Mathematics

Learner’s Module
Unit 3

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Mathematics –
Grade 10
Learner’s
Module
First Edition 2015
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Published by the Department of
Education Secretary: Br. Armin
A. Luistro FSC Undersecretary:
Dina S. Ocampo, PhD

Development Team of the Learner’s Module

Consultants:Soledad A. Ulep, PhD, Debbie Marie B. Verzosa, PhD, and
Rosemarievic Villena-Diaz, PhD
Authors:Melvin M. Callanta, Allan M. Canonigo, Arnaldo I. Chua, Jerry D. Cruz,
Mirla S. Esparrago, Elino S. Garcia, Aries N. Magnaye, Fernando B. Orines,
Rowena S. Perez, and Concepcion S. Ternida
Editor:Maxima J. Acelajado, PhD
Reviewers:Maria Alva Q. Aberin, PhD, Maxima J. Acelajado, PhD, Carlene P.
Arceo, PhD, Rene R. Belecina, PhD, Dolores P. Borja, Agnes D. Garciano, Phd,

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 Introduction

This material is written in support of the K to 12 Basic Education

Program to ensure attainment of standards expected of students.

In the design of this Grade 10 materials, it underwent different

processes - development by writers composed of classroom teachers,
school heads, supervisors, specialists from the Department and other
institutions; validation by experts, academicians, and practitioners;
revision; content review and language editing by members of Quality
Circle Reviewers; and finalization with the guidance of the consultants.
There are eight (8) modules in this
material. Module 1 – Sequences
Module 2 – Polynomials and Polynomial
Equations Module 3 – Polynomial
Functions
Module 4 – Circles
Module 5 – Plane Coordinate
Geometry Module 6 –
Permutations and Combinations
Module 7 – Probability of
Compound Events Module 8 –
Measures of Position

With the different activities provided in every module, may you

find this material engaging and challenging as it develops your critical-
thinking and problem-solving skills.
 Table of Contents

Unit 3
Module 6: Permutations and Combinations 275
Lessons and Coverage 276
Module Map 277
Pre-Assessment 278
Learning Goals and Targets 282
Lesson 1: Permutations 283
Activity 1 283
Activity 2 284
Activity 3 286
Activity 4 286
Activity 5 295
Activity 6 296
Activity 7 297
Activity 8 298
Activity 9 299
Activity 10 299
Summary/Synthesis/Generalization 300
Lesson 2: Combinations 301
Activity 1 301
Activity 2 303
Activity 3 304
Activity 4 310
Activity 5 311
Activity 6 311
Activity 7 312
Activity 8 314
Activity 9 315
Activity 10 315
Summary/Synthesis/Generalization 316
Glossary of Terms 317
References and Website Links Used in this Module 317

Module 7: Probability of Compound Events 319

Lessons and Coverage 320
Module Map 320
Pre-Assessment 321
Learning Goals and Targets 326
Lesson 1: Union and Intersection of Events 328
Activity 1 328
Activity 2 330
Activity 3 332
Activity 4 334
Activity 5 336
Activity 6 337
Activity 7 338
Activity 8 339
Activity 9 340
Summary/Synthesis/Generalization 340
Lesson 2: Independent and Dependent Events 341
Activity 1 341
Activity 2 343
Activity 3 344
Activity 4 344
Activity 5 345
Activity 6 345
Summary/Synthesis/Generalization 345
Lesson 3: Conditional Probability 346
Activity 1 346
Activity 2 347
Activity 3 348
Activity 4 350
Activity 5 351
Activity 6 351
Activity 7 352
Summary/Synthesis/Generalization 352
Glossary of Terms 353
References and Website Links Used in this Module 354
I. INTRODUCTION

Look at the pictures shown below. Have you ever wondered

why some locks such as the one shown below have codes in them?
Do you know why a shorter code is “weak,” while a longer code is
a “strong” personal password in a computer account? Have you
ever realized that there are several possible ways in doing most
tasks or activities like planning a seating arrangement or predicting
the possible outcomes of a race? Have you ever been aware that
there are numerous possible choices in selecting from a set, like
deciding which combination of dishes to serve in a catering service
or deciding which dishes to order in a menu? Did you know that
awareness of these can help you form conclusions and make wise
decisions?

Find out the answers to these questions and discover the

wide applications of permutations and combinations through this
module.

DEPE 275
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D
 II. LESSONS AND COVERAGE

In this module, you will examine and determine the number of

possible ways of doing certain tasks, or selecting some objects
from a set. You will learn about these through the following lessons:

Lesson 1 – Permutations
Lesson 2 – Combinations

In these lessons, you will learn to:

Lesson 1 ● illustrate permutation of objects;

● derive the formula for finding the number of
permutations of n objects taken r at a time, n ≥ r ; and
● solve problems involving permutations.
Lesson 2 ● illustrate the combination of n objects;
● differentiate permutation from combination of n
objects taken r at a time, n ≥ r ;
● derive the formula for finding the number of
combinations of n objects taken r at a time; and
● solve problems involving permutations and
combinations.

276
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Here is a simple map of the lessons that will be covered in this module:

COMBINATORICS

Finding the Permutations ofn

Objects Takenrat a Time
Finding the Combinations ofn
Permutations Objects Takenrat a Time

Problems Involving
Permutations
Problems Involving
Combinations Combinations

Problems Involving
Permutations and Combinations

277
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III. PRE-ASSESSMENT
Part I
Find out how much you already know about the topics in this
module. Choose the letter that you think best answers the question.
Please answer all the items. Take note of the items that you were
not able to answer correctly and find the right answer as you go
through this module.

1. Choosing a subset of a set is an example of .

A. combination C. integration
B. differentiation D. permutation

2. Which of the following situations or activities involve permutation?

A. matching shirts and pants
B. forming different triangles out of 5 points on a plane, no
three of which are collinear
C. assigning telephone numbers to subscribers
D. forming a committee from the members of a club
3. The product of a positive integer n and all the positive integers
less than it is .
A. powers of n C. n - factors
B. multiples of n D. n factorial

4. Two different arrangements of objects where some of them are

identical are called .
A. distinguishable permutations C. circular permutations
B. unique combinations D. circular combinations

5. How many different 4-digit even numbers can be formed from

the digits 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, and 9 if no repetition of digits is
allowed?
A. 1 680 B. 840 C. 420 D. 120

6. In how many ways can 8 people be seated around a circular

table if two of them insist on sitting beside each other?
A. 360 B. 720 C. 1440 D. 5040

7. Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the letters

of the word PASS.
A. 4 B. 12 C. 36 D. 144

8. Ms. Santos asked Renz to draw all the diagonals of a certain

polygon on the blackboard. Renz was able to draw 27 diagonals
which his teacher declared correct. What was the given
polygon?
A. pentagon C. nonagon
B. hexagon D. decagon
 278
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 9. Ms. De Leon wants to produce different sets of test questions
for her essay test. If she plans to do this by putting together 3
out of 5 questions she prepared, how many different sets of
questions could she construct?
A. 10 B. 20 C. 60 D. 80

10. If P(9, r) = 3024, what is r ?

A. 2 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6

11. In a town fiesta singing competition with 12 contestants, in how

many ways can the organizer arrange the first three singers?
A. 132 B. 990 C. 1320 D. 1716

12. What is P(8, 5)?

A. 56 B. 336 C. 1400 D. 6720

13. If P(n, 4) = 5040, then n = .

A. 12 B. 10 C. 9 D. 8

14. Given x = P(n, n) and y = P(n, n – 1), what can be concluded

about x
and y?
A. x > y B. x < y C. x = y D. x = – y

15. Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the letters

of the word EDUCATED.
A. 1680 B. 10 080 C. 20 160 D. 40 320

16. If a combination lock must contain 5 different digits, in how

many ways can a code be formed from the digits 0 to 9?
A. 15 120 B. 30 240 C. 151 200 D. 1 000 000

17. In how many ways can 4 men and 3 women arrange

themselves in a row for picture taking if the men and women
must stand in alternate positions?
A. 5040 B. 720 C. 144 D. 30

18. In a room, there are 10 chairs in a row. In how many ways can
5 students be seated in consecutive chairs?
A. 720 B. 600 C. 252 D. 120

19. Which of the following situations does NOT illustrate

combination?
A. Selecting 2 songs from 10 choices for an audition piece
B. Fixing the schedule of a group of students who must take
exactly 8 subjects
C. Enumerating the subsets of a set
D. Identifying the lines formed by connecting some given
points on a plane

