimulation or inhibition of growth
Peptides • mood swings
Peptides are short polymers formed from the linking in a defined • activation or inhibition of the immune system
order, of an amino acid residue and the next is called an amide • regulation of metabolism
bond or a peptide bond. • preparation of the body for mating, fighting, and other
Peptides play a crucial role in fundamental physiological and activity
biochemical functions of life. For decades now, peptide research • preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as
is a continuously growing field of science. puberty, parenting, and menopause
Peptide is a molecule formed by joining two or more amino • control of the reproductive cycle
acids. When the number of amino acids is less than sbout 50, A hormone may also regulate the production and release
these molecules formed by peptides while larger sequences are of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal
referred to as proteins. environment of the body through homeostasis.
The amino acids are coupled by a peptide bond, a special linkage
in which the nitrogen atom of one amino acid binds to the carboxyl
Enzyme
carbon atom of another. Enzymes are the biocatalysts of life. They are defined as
Peptides (proteins) are present in every living cell and possess biocatalysts synthesized by living cells. They are simple or
a variety of biochemical activities. They appear as enzymes, conjugate protein and specific in action. At present about
hormones, antibiotics, receptors, etc. 300 enzymes are recognized and classified into six classes
Handy Facts by International Union of Biochemistry (IUB). They are:
When proteins are heated above body temperature or when Oxidoreductases, Transferases, Hydrolases, Lyases, Isomerases
they are subjected to unusual acid or base conditions or treated and Ligases.
with special reagents called denaturants, they lose some or all Functions of Enzymes
of their tertiary and secondary structure. Proteins in this state • Enzymes control several metabolic pathways and are highly
no longer exhibit normal biological activities and are called specific in their action.
denatured proteins. • Enzymes like invertase, zymase and maltase are used in
manufacture of alcoholic drinks.
OIL AND FATS • Some enzymes are used as therapeutic agents. e.g.,
streptokinase is used to dissolve blood clots. Asparginase
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally
is used for treatment of leukemia.
soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water.
Chemically, fats are generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Science in Action
Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending Deficiency of some enzymes causes diseases like albinism in
on their structure and composition. individuals. Albinism is caused due to the deficiency of enzyme
tyrosinase.Phenyl ketonuria is caused due to the deficiency of
Hydrogenation of Oils enzyme phenyl alanine hydroxylase.
Unsaturated vegetable fats and oils can be transformed through Vitamins
partial or complete hydrogenation into fats and oils of higher
Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small
melting point. The hydrogenation process involves “sparging”
amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal
the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the
maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound.
Vitamins are designated by alphabets A,B,C,D, etc., some of
As each double-bond is broken, two hydrogen atoms each form
them are further named as sub-groups, e.g, B1, B2, B6, B12, etc.
single bonds with the two carbon atoms. The elimination of
double-bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation; Vitamins are classified into two groups:
as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses towards • Fat soluble vitamins : These are vitamins A, D, E and K.
being fully hydrogenated, An oil may be hydrogenated to increase • Water soluble vitamins : B group vitamin and vitamin C are
resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical soluble in water so that they are grouped together. Water
characteristics. As the degree of saturation increases, the oil’s soluble vitamins must be regularly supplied in diet because
viscosity and melting point increase. they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored.
Environmental Chemistry B-51
Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by their deficiency are listed in the following table :
Sr.
Name of Vitamins Source Deficiency Diseases
No.
Cod, liver oil, carrots, egg, butter Xerophthalmia (hardening of cornea of eye) Night
1 Vitamin A (Retinol)
and milk blindness
2 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Seeds, whole grains, Pulses, nuts Beri beri (loss of appetite, retarded growth)
Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of mouth and lips),
3 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Milk, egg white, liver, Kidney
digestive disorders and burning sensation of the skin
Pellagra (skin pigmentation) degeneration of spinal
4 Vitamin B5 (Nicotinamid) Barley, liver maize, wheat
cord)
Yeast, milk, egg yolk, rice, cereals
5 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Anaemia
and grams
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobal-
6 Meat, fish, egg and curd Pernicious anaemia (RBC deficient in haemoglobin)
amine)
Citrus fruits, amla and green leafy
7 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy (bleeding gums)
vegetables
Exposure to sunlight, fish and egg Rickets (bone deformities in children) and osteo-
8 Vitamin D (Calciferol)
yolk malacia (soft bones and joint pain in adults)
Vegetable oils like wheat germ oil, Increased fragility of RBCs and muscular weakness,
9 Vitamin E (Tocoferol)
cotton seed oil, sunflower oil, etc Antifertility
10 Vitamin K (phyllo-quinone) Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time
MAN-MADE MOLECULES Addition Polymerisation
This involves the self-addition of n-unsaturated molecules of
Polymers
one or two monomers without loss of any small molecule to
A polymer may by defined as a high molecular weight compound form a single giant molecule, e.g., propylene polymerises to
formed by the combination of a large number of one or more types
polypropylene.
of small molecules of low molecular weight. The small unit (or
units) of which the polymer is made is known as monomer (or Some of the polymers are obtained only from one type of
monomers). Many polymeric substances occur in nature such as monomer, whereas the others are obtained form two different
cellulose, starch, rubber, proteins, and resins. types of monomers, the former polymers are known as
The synthetic polymers are manufactured generally from the small homopolymers whereas the latter are known as copolymers.
units by the process known as polymerisation. Polymerisation Polypropylene, polyethylene, polyisoprens, etc. are the examples
may be defined as a chemical combination of a number of similar of homopolymers; on the other hand, dacron, nylon, certain vinyl
or different molecules to form a single large molecule. polymers, etc. constitute the examples of copolymers
Some Common Examples of Addition and Condensation Polymers and their uses :
Addition Polymers Repeating Unit Common Uses
H H
| |
... C − C ...
Polyethylene (PE) | | Plastic bags, bottles
H H
H H
| |
... C − C ...
Polypropylene (PP) | | Indoor-outdoor carpets
H CH3
Polystyrene (PS) Plastic utensils, insulation
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Shower curtains, tubing