279
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20. If w = C(5, 2), x = C(5, 3), y = C(5, 4), and z = C(5, 5), and we
are given 5 points on a plane of which no three are collinear,
which expression gives the total number of polygons that can
be drawn?
A. x + y C. x + y + z
B. w + x + y D. w + x + y + z

21. C(n, n) = .
A. n B. r C. 1 D.
ca
nn
ot
be
de
ter
mi
ne
d
22. If C(n, r) = 35, which of the following are possible values of n
and r? A. n = 6, r = 4 B. n = 7, r = 3 C. n
= 8, r = 3 D. n = 9, r = 2

23. If C(n, 4) = 126, what is n?

A. 11 B. 10 C. 9 D. 7

24. If C(12, r) = 792, which of the following is a possible

value of r? A. 8 B. 7 C. 6 D. 4

25. A caterer offers 3 kinds of soup, 7 kinds of main dish, 4 kinds of

vegetable dish, and 4 kinds of dessert. In how many possible
ways can a caterer form a meal consisting of 1 soup, 2 main
dishes, 1 vegetable dish, and 2 desserts?
A. 140 B. 336 C. 672 D. 1512

26. In how many ways can a committee of 7 students be chosen

from 9 juniors and 9 seniors if there must be 4 seniors in the
committee?
A. 10 584 B. 1764 C. 210 D. 84

27. Jane wants to solve a system of equations through elimination

by combining any two equations. The number of equations she
has is equal to the number of variables. She realizes that she
has 10 possible ways to start her solution. How many equations
does she have?
A. 6 B. 5 C. 4 D. 3

28. There are 11 different food items in a buffet. A customer is

asked to get a certain number of items. If the customer has 462
possible ways as a result, which of the following did he possibly
do?
A. Choose 4 out of the 11 items
B. Choose 6 out of the 11 items
C. Choose 8 out of the 11 items
D. Choose 7 out of the 11 items

280
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 Part II

Read and understand the situation below, and then answer the
question or perform what is required.

Suppose you had graduated from high school but did not have
enough money to continue your college education. You decided to
work temporarily and save for your schooling. You applied at Mr.
Aquino’s restaurant and were hired. After a few days, you noticed
that the restaurant business was not doing very well, and Mr.
Aquino asked for your opinion. What you noticed was that there
was no variety in the food being served in the restaurant.

1. Prepare a list of different choices of food that may be served

(soup, meat/chicken dishes, fish, vegetables, fruits, desserts,
beverages). Consider health and nutritional values.
2. What mathematical concepts are utilized in this given situation?
3. Formulate two problems involving the mathematical concepts
in the situation.
4. Write the equation(s) or expressions that describe the situation.
5. Solve the equations and problems formulated.
6. Present a sample menu for the day and explain the reason for
your choice. In view of the fact that there will be several possible
combinations, explain also why you should prepare certain
dishes more often or less frequently.

281
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Rubric on Problems Formulated and Solved

Score Descriptors
Poses a more complex problem with two or more correct
possible solutions and communicates ideas accurately,
6 shows in-depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts
and/or processes, and provides explanations wherever
appropriate.
Poses a more complex problem and finishes all significant
parts of the solution and communicates ideas accurately,
5
shows in-depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts
and/or processes
Poses a complex problem and finishes all significant parts of
the solution and communicates ideas accurately, shows in-
4
depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts and/or
processes
Poses a complex problem and finishes most significant parts
of the solution and communicates ideas accurately, shows
3
comprehension of major concepts although neglects or
misinterprets less significant ideas or details
Poses a problem and finishes some significant parts of the
2 solution and communicates ideas accurately, but shows
gaps on theoretical comprehension
Poses a problem but demonstrates little comprehension,
1
not being able to develop an approach
Source: D.O. #73, s. 2012

IV. LEARNING GOALS AND TARGETS

After going through this module, you should be able to
demonstrate understanding of key concepts of combinatorics,
particularly permutations and combinations. Also, you should be
able to use precise counting techniques in formulating conclusions
and making decisions.

282
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 A. A close friend invited Anna to her
birthday party. Anna has 4 new blouses
(stripes, with ruffles, long-sleeved, and
sleeveless)
Start Lesson and 3 skirts
1 of (red, pink,
this module and
by assessing your knowledge of the
basicblack) in her
counting closet called
technique reserved for such
the Fundamental Counting Principle. This
occasions.
knowledge and skill will help you understand permutations of objects. As
you go1. through
Assuming thisthat
lesson, keepcan
any skirt in mind this important question:How does
be paired
the concept of permutation help in
with any blouse, in how many ways formingconclusions and in making wise
decisions?To
can Annabe able to answer
select her outfit?this,List
perform
the each activity that follows.
Seek the assistance
possibilities. of your teacher and peers if you encounter any
difficulty.
2. HowHave yourblouse-and-skirt
many work checked by yourteacher.
pairs are possible?
3. Show another way of finding the answer in item 1.

Activity 1:

B. Suppose you secured your bike

using a combination lock. Later,
you realized that you forgot the 4-
digit code. You only remembered
that the code contains the digits 1,
3, 4, and 7.
1. List all the possible codes out
of the given digits.
2. How many possible codes are there?
3. What can you say about the
list you made?

283
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Questions:
a. How did you determine the different possibilities asked for
in the two situations? What methods did you use?
b. What did you feel when you were listing the answers?

Were you able to list all the possibilities asked for? How did you
ensure that your list was complete? What method(s) did you use in order
to give the accurate count? Why do you think there is a need to know the
number of possible ways a certain task can be done? You will find this out
as you go through this lesson.

Activity 2:

Answer the following questions.

1. Ten runners join a race. In how many possible ways can they
be arranged as first, second, and third placers?

2. If Jun has 12 T-shirts, 6 pairs of pants, and 3 pairs of shoes,

how many possibilities can he dress himself up for the day?

3. In how many ways can Aling Rosa arrange 6 potted plants in a row?

4. How many four-digit numbers can be formed from the

numbers 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 9 if repetition of digits is not
allowed?

284
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 5. If there are 3 roads from Town A to Town B and 4 roads from
Town B to Town C, in how many ways can one go from Town
A to Town C and back to Town A, through Town B, without
passing through the same road twice?

6. Suppose that in a certain association, there are 12 elected

members of the Board of Directors. In how many ways can a
president, a vice president, a secretary, and a treasurer be
selected from the board?

7. In how many ways can you place 9 different books on a shelf if

there is space enough for only 5 books?

8. You want to order your lunch from the school canteen, which
offers student meals consisting of 1 cup of rice, 1 meat dish,
and 1 vegetable dish. How many choices do you have for your
meal if there are 3 choices of meat dishes and 2 choices of
vegetable dishes?

9. In how many ways can 5 people arrange themselves in a row

for picture taking?

10. A dress-shop owner has 8 new dresses that she wants to

display in the window. If the display window has 5 mannequins,
in how many ways can she dress them up?

Questions:
a. How did you find the answer to each of the questions?
What previously learned principle did you apply?
b. Show and explain how you answered each item.

In the activity you have done, were you able determine the exact
number of ways of doing each task or activity described? What
mathematics concept or principle did you use? How was that principle
applied? Some of these tasks or activities share similarities or differ from
others in some sense. How do they differ? You will find out as you go
through the next sections of this module.

285
 Activity 3:

Take a second look at the 10 situations in Activity 2. Determine if in

doing the activity or task, arrangement or order of selecting the objects
is important; that is, whether a different order or arrangement means
a different result. Write your answers on a manila paper and be ready
to share them to the class.

Questions:
1. In which situations in Activity 2 is order or arrangement of the
selection important?
2. Justify your answer by giving an example for each situation.
3. In performing a certain task where order or arrangement is
important, what do you call each possible arrangement?

Activity 4:

Perform the following activity using four number cards with different
digits. Follow all instructions and write all your answers on a clean
sheet of paper. Then, complete the table and answer the questions
that follow.

A. Get any two number cards (Example: 1 and 2).

1. a. Arrange the cards using 1 piece at a time.
Example:
1
2 ways
2

b. Illustrate or describe each arrangement.

c. Count the number of arrangements you have made.

2. a. Arrange the cards using both pieces at a time.

b. Illustrate or describe each arrangement.
c. Count the number of arrangements you have made.

B. Get any three number cards.

1. a. Arrange the cards using 1 piece at a time.
b. Illustrate or describe each arrangement.
c. Count the number of arrangements you have made, using
1 card at a time from the 3 given cards.
 286
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 2. a. Arrange the cards using 2 pieces at a time.
b. Illustrate or describe each arrangement.
c. Count the number of arrangements you have made, using 2
cards at a time from the 3 given cards.

3. a. Arrange the cards using all 3 pieces at a time.

b. Illustrate or describe each arrangement.
c. Count the number of arrangements you have made, using
all the 3 cards at a time.

C. Get the four number cards.

1. Repeat Steps B.1 to 3.

2. a. Arrange the objects using all 4 pieces at a time.

b. Illustrate or describe each arrangement.
c. Count the number of arrangements you have made using all
the 4 number cards at a time. Tabulate all results.

Results:

Number of Number of Objects Number of Possible

Objects (n) Taken at a Time (r) Arrangements
2 1 2
2 2
3 1
3 2
3 3
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4

Questions:
a. What do you call each arrangement?
b. Can you find any pattern in the results?
c. Can you think of other ways of finding these answers?

287
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 How did you find the preceding activities? Are you ready to learn
about permutations? From the activities you have done, you recalled the
Fundamental Counting Principle which is an essential tool in under-
standing about arrangement, or permutations. You also identified tasks in
which the arrangement or order is important. How canpermutationshelp
insolvingreal-life problems or in makingconclusionsanddecisions?You will
find out in the next activities. Before doing these activities, read and
understand first some important notes on permutations including the
examplespresented.

How do we find the permutations of objects?

Suppose we have 6 different potted plants and we wish to

arrange 4 of them in a row. In how many ways can this be done?

PY
C
We can determine the number of ways these plants can be
arranged in a row if we arrange only 4 of them at a time. Each possible
arrangement is called a permutation.

The permutation of 6 potted plants taken 4 at a time is denoted by

P(6, 4), 6P4 , P6,4 , or P46

Similarly, if there are n objects which will be arranged r at a

time, it will be denoted by P(n, r) .

The permutation ofnobjects takenrat a time is denoted byP(n, r).In

some books, it is also denoted bynPr, Pn,r,orPrn. In this learning material,
we will use the first notation.

288
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 How do we find the number of permutations of n objects
taken r at a time? Study the following illustrations:
Example 1. Given the 4-letter word READ. In how many ways can we
arrange its letters, 3 at a time?
Solution: There are 3 positions to be filled. We write the horizontal marks:
_ _ _. On each horizontal mark, we write the number of
choices we have in filling up the said position. There are 4
choices for the first position. After the first position is filled,
there are 3 choices left for the second position. After the
first and second positions are filled, there are 2 choices
left for the third position. So the three entries on the
horizontal marks would be
432

We apply the Fundamental Counting Principle and multiply:

4⋅ 3⋅ 2 = 24.

Thus, there are 24 possible ways of arranging the 4 letters of

READ taking 3 of them at a time. We also say the 4 letters of READ,
taken 3 at a time, have 24 permutations. One of them is R-E-D. Verify
this result.

Let us take a second look at the

example above. Remember: n = 4, r =
3.
4⋅ 3⋅ 2 = n(n – 1)(n – 2)

Notice that the first factor is n, and the succeeding factors

decrease by 1 each time. Look at the last factor: n - 2 = n – (3 – 1)
= n – (r – 1) or

n – r + 1. Take note also that there are r factors in

all, starting with n.

Example 2. In a school club, there are 5 possible choices for the

president, a secretary, a treasurer, and an auditor.
Assuming that each of them is qualified for any of these
positions, in how many ways can the 4 officers be elected?

Solution: P(5, 4) = 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2
= 120 ways

The number of permutations ofnobjects takenrat a time,P(n, r),

wheren ≥ ris:
P(n, r) = n(n–1)(n289
–2)⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (n–r+ 1)
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 Note that there are r factors.

From what principle was the formula derived?

Can you now answer the problem earlier? Suppose we have 6

potted plants and we wish to arrange 4 of them in a row. In how many
ways can this be done?

What if there are 5 objects to be arranged and we would

arrange all of them every time? That is, n = 5, and r = 5.

Example 3. In how many ways can 5

people arrange
themselves in a row
for picture taking?

Solution: n = 5, r = 5
P(5, 5) = 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 (5 factors)

OPY
= 120 possible pictures

In the third example, we used all the numbers fromn= 5 down to 1.

Another way of writing 5⋅ 4⋅ 3⋅ 2⋅ 1 is 5! (read as5 factorial)
Similarly, 4! = 4⋅ 3⋅ 2⋅ 1 = 24
8! = 8⋅ 7⋅ 6⋅ 5⋅ 4⋅ 3⋅ 2⋅ 1 = 40 320
3! = 3⋅ 2⋅ 1 = 6
10! = 10⋅ 9⋅ 8⋅ 7⋅ 6⋅ 5⋅ 4⋅ 3⋅ 2⋅ 1= 3 628 800
1! = 1

For convenience, we define 0!

= 1. Thus, in example 3, P(5,

5) = 5! = 120.

Also, P(8, 8) = 8! = 40 320

P(4, 4) = 4! = 24.

In addition, since P(n, r) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (n - r +1)

n(n −1)(n − 2)...(n − r +1)(n − r )!
=
(n − r )!
n! (n − r)!
Then, P(n,
r)

=
 290
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 Remember:The permutation ofnobjects takenrat a time is:
n!
P(n,r) = , n≥r
(nr)!

and the permutation ofnobjects taken all at a time is:

P(n, n)=n!

Notice that, in the previous examples, the objects to be arranged

are all distinct. Suppose some of the objects to be arranged are not
distinct, that is, some are identical. Study the following examples.

Example 4. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the

word EVEN.

Solution: There are 4 letters of the word. Initially, suppose

these letters are distinct, then the number of
permutation is

P(4, 4) = 4!.

However, we have to take into consideration that the 2 E’s are

alike. We cannot distinguish between the 2 E’s. How can we arrange
the 4 letters differently if the 2 E’s could be differentiated from one
another? Instead of using subscripts, let us make one E in upper case
and the other in lower case (e). We will have:

EVeN ENVe VNEe

eVEN ENeV NEVe
EVNe ENeV NEVe
eVNE eNEV NeVE
EeVN VEeN NEeV
eEVN VeEN NeEV
EeNV VENe NVEe
eENV VeNE NVeE

How many arrangements are there?

Can you think of other possible arrangements?

 291
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 Now, these two E’s are the same, and so the two entries in each
box are also the same. Take note that for each permutation like E-V-
E-N, there are 2, or 2! ways of arranging the two E’s without changing
the arrangement of the others. The duplications are eliminated by
dividing 4! or 24 by the number of ways of arranging the 2 E’s which
is 2! So, out of the 24 arrangements, the number of distinct or
distinguishable permutations, P, would be:
P = P(4,4)
2!
= 4!
2
= 24
2
= 12 distinguishable permutations

Example 5. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word

STATISTICS.

Solution: There are 10 letters of the word. Assuming that the

letters are distinct, there are P(10, 10) = 10!
permutations.

However, we have to take into consideration that the 3 S’s are

alike, the 3 T’s are alike, and the 2 Is are also alike. The permutations
of the 3 S’s is P(3, 3) = 3!. The permutations of the 3 T’s is P(3, 3) =
3! The permutation of the 2 T’s is P(2, 2) = 2!

So we must divide 10! by 3! 3! 2! in order to

Thus, eliminate the duplicates.

P= 10!
3! 3! 2!
= 50 400 permutations

This leads to the next rule.

The number ofdistinguishable permutations,P,ofnobjects

wherepobjects are alike,qobjects are alike,robjects are alike, and so on,
is
n!
P=
p!q!r!...
292
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 Let us now consider arrangement of objects in a circle, which we
call
circular permutations.

Example 6.
a. In how many ways can 3 people be seated around a
circular table?

Solution: n=3

(a)
1 (b)
1

Notice
3 that the2 arrangement 1-2-32 in (a) above
3 is the
same as 2-3-1 and 3-1-2; meaning these 3 permutations are
just one and the same. Notice also that the arrangements 1-
3-2, 3-2-1, and 2-1- 3 are also just the same as seen in (b).

So the circular permutations, P, of 3 objects is:

6
P =

3
= 3!
3
= 3 ⋅ 2!
3
= 2!

293
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 We can also look at it this way:

If there are 3 seats around the circular table, we can

assign one of the persons to a fixed seat and determine the
number of ways that the other two can be arranged. This
way, we avoid counting again an arrangement that resulted
from a mere rotation. Thus, the number of circular
permutations of 3 objects is (3 – 1)! or 2! and the circular
permutations of n objects is (n – 1)!.

b. In how many ways can 4 people be seated around a circular table?