B-52 CHEMISTRY
H Cl
| |
... C = C ...
Polyvinylidene chloride (Saran) Plastic wrap
| |
H Cl
F F
| |
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) ... C = C ... Nonstick coating
| |
F F
H H
| |
Polyacrylonitrile (Orion) ... C = C ... Yarn, paints
| |
H C≡N
H H
| |
Polymethyl methacrylate (Lucite, Plexiglas) ... C = C ... Windows, bowling balls
| |
H C≡N
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) Adhesives, chewing gum
Nylon Carpeting, clothing
O O
|| ||
Polyethylene terephthalate ... C − −C Clothing, plastic bottles
O − CH 2 CH3 − O
Melamine-formaldehyde resin (Melmac, Formica) Dishes, countertops
Polymers may be divided into two categories • Synthetic polymers - Polymers prepared by synthesis (man
• Natural polymers - They are obtained from natural sources made), are known as synthetic polymers eg. polystyrene,
e.g. polysaccharides (starch, cellulose), Proteins (polymers nylon, PVC, etc.
Rayon was originally called artificial silk but now a days it
of amino acids), gums, resins (cross linked polymers formed
is a name given to artificial fibres derived form cellulose.
by compounds containing double or triple bonds slowly Rayon can absorb over 90% of its own mass of water and it
oxidised by atmospheric oxygen). natural rubber (polymer was not stick to wound.
of isoprene), Nucleic acids (polymers of nucleotides) silk Natural silk contains nitrogen while artificial silk may not
and wool (polymers of amino acids). have nitrogen.
Science in Action Disperse dyes : These were originally developed for the dyeing
Rubber a well- known organic polymer and the only true of cellulose acetate, and are water insoluble. The dyes are finely
hydrocarbon polymer found in nature. It is formed by the ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and sold as a paste, or
spray-dried and sold as a powder. Their main use is to dye polyster
radical addition of the monomer isoprene. Polymerization can
but they can also be used to dye nylon. cellulose triacetate, and
result in either poly-cis-isoprene or poly-trans isoprene—or
acrylic fibres.
a mixture of both, depending on reaction conditions. Natural
rubber is poly-cis-isoprene, which is extracted from the tree Pigments
Hevea brasiliensis Pigments are various organic and inorganic insoluble substances,
In 1839, the American chemist Charles Goodyear discovered which are widely used as surface coatings. They are also employed
that natural rubber could be cross-linked with sulfur (using in the ink, plastic, rubber, ceramic, paper and linoleum industries
zinc oxide as the catalyst) to maintain its elasticity even under to impart colour. The pigment industry is usually regarded as
external pressure. His process, known as vulcanization, paved associated with paints, but in fact it is a separate industry.
the way for many practical and commercial uses of rubber, such Pigments are broadly classified into two types:
as in automobile tires and dentures. • White Pigments e.g. white lead, zinc oxide, etc.
Most synthetic rubbers (called elastomers) are made from • Coloured Pigments.e.g.ultramarine blue.
petroleum products such as ethylene, propene, and butadiene.
For example, chloroprene molecules polymerize readily to form Paints
polychloroprene, commonly known as neoprene, which has Paints are stable mechanical mixtures of one or more pigments.
properties that are comparable or even superior to those of natural The main function of the pigments is to impart the desired colour
rubber. and to protect the paint film from penetrating radiation, such as
U.V. rays.
Dye • The pigments and the extenders are suspended in drying oils
A dye can generally be described as a colored substance that has called vehicle. The vehicle or drying oil is a film forming
an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye material, to which other ingredients are added in varying
is generally applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a amounts. The paint is applied on a metal or wood surface
mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. to give it a protective coating.
The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin, • Driers promote the process of film formation and hardening.
with no or very little processing. • Thinners maintain the uniformity of the film by reducing
Classification of dye viscosity of the blend.
Dyes may be classified as discussed below : The important varieties of paints are emulsion paints, latex paints,
Acid dyes : These are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied metallic paints, epoxide resin paints, oil paints, water paints or
to fibres such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibres using distempers, etc.
neutral to acid dyebaths. • Varnishes differ from paints in that they have no pigments
Basic dyes : These are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly and in varnishes a part or whole of the oil is substituted by
applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk. resin.
Usually acetic acid is added to the dyebath to help the uptake of
the dye onto the fiber. Basic dyes are also used in the coloration Drugs and Medicines
of paper. Chemical substances administered to a human body or to an
Direct or substantive dyes : These kind of dyes are obtained animal, either for treatment of diseases or reduce suffering from
when dyeing is normally carried out in a neutral or slightly pain are called medicines or drugs. The various types of medicinal
alkaline dyebath, at or near boiling point, with the addition of compounds according to the purpose for which they are used are:
either sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). Direct
dyes are used on cotton, paper, leather, wool, silk and nylon. They Antiseptics
are also used as pH indicators and as biological stains. The chemicals which prevent or check the sepsis of wounds.
Mordant dyes : These require a mordant, which improves the Examples are : dettol (chloroxylenol + terpeneol), Bithional