Solution: (n = 4) Let us call the 4 people A, B, C, D

The arrangements are:

A-B-C-D A-B-D-C A-C-B-D A-C-D-B A-D-B-C A-D-C-B

B-C-D-A B-D-C-A C-B-D-A C-D-B-A D-B-C-A D-C-B-A
C-D-A-B D-C-A-B B-D-A-C D-B-A-C B-C-A-D C-B-A-D
D-A-B-C C-A-B-D D-A-C-B B-A-C-D C-A-D-B B-A-D-C

Observe that all the arrangements falling on the same

column are just the same because the 4 people are
supposed to be seated around a circular table. There are 24
arrangements in the list. Again, the circular permutations, P,
of 4 objects is:

P= 24
4
based on the list made

= 4!
4
4 ⋅ 3!
=
4
= 3!
Or simply, P = (n - 1)!
= (4 - 1)!
= 3!
= 6

The permutation ofnobjects arranged in a circle is

P= (n- 1)!

294
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 http://mathworld.wolfram.com/circularpermutations.h
t ml
http://www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinatio
Know more about ns-permutations.html
permutations through http://users.math.yale.edu/~anechka/math107/lecture
these websites. 13.pdf

Activity 5:

Solve for the goal

Your unknown
in thisinsection
each item, and then
is to apply the answer the questions
key concepts of permutations.
that follow.
Use the mathematical ideas and the examples presented in the preceding
section to answer the activitiesprovided.
1. P(6, 6) = 6. P(8, r) = 6 720
2. P(7, r) = 840 7. P(8, 3) =
3. P(n, 3) = 60 8. P(n, 4) = 3024
4. P(n, 3) = 504 9. P(12, r) = 1320
5. P(10, 5) = _ 10. P(13, r) = 156

Questions:
a. How did you calculate the different permutations?
b. What mathematics concepts or principles did you apply to
solve each permutation?
c. Did you find any difficulty in finding the answers? What
technique or strategy can you think of to facilitate your way
of solving?

How did you find the preceding activity? Was it easy? I am sure it
was! Find out from your peers if you had the same answers or strategies
in solving. If not, discover why. In the next activity, you are going to apply
the concept of permutations to solve real-life problems.

295
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 Activity 6:

Answer each permutation problem completely.

1. A teacher wants to assign 4 different tasks to her 4 students.

In how many possible ways can she do it?

2. In a certain general assembly, three

major prizes are at stake. In how many
ways can the first, second, and third RAFFLE DRAW
prizes be drawn from a box containing
120 names?

3. In how many different ways can 5 bicycles be parked if there

are 7 available parking spaces?

4. How many distinguishable permutations are possible with all

the letters of the word ELLIPSES?

5. There are 8 basketball teams competing for the top 4 standings

in order to move up to the semi-finals. Find the number of
possible rankings of the four top teams.

6. In how many different ways can 12 people occupy the 12 seats

in a front row of a mini-theater?

7. Find the number of different ways that a family of 6 can be

seated around a circular table with 6 chairs.

8. How many 4-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 3,

5, 6, 8, and 9 if no repetition is allowed?

9. If there are 10 people and only 6 chairs are available, in how

many ways can they be seated?

10. Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the digits of

the number 348 838.

296
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 Activity 7:

Answer each permutation problem completely.

1. In how many different ways can you arrange 8 figurines on a

shelf?

2. There are 4 different Mathematics books and 5 different

Science books. In how many ways can the books be arranged
on a shelf if

COP
a. there are no restrictions?
b. books of the same subject must be placed together?
c. if they must be placed alternately?

3. Five couples want to have their pictures taken. In how many

ways can they arrange themselves in a row if
a. couples must stay together?
b. they may stand anywhere?

4. There are 12 people in a dinner gathering. In how many ways

can the host (one of the 12) arrange his guests around a
dining table if
a. they can sit on any of the chairs?
b. 3 people insist on sitting beside each other?
c. 2 people refuse to sit beside each other?

5. A teacher drew a number line on the board and named some

points on it. The teacher then asked the class to list all the rays
in the figure. A student answered 30 rays in all and the teacher
said it was correct. How many points were named in the figure?

How were the activities done so far? Were you able to answer all of
the exercises? I hope you just did successfully!
 297
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 In this section, permutation was discussed, including permutation with
identical objects, circular permutation, and its real-life applications. You may go
back to the previous sections and compare your initial ideas about the concept
of permutation. Were these further clarified?

Now that you have learned the basic ideas about permutations, let
us deepen your understanding and study the next section.

Answer the following questions completely.

1. How do you determine if a situation or problem involves permutations?

In this section, you are going to think deeper and test further your
understanding ofbetween
2. Differentiate permutations. After doing
permutation the following
in general (n objectsactivities,
taken r you
should
at abe time),
able circular
to answer the important
permutation, question:How are
and distinguishable
permutationsused in forming conclusions and
permutation (when some objects are alike). in making wise decisions?

Activity 8:
3.
a. Find the number of permutations of n objects when
arranged (n - 1) at a time for any positive integer n.
b. Find the number of permutations of n objects when taken
all at a time.
c. Compare the two (a and b). Explain why the answers still
make sense.

4. Going back to the “combination” lock problem on

page 285, suppose that the lock contained the 4
digits 1, 4, 7, 9 but you totally forgot the order in
which they come. What are you going to do? How
can you apply your knowledge of permutations
here? Elaborate.

298
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 In this section, the discussion was about your understanding of
permutations and how they are illustrated and used in real life. What new
realizations do you have about permutations? How would you connect
these realizations to real life?

Activity 9:
Write an entry in your journal describing how much you already
learned about permutations and their applications. Include also
whatever points in the lesson in which you still need clarifications, and
work on these with your teacher.
Now that you have a deeper understanding of the topic, you are
ready to do the tasks in the next section.

CO
Your goal in this section is to apply your learning to real-life situations.
You will be given a practical task which will demonstrate your
understanding of permutations.

Activity 10:
Do the following tasks by group.
A. Give 3 examples of problems or situations in real life that involve
permutations. In each example,
1. explain the problem or situation.
2. solve the problem.
3. discuss how you can use these sample situations in your daily
life, especially in formulating conclusions and/or making
decisions.
B. It is in international summits that major world decisions happen.
Suppose that you were the overall in charge of the seating in an
international convention wherein 12 country-representatives were
invited. They are the prime ministers/presidents of the countries of
Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Japan, Libya, Malaysia,
Philippines, South Korea, USA, and United Kingdom.
1. If the seating arrangement is to be circular, how many seating
arrangements are possible?
2. Create your own seat plan for these 12 leaders based on your
knowledge of their backgrounds. Discuss why you arranged
them that way.

299
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Rubric on Problems Formulated and Solved

Score Descriptors
Poses a more complex problem with two or more correct
possible solutions and communicates ideas accurately,
6 shows in-depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts
and/or processes, and provides explanations wherever
appropriate.
Poses a more complex problem and finishes all significant
parts of the solution and communicates ideas accurately,
5
shows in-depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts
and/or processes
Poses a complex problem and finishes all significant parts of
the solution and communicates ideas accurately , shows in-
4
depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts and/or
processes
Poses a complex problem and finishes most significant parts
of the solution and communicates ideas accurately , shows
3
comprehension of major concepts although neglects or
misinterprets less significant ideas or details
Poses a problem and finishes some significant parts of the
2 solution and communicates ideas accurately but shows gaps
on theoretical comprehension
Poses a problem but demonstrates little comprehension, not
1
being able to develop an approach
Source: D.O. #73, s. 2012

In this section your task was to give examples of real-life

situations where permutation is illustrated. You also formulated and
solved problems related to permutation.

SUMMARY/SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION

This lesson was about permutations and its applications in real-

life situations. The lesson provided you with opportunities to identify
situations that describe permutations and differentiate them from those
that do not. You were also given a chance to perform practical
activities for you to further understand the topic. In addition, you were
given the opportunity to formulate and solve problems on permutations
and apply the knowledge to formulating conclusions and making
decisions. Your understanding of this lesson as well as the other
Mathematics concepts previously learned will help you learn the next
topic, combinations.

300
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
Solve each problem below and answer the questions that follow.

1. If your school cafeteria offers pork,

Startchicken,
beef, Lesson and
2 offish
thisfor
module by assessing your knowledge of the
main dish,
Fundamental Counting Principle
chop suey, pinakbet, and black and permutations. This knowledge and
skill beans
will helpforyou understand
vegetable combinations,
dishes, banana which will further help you in
forming conclusions and in making
and pineapple for dessert, and tea, decisions. To be able to do this,
perform
juice,each
andactivity thatfor
softdrinks follows. Seekinthe assistance of your teacher and
beverage,
peers if you encounter any
how many ways can you choose difficulty. Have your work checked by your
teacher.
your meal consisting of 1 cup of rice,
1 main dish, 1 vegetable dish, 1
Activity 1:
beverage, and 1 dessert?

2. You were tasked to take charge of the auditions for the female
parts of a stage play. In how many possible ways can you form
your cast of 5 female members if there were 15 hopefuls?

3. If ice cream is served in a cone, in how many ways can Abby

choose her three-flavor ice cream scoop if there are 6 available
flavors?

4. If each Automated Teller Machine card of a certain bank has to

have 4 different digits in its passcode, how many different
possible passcodes can there be?

301
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 5. How many possible permutations are there in the letters of the
word PHILIPPINES?

D6. In how many ways can a group of

6 people be seated around a table
if 2 of them insist on sitting beside
each other?

7. In how many ways can 4 students

be seated in a classroom if there
are 7 available seats?

8. In how many ways can 5 English books and 4 Mathematics

books be placed on a shelf if books of the same subject are to
be together?

9. A family catering business prides itself with its offerings of

delicious meals and other food requirements. If you were one
of the staff or key persons in this business, how can you apply
your knowledge of permutation and combination to further
improve your business?

10. Due to the huge population of Mapayapa High School, one of

the problems encountered is the big crowd through the gates
during the early morning and at dismissal time in the afternoon.
If you were one of the administrators of the school, what step
can you suggest to remedy this problem?

1. How did you find the number of ways asked for in eachitem?
What mathematics concepts or principles did you apply? How did
you apply these concepts or principles?
2. Which situations above illustrate permutations? Which do not?
Why?

302
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 Were you able to find what was required in each problem? Were you
able to recall and apply the different mathematics concepts or principles
in solving each problem?Whydo you think it is important to be able to
perform such mathematical tasks? You will find this out as you go through
thislesson.

Activity 2:

Study the tasks or activities below, and then answer the questions that
follow.

1. Choosing 5 questions to answer out of 10 questions in a test

2. Opening a combination lock
3. Winning in a contest
4. Selecting 7 people to form a Student Affairs Committee
5. Forming triangles from 6 distinct points in which no 3 points
are collinear
6. Assigning seats to guests at dinner
7. Drawing a set of 6 numbers in a lottery containing numbers 1 to
45
8. Entering the PIN (Personal Identification Number) of your ATM
card
9. Selecting 3 posters to hang out of 6 different posters
10. Listing the elements of subsets of a given set

Questions:

a. In which tasks/activities above is order or arrangement

important? Give an example to illustrate each answer.
b. In which tasks/activities is order not
important? Give an example to
illustrate each answer.

In the activity you have just done, were you able to identify situations
that involvepermutationsand those that do not? The latter are
calledcombinationsand you will learn more about them in the next
activities.
 303
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 Activity 3:

Perform the following activity using any 5 different fruits (mango,

guava, banana, pomelo, avocado, or any fruits available in your place).
Follow all instructions and write all your answers on a clean sheet of
paper. Then, complete the table and answer the questions that follow.

A. Get 2 fruits (ex. mango and banana).

1. a. Select a fruit 1 piece at a time. Do all possible selections.
b. Illustrate or describe each selection you made.
Example:
mango
banana 🡪 2 ways

c. Count the number of different selections you have made.

2. a. Select the fruits 2 pieces at a time.

b. Illustrate or describe each selection.
c. Count the number of different selections you have made.

B. Get 3 fruits.
1. a. Select a fruit 1 piece at a time. Do all possible selections.
b. Illustrate or describe each selection.
c. Count the number of different selections you have made
when using 1 object at a time from the 3 given fruits.
2. a. Select 2 fruits at a time.
b. Illustrate or describe each selection.
c. Count the number of selections you have made, using 2
objects at a time from the 3 given fruits.
3. a. Select 3 fruits at a time.
b. Illustrate or describe each selection.
c. Count the number of selections you have made, using all
the 3 fruits at a time.

C. Get 4 fruits.
1. Repeat Steps B.1 to 3.
2. a. Continue the process until you select 4 fruits at a time.
b. Illustrate or describe each selection.
c. Count the number of different selections you have made
using all the 4 fruits at a time.

D. Repeat the same procedure for 5 fruits.

304
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 Results:

Number of Number of Objects Number of Possible

Objects (n) Taken at a Time (r) Selections
2 1
2 2
3 1
3 2
3 3
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
5 1
5 2
5 3
5 4
5 5

Questions:

1. Did it matter in what order you selected the objects?

2. Give an example to justify your answer in (1).
3. What do you call each unique selection?
4. Can you find any pattern in the results?
5. Can you think of other ways of finding these answers?

How did you find the preceding activities? Are you ready to learn
aboutcombinations? From the activities you have done, you identified
tasks in which the arrangement or order is important (permutations) and
those in which order is not (combinations). You recalled the Fundamental
Counting Principle as well as permutation which are essential concepts in
understanding combinations. In the next sections of this learning module,
keep in mind the important question:How can the concept ofcombinations
help in solving real-life problems or in formulating conclusions and making
wise decisions?You will find out when you do the next activities. Before
doing these activities, read and understand first some important notes
oncombinations.

305
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 Suppose you were assigned by your teacher to be the leader of
your group for your project. You were given the freedom to choose 4
of your classmates to be your group mates. If you choose Aira, Belle,
Charlie, and Dave, does it make any difference if you choose instead
Charlie, Aira, Dave, and Belle? Of course not, because the list refers
to the same people. Each selection that you could possibly make is
called a combination. On the other hand, if you choose Aira, Belle,
Dave, and Ellen, now that is another combination, and it is different
from the first combination cited.

Remember:If there ismaterial,

In this learning a setSwithnelements,
we will use theand
firstifris a nonnegative integer
notation.
less than or equal ton, then each subset ofScontainingrdistinct
How doelements is called
we find the number acombinationofS.
of combinations of n objects taken r at a
time?
The number of combinations ofnobjects takenrat a time is denoted by
Suppose now, that you are asked toform n different triangles out
of 4 points plotted,C(n,
say,r),
A, B,nC, CrnD,or
rC, and  . no three are collinear.
of which
r


EPE
We can see that ABC is the same as BCA and CBA. In the

D
same manner, BCD is the same as CBD and DBC. This is another
illustration of combination. The different triangles that can be formed
are ABC,
ABD, BCD, and CDA. Thus, there are 4 combinations.

306
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
 How can we find the number of combinations more
systematically? Consider this: If order of the letters is important, then
we have the following possibilities:

ABC ABD BCD CDA

ACB ADB BDC CAD
BCA BDA CDB DAC
BAC BAD CBD DCA
CAB DBA DBC ADC
CBA DAB DCB ACD

The number of different orders of 4 vertices taken 3 at a time is

given by
4!
P(4, 3) =

(4 − 3)!
= 24.

There are 24 possibilities. Since you learned in Geometry that

we can name a triangle using its three vertices in any order, then if we
look more closely, we can see that all the triangles in the same column
are identical. Thus, the actual number of combinations is

C P(4, 3) P(4, 3)
or or . (Equation 1)
( 6 3!

4
,
3
)
=

Notice that 6 or 3! is the number of ways of arranging 3

objects taken all at a time. We divided by 3! to eliminate duplicates.

Note : There are 4 objects (A,B,C,D) 🡪 n = 4 They are selected 3 at a

time 🡪 r = 3.
And so equation (1) becomes P(n, r) .
C(n,r) = r!

n!
Since P(n, r) = then ,
(n − r )!

C(n, r) =
P
(
= n
,
= r
)
r
!
n
!
(
n
−
r
)
!
r!
n!
.
r!(n − r)!

307
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 Remember:The combination ofnobjects takenrat a timeis:
n!
C(n, r)= , n≥r≥0
r!(nr)!

Example 1. In how many ways can a committee consisting of 4

members be formed from 8 people?

Solution 1: (Using the formula) n = 8, r=4

n
C(n,r) =
!
r
!
(
n
−
r
)
!

= 8!
4! (8 − 4)!

876254321
=
43214321
= 7 2 5 after common factors are cancelled
= 70 ways

Solution 2: Based on the discussion on the

Permutation of n objects
P(n,r)
previous page, C(n,r) = takenr at a time
r!
8765 Permutation of r objects
=
4!
There are r = 4 factors
87625
=
4321
= 7 2 5 after common factors are cancelled
= 70 ways
 308
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 Example 2. How many polygons can be possibly formed from 6
distinct points on a plane, no three of which are collinear?