fastness of the dye against water, light and perspiration. (added to soaps). Salol, Acriflavin, Savlon, Gention violet,
Mercuro Chrome, Salicylic acid, picric acid, resorcinol,
Science in Action
phenol, iodoform, boric acid, iodine, methylene blue, potassium
The most important mordant dyes are the synthetic mordant permanganate.
dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30%
of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and Disinfectants
navy shades. The mordants, potassium dichromate, is applied The chemical substances which completely destroy the micro
as an after treatment. organisms or stop their growth but are harmful to human tissues
Vat dyes : These are essentially insoluble in water and incapable are called disinfectants. Examples are : 1.0% phenol, SO2 etc.
of dyeing fibres directly. They are used to disinfect floors, clothes, utensils etc.
Reactive dyes : These utilize a chromophore attached to a
Antipyretics
substituent that is capable of directly reacting with the fibre
substrate. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing They lower the body temperature i.e. fever reducing. Examples
cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in the art studio. are : aspirin, para-cetamol, phenacetin, analgin.
B-54 CHEMISTRY
Analgesics • Phosphatic fertilizers : e.g. superphosphate of lime,
They are pain releiving. Examples are : Aspirin and analgin, Ca (H2PO4)2.
both are antipyretic and analgesics. Novalgin is most widely • Potassic fertilizers : Potash is a mixture of potassium
used analgesic. minerals used to make potassium fertilizers.
Certain narcotics like Codeine, morphene, pethidine hydro- • Complex fertilizers : Compound fertilizers, which
chloride, methadone and heroin etc. are also used as analgesics. contain N, P, and K, can often be produced by mixing
Tranquilizers straight fertilizers.
Also called psycho-therapeutic drugs, reduce anxiety, induce Science in Action
sleep, and cure mental diseases. Examples are : Barbituric
acid and its derivatives, seconal, luminal, Methyldopa and Long term use of chemical fertilizer causes harms to the eco-
Hydralazine, Equanil. system. Some fertilizers are highly acidic, which in turn often
increases the acidity of the soil, thereby reducing beneficial
Sedatives and Hypnotics organisms and stunting plant growth. By upsetting this natural
They are central nervous system depressants reduce ecosystem, long-term use of synthetic fertilizer can eventually
restlessness, emotional tension and induce sleep. Examples are : lead to a chemical imbalance in the recipient plants. Hence
Phenobarbital, Glute thimide, Valium etc. chemical fertilizer needs to be applied in moderation, as too
Antianxiety Agents much can easily “burn” the plants and sometimes even kill them.
Examples are : Meprobamate and Diazepam.
Pesticides
Tranquilizers, Sedatives & Hypnotics and Antianxiety agents
are central nervous system stimulants. Pesticides are a class of synthetic chemicals used to control
the pests of crops. Pests can be an insect, disease or weed or
Anaesthetics sometimes non - insect pest like rats.
The chemical substances which produce insensibility to the
vital functions of all types of cell especially of nervous system Some important pesticides commonly used in
temporarily are called anaesthetics. Examples are, General agriculture are:
anaesthetics - Chloroform, Fluothane, Local anaesthetics - • Organo-chlorine chemicals: They are highly dangerous
Cocaine, α-Eucaine, β-Eucaine. pesticides having the ability to persist in plant bodies and
Narcotics soil for long period to cause innumerable ecological and
health hazards later. Examples: DDT, BHC, endosulfan,
The chemical substances which act as depressant and analgesic.
heptachlor and chlordane.
Examples : Heroin, Opium and Pethedine.
• Organo - phosphorous chemicals: They are also danger-
Antibiotics ous pesticides with ability to kill many useful bacteria
besides killing the pests. They act as a source of pollution
The chemical substances produced by micro-organisms that
of agricultural land and ground water. Examples: Phorate,
inhibit the growth of bacteria or even destroy them are called
antibiotics. Examples : Penicillin is the first antibiotic discovered methyl parathion.
by Alexander Fleming. It is effective against pneumonia, • Carbonates: They are used as insecticides, acaricides or
bronchitis and sore throat etc. nematicides to kill insects, mites and nematodes respectively.
They can kill many aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in soil.
Antimalarials They migrate into the underground water- when excess
These are the drugs which cure malaria. Examples are : dosage is used.Examples: Carbofuran, aldicarb and carboryl.
• Ethylene Di Bromide (EDB):They are volatile liquids used
Plasmoquin (Plasmochin), Atebrin (Mepacrine), Chloroquine.
to produce gaseous poisons to kill stored grain pests. They
Antacids can leave traces of dangerous chemicals on grains and cause
Antacids are the drugs which neutralize excess acid in the gastric food pollution.
Juices and give relief from acid indigestion. They remove the Handy Facts
excess acid and raise the pH to appropriate level in stomach. Pesticides can cause large scale pollution - as less than 5% of
There are mainly weak bases.
applied pesticide reaches the actual pests and balance 95%
Examples– Mg(OH)2, KHCO3
enters the eco-system. The pesticides may remain in plant
Fertilizer bodies and may accumulate in edible part of crops or pesticides
A chemical fertilizer is defined as any inorganic material of and may persist in soils to cause serious damage to biological
wholly or partially synthetic origin that is added to the soil to balance in the soil. Pesticides can also enter ground water and
sustain plant growth. may act as source of water pollution.
Classification of Fertilizers Cement