Solution: The polygon may have 3, 4, 5, or 6 vertices. Thus, the number

N
of possible polygons is:

N = C(6, 3) + C(6, 4) + C(6, 5) + C(6, 6)

+ 6 ⋅ 5=⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 +6⋅ 5⋅ 4⋅ 3⋅ 2 +6⋅ 5⋅ 4⋅ 3⋅ 2

6
4! 5! ⋅ 1
⋅ 6!
5
⋅ 6543 65432
+ 4 + 654321
3! 4321 54321 +
654321

654
=
321

=5∙4+5∙3+6+1

= 20 + 15 + 7

N = 42 possible polygons.

Verify this answer by using the formula for combinations.

www.beatthegmat.com/mba/2013/09/27/does-order-
matter-combinations-and-non-combinations
http://www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinations
-permutations.html

Read more about http://users.math.yale.edu/~anechka/math107/lecture1

3.pdf
combinations in these
websites. http://voices.yahoo.com/the-importance-
permutations-combinations-in-10262.html

DEP
E
 309
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 Your goal in this section is to apply the key concepts of combinations.
Use the mathematical ideas and the examples presented in the preceding
section to answer the given activities.

Activity 4:

Study the following situations. Then, answer the questions that follow.

1. Determining the top three winners in a Science Quiz Bee

2. Forming lines from six given points with no three of which are collinear
3. Forming triangles from 7 given points with no three of which
are collinear
4. Four people posing for pictures
5. Assembling a jigsaw puzzle
6. Choosing 2 household chores to do before dinner
7. Selecting 5 basketball players out of 10 team members for the
different positions
8. Choosing three of your classmates to attend your party
9. Picking 6 balls from a basket of 12 balls
10. Forming a committee of 5 members from 20 people

Questions:

a. In the items above, identify which situations illustrate

permutation and which illustrate combination.
b. How did you differentiate the situations that involve
permutation from those that involve combination?

Were you able to differentiate the tasks/situations that involve

permutation from those that involve combination? The next activity will
provide you with more exercises to improve your calculating skills.

310
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 Activity 5:

Find the unknown in each item.

1. C(8, 3) = 6. C(10, r) = 120

2. C(n,4) = 15 7.C(n,2) =78
3. C(8,r) = 28 8.C(11,r) =165
4. C(9, 9) = 9.C(8,6) =
5. C(n, 3) = 35 10. C(14,10)=

How did you find the activity? Was it easy? I guess it was! Go on to
the next activity to apply your knowledge of combinations in real-life
situations.

Activity 6:
Solve the following problems completely. (Choose a partner.)

elimination games will there be?

C
1. If there are 12 teams in a basketball tournament and each team
must play every other team in the eliminations, how many

2. If there are 7 distinct points on a plane with no three of which

are collinear, how many different polygons can be possibly
formed?

3. How many different sets of 5 cards each can be formed from a

standard deck of 52 cards?

4. In a 10-item Mathematics problem-solving test, how many ways

can you select 5 problems to solve?

5. In problem number 4, how many ways can you select the 5

questions if you are required to answer question number 10?

6. In how many ways can a committee of 5 be formed from 5

juniors and 7 seniors if the committee must have 3 seniors?

7. From a population of 50 households, in how many ways can a

researcher select a sample with a size of 10?

8. A box contains 5 red balls, 7 green balls, and 6 yellow balls. In

how many ways can 6 balls be chosen if there should be 2 balls
of each color?

311
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 9. From 7 Biology books and 6 Chemistry books, in how many
ways can one select 2 Biology and 2 Chemistry books to buy if
all the said books are equally necessary?

10. Mrs. Rivera’s business is gown rental and sale. She decided
one day that she would display her 10 newest gowns in her
shop’s window to attract customers. If she only had 5
mannequins and planned to change the set of gowns every 2
days, how many days will have to pass before she runs out of
a new set to display?

Were you able to do the activity successfully? I am sure you did! Go

on to the next activity to see if you can solve the following set of
permutation and combination problems.

Activity 7:

Solve the following permutation and combination problems.

1. In how many ways can you arrange 5 Mathematics books, 4

O
Science books, and 3 English books on a shelf such that books
of the same subject are kept together?

EPE
2. In how many ways can 6 students be seated in a row of 6 seats
if 2 of the students insist on sitting beside each other?

D
3. In a gathering, the host makes sure that each guest shakes
hands with everyone else. If there are 25 guests, how many
handshakes will be done?

312
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
 4. Suppose you are the owner of a sari-sari store and you want to
put 12 pieces of canned goods in a row on the shelf. If there are
3 identical cans of meat loaf, 4 identical cans of tomato sauce,
2 identical cans of sardines, and 3 identical cans of corned beef,
in how many different ways can you display these goods?

5. A soloist is auditioning for a musical play. If she is required to

sing any three of the 7 prepared songs, in how many ways can
she make her choice?

6. In a dance contest, each participating group must perform 3

kinds of dance. If there are 4 choices for ballroom dance, 8
choices for foreign dance, and 5 choices for hip-hop, in how
many possible ways can a dance group select their piece?

7. If 3 marbles are picked randomly from a jar containing 6 red

marbles and 8 green marbles, in how many possible ways can
it happen that at least 2 of the marbles picked are green?

8. There are 10 identified points on a number line. How many

possible rays can be drawn using the given points?

9. You are transferring to a new house. You have a collection of

books but you cannot take them all with you. In how many ways
can you select 7 books out of 10, and then arrange these books
on a shelf if there is space enough for only 5 books?

10. At Enzo’s Pizza Parlor, there are seven different toppings,

where a customer can order any number of these toppings. If
you dine at the said pizza parlor, with how many possible
toppings can you actually order your pizza?

How did you find all the activities you have done? I hope you have
answered the exercises correctly.

In this section, combination was discussed, including its real-life

applications. You were also given the opportunity to differentiate
combination from permutation. Now that you have learned the basic ideas
about combination, let us deepen your understanding and study the
nextsection.

313
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 In this section you are going to think more deeply and test further
your understanding of combinations. After doing the following activities,
you should be able to answer the important question:How
arecombinations used in forming conclusions and making wise decisions?

Activity 8:

Answer the following questions completely.

1. How do you determine if a situation involves combinations?

2. To find the total number of polygons that can be formed from
7 points on a plane with no three of which are collinear, Joy
answered:

7!
C(7, 3) =
4! 3!
7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4!
=
4
!
=3
!
7
⋅
6
⋅
5
3
⋅
2
⋅
1
= 35 different polygons

Is Joy correct? Justify your answer.

3. (a) In how many ways can the 12 members of the Board of

Directors (BOD) be chosen from 12 parent-nominees and 7
teacher-nominees if there must be 8 parents in the BOD? (b)
After the 12 members are chosen, in how many ways can they
elect among themselves the 7 top positions (president, vice
president, and others)?

4. DAMATH is a board game that incorporates mathematical skills

in the Filipino game Dama. In a school DAMATH tournament,
there are 28 participants who are divided into 7 groups. Each
participant plays against each member of his group in the
eliminations. The winner in each group advances to the semi-
finals where they again compete with each other. The five
players with the most number of wins proceed to the final round
and play against each other. Assume that there are no ties.
a. What is the total number of games to be played in the eliminations?
b. How many matches will be played in the final round?

314
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 c. In how many possible ways can the top five players in the
semi- finals come up?
d. In how many possible ways can the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
placer be declared in the final round?
e. How many matches will be played altogether?

In this section, the discussion was about your understanding of

combinations and how they are illustrated and used in real life.
What new learnings do you have about combinations? How can
these learnings be applied in real life?

Activity 9:
Write an entry in your journal describing how much you have
learned about combinations, and how these can be applied to real life.
Add also the parts of the lesson that you still find confusing, if any.
Work on these difficulties with your teacher.

Now that you have a deeper understanding of the topic, you are
ready to do the tasks in the next section.

Answer the following problems completely.

Give 3 examples of situations in real life that illustrate

Your goal
combinations. in thissituation,
In each section is to apply your learning to real-life situations.
You will be given a practical task which requires that you demonstrate your
understanding
1. formulate aofproblem.
combinations.
2. solve the problem.
Activity 10:
3. explain how this particular problem may help you in
formulating conclusions and/or making decisions.

315
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Rubric on Problems Formulated and Solved

Score Descriptors
Poses a more complex problem with 2 or more correct
possible solutions and communicates ideas accurately,
6 shows in-depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts
and/or processes, and provides explanations wherever
appropriate.
Poses a more complex problem and finishes all significant
parts of the solution and communicates ideas accurately,
5
shows in-depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts
and/or processes.
Poses a complex problem and finishes all significant parts of
4 the solution and communicates ideas accurately , shows in-
depth comprehension of the pertinent concepts and/or
processes
Poses a complex problem and finishes most significant parts
3 of the solution and communicates ideas accurately , shows
comprehension of major concepts although neglects or
misinterprets less significant ideas or details
Poses a problem and finishes some significant parts of the
2 solution and communicates ideas accurately but shows
gaps on theoretical comprehension
Poses a problem but demonstrates little comprehension,
1
not being able to develop an approach
Source: D.O. #73, s. 2012

SUMMARY/SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION
This lesson was about combinations and their applications in
real life. Through the lesson, you were able to identify situations that
describe combinations and differentiate them from those that do not.
You were also given the opportunity to perform practical activities to
further understand the topic, formulate related real-life problems, and
solve these problems. You also applied your knowledge to formulating
conclusions and making wise decisions. Your understanding of this
lesson, combined with other previously learned Mathematics concepts
will help you understand the next lesson, probability.
 316
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Circular permutation – the different possible arrangements of objects

in a circle. The number of permutations, P, of n objects around a circle
is given by P = (n – 1)!.

Combinations – the number of ways of selecting from a set when the

order is not important. The number of combinations of n objects taken
r at a time is
n!
given by C(n, r) , n ≥ r.
= (n − r )!r!

Distinguishable permutations – refers to the permutations of a set

of objects where some of them are alike. The number of
distinguishable permutations of n objects when p are alike, q are alike,
r are alike, and so on,
is given by P = n! .
p! q! r!...

Fundamental Counting Principle – states that if activity A can be

done in n1
ways, activity B can be done in n2 ways, activity C in n3 ways, and so on,
then
activities A, B, n1 ⋅ n2 ⋅ n3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ways.
and C can be
done
simultaneously
in

Permutations – refers to the different possible arrangements of a

set of objects. The number of permutations of n objects taken r
at a time is:
n! (n − r )!
P(n, r) = , n ≥ r.

n-Factorial – the product of the positive integer n and all the positive
integers less than n. n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2) … (3)(2)(1).

REFERENCES AND WEBSITE LINKS USED IN THIS MODULE:

References:

Bennett, J. & Chard, D., et al. (2005). Pre-Algebra. Texas: Holt,

 Rinehart and Winston.
Bhowal, M. & Barua, P. (2008). Statistics: 2nd ed. New Delhi: Kamal

Jagasia. Leithold, L. (2002). College Algebra and Trigonometry.

Singapore: Pearson

Education Asia Pte. Ltd.

317
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
McCune, S. (2010). Statistics. New York: The Mc-Graw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Kelly, W. and Donnelly, R. (2009). The Humungous Book of

Statistics Problems. New York: Penguin Group (USA), Inc.

Spiegel, M.R. & Stephens, L.J. (2008). Schaum’s Outline of

Theory and Problems of Statistics 4th ed. New York: The
Mc-Graw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Website Links as References and Sources of Learning Activities:

BBC News About International Summits. Jonathan Powell. May

29, 2012. www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18237721 Accessed
on Feb. 27, 2014

Circular Permutation. Weisstein, Eric W. From Mathworld - A

Wolfram Web Resource.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/circularpermutations.html Accessed
on Feb. 26, 2014

Combinations and Permutations

http://www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinations-
permutations.html Accessed on Feb. 26, 2014

Does Order Matter- Combinations and Non-Combinations. Brent

Hanneson. Sept. 27, 2013. www.
beatthegmat.com/mba/2013/09/27/does-order-matter-
combinations-and-non-combinations-partiii. Accessed on Feb. 27, 2014

Mathematics in the Real World.

http://users.math.yale.edu/~anechka/math107/lecture13.pdf.
Accessed on Feb. 25, 2014

The Fundamental Counting Principle and Permutations.

http://www.classzone.com/eservices/home/pdf/student/LA212
AAD.pdf. Accessed on Feb. 25, 2014

The Importance of Permutations and Combinations in Modern

Society. Valerie Hansen.Nov.7, 2005. http://voices.yahoo.com/the-
importance- permutations-combinations-in-10262.html?cat=41
Accessed on Feb. 26, 2014
 318
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I. INTRODUCTION
It is remarkable that a science which began with the
consideration of games of chance should have become the most
important object of human knowledge. The most important
questions of life are indeed, for the most part, really only problems
of probability.

Pierre Simon de Laplace

Maybe, you are familiar with games of chance such as lotto.

You have also learned that the likelihood of winning in any game
of chance can be estimated using probability. However, do you not
know that the theory of probability is not only for games of chance?
Probability is very useful in many practical and important fields in
science, engineering, economics, and social sciences. Why do you
think is the study of probability so important to the advancement of
science and technology? You will learn the reasons when you
study this module.

319
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II. LESSONS AND COVERAGE

Lesson 1 – Probability of Compound Events

● Union and Intersection of Events
● Mutually Exclusive and Not Mutually Exclusive Events
Lesson 2 – Probability of Independent Events
Lesson 3 – Conditional

Probability In these

lessons, you will learn to:

● illustrate events, and union and intersection of events

● illustrate the probability of a union of two events and
Lesson 1 intersection of events
● illustrate and find probabilities of mutually
exclusive events
● illustrate independent and dependent events
Lesson 2
● find probabilities of independent and dependent events
● identify conditional probabilities
Lesson 3 ● solve problems on conditional probabilities

Probability of Compound Events

EPE
Probability of Probability of Conditional
Compound Events Independent Events Probability

Union and Intersection

of Events

D Mutually Exclusive and

Not Mutually ExclusiveEvents
 320
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III. PRE-ASSESSMENT

Part I: Multiple Choice

Answer all of the following questions the best that you can. As much
as possible, provide your own solution. Take note of the items that you
were not able to answer correctly and find out the right answer as you
go through this module.
1. Brian likes to wear colored shirts. He has 10 shirts in the closet.
Three of these are blue, four are in different shades of red, and
the rest are of mixed or different colors. What is the probability
that he will wear a blue or a red shirt?
7 4 3 4 3 7 7 4
A. + B. + C. + D. −

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

2. The spinner on the right is spun. What

is the probability of a spin that results
in an even number or a number less
than 4?
1 3 4 5
A. B. 8 C. 8 D.
4 8

3. Jody has four cans of juice – one can of orange, one of

pineapple, one of calamansi, and one of guyabano. She
chooses three of these cans to take to school. If she chooses
calamansi, what is the probability she also chooses pineapple?
7 3 2 3
A. B. 4 C. 3 D.
8 8

4. A man tosses a fair coin eight times, and observes whether the
toss yields a head (H) or a tail (T). Which of the following
sequences of outcomes yields a head (H) on his next toss?
(I) TTTTTTTT
(II) HHTHTTHH

A. I C. Neither I nor II
B. II D. Either I or II
 321
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5. A baby has 5 blocks in a box. One block is red, one is yellow,
one is green, one is blue, and one is black. The baby pulls out
a block, looks at it, and puts it back in the box. If he does this 4
times before he gets bored and crawls away, what is the
probability that the 4 blocks selected are all of the same color?
5
A. B. 54 D.
54 C. 5
54 4

6. A box contains 4 red balls and 6 blue balls. A second box

contains 16 red balls and an unknown number of blue balls. A
single ball is drawn from each box. The probability that both
balls are of the same color is
0.44. How many blue balls are there in the second box?
A. 4 B. 20 C. 24 D. 44

7. A family has two children. Suppose that the birth of each child
is an independent event and that it is equally likely to be a boy
or a girl. Let C denote the event that the family has one boy and
one girl. Let D denote the event that the family has at most one
girl. Which of the following must be true about events C and D?
A. C and D are independent events.
B. C occurs given that D does not occur.
C. C and D are not independent events.
D. C and D are mutually exclusive events.