Based on the availability of nutrients in them chemical fertil- Portland cement is the basic ingredient of concrete. Concrete is
izers are divided into four groups: formed when portland cement creates a paste with water (called
• Nitrogenous fertilizers : NH3 is the feed stock of all hydration) that binds with sand and rock to harden. Bricklayer
nitrogenous fertilizers such as anhydrous ammonium Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first made portland cement
nitrate (NH4NO3) and urea (CO(NH2)2).NH3 is obtained early in the 19th century by burning powdered limestone and clay.
by Born Haber process.
Manufacture of Portland Cement • Picric acid

Portland cement is manufactured by crushing, milling and • T.N.T(Tri-nitro toluene)
proportioning the following materials: • PETN (Pentaerythritol nitrate)
• Lime or calcium oxide, CaO(70%): from limestone, chalk, • RDX (Research Department Explosive)
shells, shale or calcareous rock Handy Facts
• Silica, SiO 2 (20%): from sand, old bottles, clay or Nitroglycerine was first made in 1847.It is hazardous to
argillaceous rock make, use and transport. In 1886,Alfred Nobel found that
• Alumina, Al2O3(5%): from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay
nitroglycerine soaks into diatomaceous earth to give a pasty
• Iron, Fe2O3(3%): from clay, iron ore, scrap iron and fly ash
mixture that can be molded into sticks that don’t detonate
• Gypsum, CaSO4.2H20(2%): found along with limestone
so easily. These were called dynamite and Nobel started the
The most common way to manufacture portland cement is through
company Dynamite Nobel to manufacture dynamite. He made
a dry method:
lots of money through dynamite business and later funded the
70% of the cement produced in the world is Portland cement.
Nobel prizes.
Safety Matches
Soaps and Detergents
The credit for developing friction matches that are presently still in
use has been attributed to English chemist, John Walker, in 1826. Soaps are water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
• Charles Sauria, a French chemist, invented the first • Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by
phosphorus-based match, by replacing the antimony sulfide treating them chemically with a strong alkali. The fats and
in Walker’s matches with white phosphorus in 1830. But oils used in soap making come from animal or plant sources.
white phosphorus is toxic and was eventually banned. • Fatty acids are the components of fats and oils that are used
Subsequently red phosphorus was used in the place of white in making soap. They are weak acids composed of two parts:
phosphorus which are allotropic forms of one another. • A carboxylic acid group (-COOH), plus a hydrocarbon
• The red phosphorus is located on the striking surface on the chain attached to the carboxylic acid group. Generally, it is
side of the box, mixed with an abrasive substance such as made up of a long straight chain of carbon (C) atoms each
powdered glass. carrying two hydrogen (H) atoms.
• A small amount of the red phosphorus on the striking surface The common alkalis used in soap making are sodium hydroxide
is converted into white phosphorus when match is stuck. The (NaOH), also called caustic soda; and potassium hydroxide
white phosphorous then ignites. (KOH), also called caustic potash.
Ink Saponification of fats and oils is the most widely used soap
Ink is a colloidal system of fine pigment particles dispersed in making process. Saponification involves heating fats and oils
a solvent. The pigment may or may not be coloured, and the and reacting them with a liquid alkali to produce soap and water
solvent may be aqueous or organic. We can have two types of (neat soap) plus glycerine.
inks: Writing inks and Printing inks
• In Writing inks which are used in fountain pens, a fluid Cleaning action of soaps and detergents:
water-based dye system is applied. In ballpoint pens, Water alone will not remove grease or oil from clothes because
pastelike oil-based dye systems are used. The thickness of oil and grease present in soil repel the water molecules. Both
the ink allows to flow consistently through capillary action. soaps and detergents share a critical chemical property - they
The ink does not spread unevenly, and dries easily compared are surface-active agents, or surfactants. In other words, they
to water-based systems. reduce the surface tension of water. Because of reduction of
Handy Facts surface tension, water soaks more easily in clothes and removes
Dyes tend to be preferred over pigments for writing inks be- stains faster.
cause pigments can’t be dispersed minutely enough and tend The carboxylate end of the soap molecule is attracted to water.
to clog the pen tip. And water-based dye or pigment systems It is called the hydrophilic (water-loving) end. The hydrocarbon
are still used for markers, highlighters, and roller ball pens. chain is attracted to oil and grease and repelled by water. It is
known as the hydrophobic (water-hating) end.
• Printing inks may be of two varieties: ink for conventional
printing and ink for digital nonimpact printing, which The water-hating end is repelled by water but attracted to the oil
includes ink-jet and laser (electrophotographic) technologies. in the soil. At the same time, the water-loving end is attracted to
In printing inks colour is imparted by pigments rather the water molecules. These opposing forces loosen the soil and
than the dyes used in writing inks. Pigments are insoluble, suspend it in the water. Warm or hot water helps dissolve grease
whereas dyes are soluble. Ink pigments are both inorganic and oil in soil. Washing machine agitation or hand rubbing helps
and organic. pull the soil free.
Gun-powder Fuels
Gunpowder is a mixture of three different components: A fuel is a substance that releases energy. Some fuels (for example
• Potassium nitrate,KNO3 (also called salt petre) (75% by uranium) release energy from nuclear reactions.
weight) • This energy is captured in chemical bonds through processes
• Charcoal (15% by weight), and sulphur (10% by weight). such as photosynthesis and respiration. Energy is released
• Nitroglycerine during oxidation.
B-56 CHEMISTRY
• The most common form of oxidation is the direct reaction Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the part of the earth where all types
of a fuel with oxygen through combustion. Wood, gasoline, of minerals, metals, organic matters, rocks, soils, etc. exist. Soil
coal , and any number of other fuels have energy-rich is a part of lithosphere.
chemical bonds created using the energy from the Sun , Biosphere: The biosphere refers to the sphere of living organisms
which is released when the fuel is burned (i.e., the release and their interactions with the environment (viz. atmosphere,
of chemical energy). hydrosphere and lithosphere). The biosphere is very large and
• Fossil fuels are principally hydrocarbons with minor impu- complex and is divided into smaller units called ecosystems.
rities. They are so named because they originate from the
DAMAGE TO ENVIRONMENT
decayed and fossilized remains of plants and animals that
lived millions of years ago. Environment may get damaged due to several reasons. The
damage may be in the small area or may affect a much larger area
Types of Fossil Fuels and its ill-effects may by felt all over the globe. The environmental
Fossil fuels can be separated into three categories: damages may be broadly classified as:
• Petroleum : The first is petroleum or crude oil. This is
a mixture of light, simple hydrocarbons dominated by the Regional Environmental Damage
fractions with 6 to 12 carbons but also containing some light Those environmental damages which affect the living and non-
hydrocarbons (e.g., methane and ethane). living things locally over a small area are termed as regional
• Coal : The second most prominent and naturally most environmental damages.
abundant fossil fuel is coal. Coal also was produced from Examples are:
decayed vegetative material buried years ago through a Acid rain
process that is slightly different, being less oxidizing. Coal Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any
is found as a solid not a liquid. form on precipitation with acidic components, such as sulphuric
Disadvantages: Coal is a very polluting fuel that produces or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet
a large amount of unburnt hydrocarbon, particulate, and or dry forms. This may include rain, snow, fog, hail or even
significant quantities of sulphur dioxide byproducts. dust that is acidic. Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2)
• Natural gas : The third major fossil fuel is natural gas. and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and
This is a general term for the light hydrocarbon fractions transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react
found associated with most oil deposits. Natural gas is with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulphuric and
mostly methane with small quantities of ethane and other nitric acids. These then mix with water and other material before
gases mixed in. It is hydrogen rich, since methane has a falling to the ground. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the
carbon to hydrogen ratio of 1:4. It is also an excellent fuel, atmosphere are:
burning with a high heat output and little in the way of • Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two
unwanted pollution. Natural gas is also easy to transport thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere
through pressurized pipelines. come from electric power generators.
• Vehicles and heavy equipments.
Factors to consider when choosing a fuel • Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Energy Value : Energy Value is the heat of combustion of a fuel The environmental effects of acid rain include:
given per gram of fuel. The higher the energy value, the more • Washes away of nutrients from soil and
energy is released, the better the fuel. • Degradation of basic material such as limestone and marble.
Ignition Temperature : Ignition Temperature is the minimum Acid rain affects building and structures, particularly. Those
temperature to which the fuel-oxidizer mixture (or a portion of made of metal or stone.
it) must be heated in order for the combustion reaction to occur.
Handy Facts
The Taj Mahal which is made of marble (CaCO3) has been
CHEMISTRY AND THE ENVIRONMENT seriously affected by acid rain. To protect Taj Mahal, Govt. of
The environment consists of various segments such as India has notified ‘Taj Trapezium’–an area surrounding it. In
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. this area all industries have been asked to switch to LPG or
Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the protective layer of gases natural gas in the place of coal or oil.
which is surrounding the earth. Its main functions are: Global Environmental Damage
• Absorbs IR radiations emitted by the sun and reemitted from
the earth and thus controls the temperature of the earth. The environmental damages which affect the living and non
• Filters tissue damaging UV radiation of the sun. living things globally or wider part of the earth are called global
• It acts as a source for CO2 for plant photosynthesis and O2 environmental damages.
for respiration Examples are:
• It acts as a source for nitrogen for nitrogen fixing bacteria Ozone layer depletion
and ammonia producing plants. Chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) are chemicals used in refrigerants,
• The atmosphere transports water from ocean to land. and various kinds of sprays or sols (eg. perfumes, air freshener,
Hydrosphere: Hydrosphere is the part of earth on which all types etc.). CFCs cause ozone holes in the ozone layer. Ozone hole
of water resources exist,viz., oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, glaciers, refer to depletion of ozone layer due to the reaction of CFCs and
ice caps, ground water, etc. ozone molecule. The ozone layer resides in the stratosphere and
surrounds the entire Earth. UV radiation (280 to 315 nanometer Some examples of natural pollutants are:
wavelength) which comes from the Sun is partially absorbed in • Fires in forests may be caused when lightning strikes the
this layer. As a result, the amount of UV-radiation reaching the trees. Burning of tree produces a lot of CO2 which is released
Earth’s surface is greatly reduced. Due to depletion of ozone to the atmosphere.
layer, human exposure to UV-radiation increases the risk of • Soil erosion increases suspended particulate matter and dust
skin cancer, cataracts, and a suppressed immune system. UV- in air. These may even enter water bodies as they are washed
radiation exposure can also damage terrestrial plant life, single down by rain or natural water falls.
cell organisms, and aquatic ecosystems. • Volcanic eruptions also add pollutants like SO2 and solid
Green House effect particles to the environment.
More ultraviolet radiations reach the earth through the ozone • Volatile organic compounds from leaves, trees and dead
holes and the reflected radiations from the earth are absorbed animals naturally enter the atmosphere.
by CO2,water vapour, etc. The trapped radiations release more • Natural radioactivity and the other natural pollutants have
and more heat resulting in the phenomenon of Global Warming. been entering the environment since ages.
This effect is also known as Green House Effect. Green house
Anthropogenic pollutants are of two types:
effect may lead to the rising of water level in the seas, changes in
rainfall, increased frequency of extreme natural events, melting Primary pollutants: Primary pollutants are added directly in a
of the ice-caps or glaciers etc. harmful form to the atmosphere.
eg CO2 and CO from burning of fossil fuel; SO2 and oxides of
POLLUTION nitrogen from vehicular combustion, thermal power stations, etc.
Pollution refers to deterioration or unclean objectionable Secondary Pollutants: Secondary pollutants are the products of
conditions in the quality of natural resources such as air, reaction between the primary pollutants and normal environmental
water and soil because of the action or presence of unwanted constituents.
substances beyond a certain limit. Pollutants are the substances Nitric oxide, a primary pollutant reacts with oxygen to give
or effect introduced into the environment in significant amounts nitrogen-di-oxide which is a secondary pollutant.
in solid, semi solid, liquid, gas or sub molecular particle 2NO + O2 2NO2
form which has a detrimental effect on the environment. The sources of anthropogenic pollutants can be of two types:
Pollutants can be natural or man-made (anthropogenic). Industrial and Domestic sources.
Major pollutants of air
Pollutants Primary sources Significant Effects
SO2 Vehicular combustion, fossil burning Acid rain, irritation in eyes, premature falling of leaves
CO and CO2 Vehicular combustion, burning of fuels Global warming, green house effect, CO has great affinity for
and hydrocarbons hydrocarbons, haemoglobin and forms carboxy haemoglobin
Smoke, fly ash and soot Thermal power stations Respiratory diseases.
Lead and mercury Autoexhaust from gasoline (petrol), Affects the nervous system and circulatory system causing
paints, storage batteries. Fossil fuel nerve fuel burning and brain damage
like coal burning.
CFCs (Chloro fluoro Carbon) Refridgerants and aerosol Kidney damage and ozone depletion.
Major pollutants of water
Pollutants Primary sources Significant Effects
Pesticides and insecticides Improper use in agriculture like DDT, BHC, Toxic to fishes, predatory birds and mammals
mosquito repellants
Plastics Homes and industries Kills fishes and animals. Persists in the environ-
ment because of non-biodegrabality.
Chlorine compounds Water disinfection with chlorine, paper Fatal for plankton (organisms floating on the
industries and bleaching powder surface of water), foul taste and odour, can cause
Cancer in humans.
Lead paints Leaded gasoline Toxic to organisms
Mercury Natural evaporation and dissolved industrial Highly toxic to humans
wastes, fungicides
Acids Mine drainage, industrial wastes Mine drainage, industrial wastes Kills organisms
Sediments Natural errosion, run off from factories Reduces ability of water to assimilate oxygen.
mining and construction activities, fertilizer
and other
B-58 CHEMISTRY
Radioactive Pollution The sources of such waste include: (1) nuclear weapon testing
or detonation; (2) the nuclear fuel cycle, including the mining,
Radioactive Pollution can be defined as the release of radioactive separation, and production of nuclear materials for use in
substances or high-energy particles into the air, water, or earth nuclear power plants or nuclear bombs; (3) accidental release of
as a result of human activity, either by accident or by design. radioactive material from nuclear power plants.
Some worst environmental disasters
Name of the disaster Reason for occurrence Effect of the disaster
Bhopal Gas Toxic gases (Methyl iso-cyanide-CH3NC) The harmful fumes spread into the sleeping city and people woke
Leak(1983) leaked from the Union Carbide (now Dow with burning eyes and lungs. Thousands died within days. Years
Chemical) pesticide plant in Bhopal, India later also, pollutants seeping out of the plant site into groundwater
have caused cancer, growth retardation and dizziness.
Tokaimura Nuclear Japan's worst nuclear accident happened Two ended up dying, and hundreds were exposed to various
Plant (1999) in a facility northeast of Tokyo. levels of radiation.
Minamata disease Industrial poisoning of Minamata Bay Large amounts of mercury and other heavy metals found their
(1956) in Japan. Large amounts of mercury and way into the fish and shellfish that comprised a large part of the
other heavy metals were released into the local diet. Thousands of residents of the Minamata have slowly
waste water. suffered over the decades and died from a disease-termed as
Minamata disease.
The Great Smog of A smog covered London for 5 days in 1952. Thousands died and a hundred thousand fell ill because of a
(1952 in London) Cold weather, combined with windless blanket of smog. An estimated 12,000 premature deaths have
conditions collected airborne pollutants been attributed to this smog.
from the use of coal to form a thick layer
of smog over the city.
Baia Mare Cyanide Cyanide-contaminated water leaked out An incredible amount of fish and aquatic plants were killed and
Spill(2000) from a dam, leaking out 100 tonnes of up to 100 people were hospitalized after eating contaminated fish.
cyanide in to Baia Mare lake in Romania.
It has been considered as the second fatal
environmental next to Chernobyl in Russia
which has been discussed already.
atmosphere to which a healthy industrial worker can be exposed
Handy Facts
during an eight-hour day without any adverse effect.
Dioxin is a general term that describes a group of hundreds
of chemicals that are highly persistent in the environment. Smog
The most toxic compound is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- The word smog is derived from smoke and fog. There are two
p-dioxin or TCDD.Dioxin and furan are some of the most types of smog: classical and photochemical smog. Classical
toxic compounds. smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog
and sulphur dioxide. It is also called reducing smog. Whereas
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) photochemical smog occurs in warm and dry sunny climate. It
Oxygen dissolved in water is vital for aquatic life. The optimum has high concentration of oxidizing agents and therefore, it is also
value for dissolved oxygen in good quality water is 4-8mg/L. It called as oxidizing smog.
is consumed by oxidation of organic matter/ reducing agent etc. Biomagnification
present in water. Water which has DO value less than 4 mg/L
This refers to increase in concentration of the toxicant at
is termed as polluted and is unfit for human or aquatic animal
successive trophic levels. This happens because a toxic substance
consumptions.
accumulated by an organisation can not be mitobolised or
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) excreted, and is thus passed on to the next higher trophic level.
It is an index of the organic content of water, since the most Biomagnification happens in the aquatic food chain. This is well
common substance oxidized by the dissolved oxygen in water is known for mercury and DDT.
organic matter, from a biological origin, such as dead plants etc. Eutrophication
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) The process in which nutrient enriched water bodies support a
The capacity of the organic matter in the sample of natural water dense plant population, which kills animal life by depriving it of
to consume oxygen is called its BOD. It is determined experimen- oxygen and results in subsequent loss of biodiversity, is known
tally by determining the dissolved oxygen (DO) at the beginning as Eutrophication.
and at the end of a 5-day period in a sealed sample. The BOD
Science in Action
gives the measure of oxygen utilized or consumed in the period
Photochemical smog mainly contains ozone, nitirc oxide,
as a result of oxidation of dissolved organic matter present in the
acrolein, formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). These
water sample.
cause serious health problems. In order to stop photochemical
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) smog, catalytic converter are used now-a-days in cars so that
This value indicates the permissible level of a toxic pollutant in release of NO2 and hydrocarbons are controlled.
EXERCISE
1. Which of the following is not a synthetic fibre: 13. Which one of the following chemicals is used in beauty
(a) Angora (b) Rayon parlours for hair-setting? [NDA]
(c) Nylon (d) Polyester (a) Sulphur based (b) Phosphorus based
2. Which one of the following is not contained in Portland (c) Silicon based (d) Iron based
cement ? [NDA] 14. The major component used in preparation of different
(a) Ca3Al2O6 (b) Ca3SiO5 types of glasses is [NDA]
(c) Ca2SiO4 (d) Ca3(PO4)2 (a) Silica (b) Sodium borate
3. Which one of the following acids is used for etching glass? (c) Calcium silicate (d) Sodium silicate
[NDA] 15. Which one of the following substances is used in the
(a) H2SO4 (b) HNO3 manufacture of safety matches?
(c) HF (d) HCl (a) Red phosphorus [CDS]
4. What is the reason for white cement to be white? [NDA] (b) White phosphorus
(a) It does not contain carbon (c) Phosphorus trioxide (P203)
(b) It does not contain silicon (d) Black phosphorus
(c) It does not contain iron 16. Which one of the following is used as a mordant in dyeing
(d) It does not contain calcium and tanning industry? [CDS]
5. What is the purpose of adding plasticizers in paint (a) Magnesium oxide (b) Magnesium carbonate
manufacturing process? [NDA] (c) Magnesium chloride (d) Magnesium sulphate
(a) They act as a film-forming constituent 17. Which one of the following polymeric materials is used
(b) They reduce the viscosity for making bullet proof jacket? [CDS]
(c) They prevent the polymerization and condensation (a) Nylon-6, 6 (b) Rayon
(d) They provide elasticity to the film and minimize its (c) Kevlar (d) Dacron
cracking 18. The polymeric fibre used as a substitute for wool in making
6. Which fertilizer is assimilated directly by the plant? synthetic blankets, sweaters, etc., is [CDS]
[NDA] (a) nylon (b) teflon
(a) Super phosphate (b) Nitrolim (c) orlon (d) bakelite
(c) Muriate of Potash (d) Humus 19. The chemical used as a ‘fixer’ in photography is
7. Which raw material is used in the preparation of soft glass (a) Sodium sulphate [IAS Prelim]
? [NDA] (b) Sodium thiosulphate
(a) K2CO3, Sio2, CaCO3 (c) Ammonium persulphate
(b) K2CO3, SiO2, PbCO3 (d) Borax
(c) Na2CO3, SiO2, CaCO3 20. Statement I : Coal-based thermal power stations
contribute to acid-rain.
(d) Na2CO3, SiO2, PbO
Statement II : Oxides of carbon are emitted when coal
8. Which of the following chemicals is used in foam fire
burns. [IAS Prelim]
extinguishers? [NDA]
(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are individually
(a) Aluminium sulphate (b) Copper sulphate
true and Statement II is the correct explanation of
(c) Cobalt sulphate (d) Nickel sulphate
Statement I
9. What is the composition of nitrolim – a chemical fertilizer?
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are individually
[NDA]
true but Statement II is not the correct explanation of
(a) Nitrogen and limestone Statement I
(b) Calcium carbide and nitrogen (c) Statement I is true but Statement II is false
(c) Calcium carbide and carbon (d) Statement I is false but Statement II is true
(d) None of the above 21. Salts of which of the following elements provide colours
10. What is a mixture of potassium nitrate, powdered charcoal to fireworks? [IAS Prelim]
and sulphur called ? [NDA] (a) Zinc and sulphur (b) Potassium and mercury
(a) Glass (b) Cement (c) Strontium and barium (d) Chromium and nickel
(c) Paint (d) Gun power 22. Statement I : Phenyl is used as a household germicide.]
11. Flint glass is obtained from which of the following? [NDA] Statement II : Phenyl is phenol derivative and phenol is
(a) Zinc and barium borosilicate an effective germicide. [IAS Prelim]
(b) Sand, red lead and potassium carbonate (a) Both Statement I and Statement II are true and
(c) Sodium aluminum borosilicate Statement II is the correct explanation of Statement I
(d) Pure silica and zinc oxide (b) Both Statement I and Statement II are true but
12. Which one of the following correctly defines the state of Statement II is NOT the correct explanation of
glass? [NDA] Statement I
(a) Crystalline solid (b) Super cooled liquid (c) Statement I is true but Statement II is false
(c) Condensed gas (d) Liquid crystal (d) Statement I is false but Statement II is true
B-60 CHEMISTRY
23. Consider the following chemicals: [IAS Prelim] (a) re-radiation of U.V. rays by CO2 and H2O
1. Benzene (b) re-radiation of I.R. rays by CO2 and H2O
2. Carbon tetrachloride (c) re-radiation of I.R. rays by O2 and N2
3. Sodium carbonate (d) re-radiation of U.V. rays by O2 and N2
4. Trichloroethylene 35. A green house
Which of the above/is are used as dry cleaning chemical? (a) is an enclosure of glass in which plants are kept to
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only protect them from cold air outside
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) is that “body” which allows the short wavelength
24. Which one of the following is another name of RDX? incoming solar radiation to enter in, but does not
[IAS Prelim] allow long wavelength outgoing infra-red radiations
(a) Cyanohydrin (b) Dextran to escape out
(c) Cyclohexane (d) Cyclonite (c) both the above
25. Which one of the following is used as an explosive? (d) none of the above
[IAS Prelim] 36. Minimata disease is a pollution-related disease, which
(a) Phosphorus trichloride (b) Mercuric oxide results from –
(c) Graphite (d) Nitroglycerine (a) release of human organic waste into drinking water
26. It is said, the Tajmahal may be destroyed due to – (b) release of industrial waste mercury into fishing water
(a) flood in Yamuna river (c) accumulation of arsenic into atmosphere
(b) decomposition of marble as a result of high (d) oil spills into sea
temperature 37. Which of the following best describes “jet streams”?
(c) air pollutants released from oil refinery of Mathura
(d) all the above (a) Wind system with seas and reversal of direction.
27. CO2 absorbs some of the ............. that radiates from the (b) Wind blowing from sub tropical high pressure belts
surface of Earth to space – towards the tropical low pressure belts.
(a) ozone (b) heat (c) Narrow meandering bands of winds which blow in
(c) ultraviolet light (d) smog mid latitude near the tropopause and encircle the
28. Which of the following is a measure of organic pollution globe.
of water – (d) Winds blowing from the tropical high pressure belts
(a) DO (b) BOD towards the equatorial low pressure belts.
(c) COD (d) All of these 38. Which one of the following is associated with the formation
29. Which of the following gas causes pollution – of brown air in traffic congested cities? [CDS]
(a) CO (b) SO2 (a) Sulphur dioxide (b) Nitrogen oxide
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above (c) Carbon dioxide (d) Carbon monoxide
30. DDT is a – 39. Some statements about the benefits of organic farming are
(a) non-biodegradable pollutant given below. Indicate whether they are true or false using
(b) biodegradable pollutant the codes given below the statements : [CDS]
(c) antibiotics 1. It reduces CO2 emission.
(d) none of the above 2. It does not lead to toxic effect.
31. Ozone layer in upper atmosphere (stratosphere) is 3. It improves the water-retention capacity of the soil.
destroyed by – Codes
(a) hydrochloric acid (a) 1 2 3
(b) photochemical smog False True False
(c) chlorofluoro carbon (CFC) (b) 1 2 3
(d) sulphur dioxide True False False
32. Chipko movement is concerned with – (c) 1 2 3
(a) plant conservation (b) project tiger False True True
(c) plant breeding (d) animal breeding (d) 1 2 3
33. The layer which reflects radio signals back to earth is – False True True
(a) Ozone layer (b) Troposphere 40. From which one among the following water sources, the
(c) Ionosphere (d) Stratosphere water is likely to be contaminated with fluoride? [CDS]
34. Which of the following is the major cause of global (a) Ground water (b) River water
warming? (c) Pond water (d) Rain water
ANSWER KEY
1 (a) 2 (d) 3 (c) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6 (c) 7 (c) 8 (a)
9 (d) 10 (d) 11 (b) 12 (b) 13 (c) 14 (a) 15 (a) 16 (a)
17 (c) 18 (c) 19 (b) 20 (b) 21 (c) 22 (a) 23 (c) 24 (d)
25 (d) 26 (c) 27 (b) 28 (d) 29 (c) 30 (a) 31 (c) 32 (a)
33 (c) 34 (b) 35 (c) 36 (b) 37 (c) 38 (b) 39 (c) 40 (b)

Chemistry Hai

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CHEMISTRY

Common Name Molecular Formula (Chemical name) Common Uses as/in

Moth balls C6H4Cl2 (1,4-dichlorobenzene) Dispel moths(an insect)

Tartaric acid C4H6O6 ( 2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid) Fermentation of grapes

Citric Acid C6H8O7(2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid) Preservative

Octane C8H18(n-octane) Component of petrol

Camphor C10H16O (1,7,7-Trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one) Fragrance

Formaldehyde CH2O, (Formaldehyde) Preservatives of corpses.

Triethanolamine C6H15NO3 (2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino ethanol) Lotion, shaving foams, shampoo, etc.

Acetone C3H6O ( Propanone) Removal of residues, glue, stains &

Plaster of Paris CaSO4.1/2H2O(Calcium Sulphate hemihydrates) Plastering fractured bones

Blue Vitriol CuSO4.5H2O(Copper Sulphate) Colourant

Slaked Lime Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydroxide) pH-regulating agent and acid

Mohr's Salt FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.6H2O (Ammonium Ferrous Sulphate) Analytical reagent in laboratory

White Vitriol ZnSO4.7H2O ( Zinc Sulphate) Medicine

Magnesia MgO( Magnesium oxide) Soil and ground water treatment

Vermelium HgS ( Mercuric Sulphide) Pigment

Freon CF2Cl2 (Dichlorodifluoromethane) Refrigerant & aerosol propellants

Galena PbS (Lead sulphide) Lead-acid batteries

Grain alcohol C2H5OH (Ethanol) Alcoholic drinks, fuel & solvent

Rubbing alcohol (CH3)2CHOH( isopropyl alcohol or Propan-2-ol) Antiseptic

A solution of iodine along with potassium iodide or sodium

MSG or Chinese salt C5H8NNaO4 (Mono-sodium glutamate) Food-additive

Energy: It is the ability to cause change or do work. Some forms

The Physical States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

through the liquid phase, it is called deposition or de-sublimation. ELEMENTS

Specific elements present Bonding in the compound Reactivity-types of chemical

Homogenous mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures

Name of the fraction No. of Boiling range Use

Chromatography • Paper Chromatography

Different kinds of solution

Some Examples Involving Physical Changes

Physical changes Observation Change on physical property

Chemical Change Characteristics of a Chemical Change

Some Examples Involving Chemical Changes :

Some interesting information about elements

For example: Avogadro’s Number and Molar mass of an

Electrons (Symbol : e) Proton (Symbol : p) Neutron (Symbol : n)

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN AN 1 -1, 0, +1 3 2p 6

Comparison of the Properties of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays

Periodic property Definition Variation

Electronegativity Measure of the attraction of an atom for Increase Decreases

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Tea Tannic acid

COMPARISON OF METALS AND NON-METALS

They are usually bad conductors of heat

Non- metals are generally soft (Exception:

9 They are electropositive in nature. They are electronegative in nature.

11 They act as reducing agents. They act as oxidizing agents.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL Sn(s) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2O (l) → Na2SnO3

Type of ore Metals

Sulphate ores Lead(Anglesite, PbSO4)

Alloy Composition Uses

Variety Iron mixed with Special Properties Uses

1 (d) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5 (c) 6 (c) 7 (c) 8 (b)

Reaction with metals :

Group 18 : Noble Gases Handy Facts