8. A nationwide survey revealed that 42% of the population likes

eating pizza. If two people are randomly selected from the
population, what is the probability that the first person likes
eating pizza while the second one does not?
A. 0.42 + (1 − 0.42) C. 1 - 0.42
B. 2 (1 − 0.42) D. 0.42 (1 − 0.42)

9. A married couple agreed to continue bearing a new child until

they get two boys, but not more than 4 children. Assuming that
each time that a child is born, the probability that it is a boy is
0.5, independent from all other times. Find the probability that
the couple has at least two girls.
1 5
A. 2 C. 8
B. 16 D.
1
5
 322
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10. Some street foods were sampled and tested for the presence
of disease-causing bacteria or harmful chemicals. A random
sample of 200 street foods of various types according to how
they are prepared was examined. The table below shows the
results:

Number of Number of
Number of
Food with Food with
Type of Food with
Harmful Both Bacteria Total
Food Bacteria
Chemicals and Harmful
Only
Only Chemicals
Fried 35 15 18 68
Boiled 46 14 32 92
Grilled 24 8 8 40
Total 105 37 58 200

a.) What is the probability that a street food selected at

random is fried?
A. 2 B. 105 1
6 0 C. 142 4
8 0 D. 2

b.) What is the probability that a food selected at random is

both grilled and contained harmful chemical?
0 0
A. 0 C. 142 0
4
0 B. 105 D.
2 2

c.) What is the probability that a randomly selected food has

both bacteria and harmful chemicals?
2
A. 0 B. 200 D. 58
4 0
0 C. 142
11.A A survey of a group’s sports viewing habits over the last
year revealed the following information:
i. 28% watched soccer
ii. 29% watched basketball
iii. 19% watched tennis
iv. 14% watched soccer and basketball
v. 12% watched basketball and tennis
vi. 10% watched soccer and tennis
vii. 8% watched all three sports.

What percent of the group watched none of the three sports

last year?
 A. 24 B. 36 C. 41 D. 52

323
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 12. The probability that a visit to the school clinic is neither due to
dental reasons nor medical reasons is 35%. Of those coming
to the clinic, 30% are due to medical reasons and 40% are due
to dental reasons. What is the probability that a visit to the
school clinic is due to both dental and medical reasons?
A. 0.05 B. 0.12 C. 0.18 D. 0.25

13. A public health researcher examines the medical records of a

group of 937 men who died in 1999 and discovers that 210 of
the men died from causes related to heart disease. Moreover,
312 of the 937 men had at least one parent who suffered from
heart disease, and of these 312 men, 102 died from causes
related to heart disease. Determine the probability that a man
randomly selected from this group died of causes related to
heart disease, given that neither of his parents suffered from
heart disease.
A. 102 B. 108 C. 312 D
625 625 625 .
4
1
4
625

14. There are four batteries, and one of them is defective. Two are
to be selected at random for use on a particular day. Find the
probability that the second battery selected is not defective,
given that the first was not defective.
2 1 1 1
A. 3 B. 4 C. 3 D.
2

For numbers 15 to 16: A sample of 150 plastic pipes were selected

and subjected to shock resistance and scratch resistance tests. The
results are summarized in the table below.
Shock Resistance
Scratch Resistance
High Low

High 125 12

Low 7 6

15. A pipe is selected at random. What is the probability that it

has high shock resistance given that it has high scratch
resistance?
A. 125 B. 125 C. 137 D
132 137 150 .
1
3 15 0
2

324
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 16. What is the probability that it has high scratch resistance and
high shock resistance?
A. 125 B. 125 C. 137 D. 132
150 137 150 150

17. An insurance agent offers a health plan to the employees of a

large company. As part of this plan, the individual employees
may choose exactly two of the supplementary coverages A, B,
and C, or they may choose no supplementary coverage. The
proportions of the company’s
1 1 5
employees that choose coverages A, B, and C are , , and ,

4 3 12
respectively. Determine the probability that a randomly
chosen employee will choose no supplementary coverage.
7 1
A. B. 2
9 C. 144
D.
1
4
4

18. There are 24 dolphins in an ocean park. The caretaker tags 6

of them with small chips and returns them to the ocean park.
The next month, he randomly selects five dolphins from the
ocean park.
a.) Find the probability that exactly two of the selected
dolphins are tagged.
A. 6C218C3 B. 6C318C2 C. 6P318P2 D. 6P218P3
24C5 24C5 24P5 24P5

b.) What were some of your assumptions in part (a) of this item?
Justify your answer.

Part II: Problem Solving

Read and understand the situations below and solve the problem. Show
your complete solution.

19. Varsity Try-Out. Suppose you are applying as a tennis varsity

player of a team. To be accepted, you need to play with the
 team’s good player (G) and top player (T) in three games and
win against both G and T in two successive games. You must
choose one of the two schedules: playing G, T, G or T, G, T.
Which one should you choose? Why?

325
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 20. Food Preference Survey. A school conducts a
survey of their students’ food preference during lunch
and gets the following information:

i. All students prefer to have at least one viand.

ii. 70% of the students prefer to have more than one viand
iii. 20% of the students prefer to have fish as viand.
iv. Of those students who prefer to have more than one
viand, 15% prefer fish as viand.

Find the probability that a randomly selected student

prefers to have exactly one viand and that is fish. Show your
solution.

IV. LEARNING GOALS AND TARGETS

After going through this module, you should be able to

demonstrate understanding of the key concepts of probability of
compound events, mutually exclusive events, independent events,
and of conditional probability. With these expected knowledge and
skills, you should be able to use probability in formulating conclusions
and in making decisions.
 326
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Scoring Rubrics for Problem Solving
1 2 3 4
No strategy is A partially correct A correct strategy is An efficient strategy is
chosen, or a strategy is chosen, chosen based on the chosen and progress
strategy chosen or a correct strategy mathematical situation towards a solution is
will not lead to a for solving only part in the task. evaluated.
solution. of the task is Adjustments in strategy,
Little or no chosen. Planning or monitoring if necessary, are made
evidence of en- Evidence of drawing of strategy is evident. along the way, and/or
gagement in the on some relevant Evidence of solidifying alternative strategies are
Problem
task present previous knowledge prior knowledge and considered.
Solving
is present, showing applying it in problem- Evidence of analyzing
some relevant solving is present. the situation in
engagement in the Note: At this level a mathematical terms and
task. student must achieve a extending prior
correct answer. knowledge is present.
Note: At this level a
student must achieve a
correct answer.
Arguments are Arguments are Arguments are Deductive arguments are
made with made with some constructed with used to justify decisions
mathematical mathematical basis. adequate math- and may result in formal
basis. ematical basis. proofs.
Reasoning No correct Some correct A systematic approach Evidence is used to
reasoning nor reasoning or and/or justification of justify and support
justification for justification for correct reasoning is decisions made and
reasoning is reasoning is present. present. conclusions reached.
present.
No awareness of Some Communication of an Communication of
audience or communication of an approach is evident argument is supported by
purpose is approach is evident through a methodical, mathematical properties.
communicated. through organized, coherent, Formal math language
No formal verbal/written sequenced and and symbolic notation is
mathematical accounts and labeled response. used to consolidate math
terms or explanations. Formal math language thinking and to
Communication
symbolic is used to share and communicate ideas. At
notations are evi- An attempt is made clarify ideas. At least least one of the math
dent. to use formal math two formal math terms terms or symbolic
language. One or symbolic notations notations is beyond
formal math term or are evident, in any grade level.
symbolic notation is combination.
evident.
No connections A mathematical A mathematical Mathematical
are made or connection is connection is made. connections are used to
connections are attempted but is Proper contexts are extend the solution to
mathematically partially incorrect or identified that link both other mathematics
or contextually lacks contextual the mathematics problems or to gain a
irrelevant. relevance. concepts and the deeper understanding of
situation presented in the mathematics
Connection the task. concepts. Some
examples may include
one or more of the
following: testing and
accepting or rejecting a
hypothesis as an
explanation of a
phenomenon.
No attempt is An attempt is made An appropriate and An appropriate math-
made to to construct a accurate mathematical ematical representation
construct a mathematical representation is is constructed to analyze
mathematical representation to re- constructed and relationships, extend
Representation
representation. cord and refined to solve thinking, and clarify or
communicate problems or portray interpret a phenomenon.
problem solving but solutions.
is not accurate.

327
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Consider the situation below. Use your knowledge on probability in
answering the questions that follow.
1. A die is rolled once. Find the probability of obtaining
Begin Lesson 1 of this module by assessing your knowledge and skills of
a. a 5.
the different mathematics concepts related to counting techniques and
b. a 6.
probability of simple events as well as concepts of sets you previously studied.
c. knowledge
These an odd number.
and skills are important in understanding the probability of
compound events. As you go through this lesson, think of this question,Why
2. A box contains 3 red balls, 5 yellow balls, and 2 blue balls. If a
doyou think is the study of probability important in making decisions in real life?
ball is picked at random from the box, what is the probability
Activity 1:
that a ball picked is a
a. yellow ball?
b. red ball?

The above activity helped you recall your knowledge of probability of simple
events. If you roll a die, the number that would come up could be 1, 2, 3,
328
4,5,or6.Whenthedieisrolled,itisequallylikelytolandononefaceason
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
anyother.Therefore,theprobabilityofgettinga“5”isoneoutof6.Insymbol,
1 1
weuseP(gettinga5)= . Alwaysrememberthat is the probabilitythat
6 6
any of the faces shows up.
 Activities such as rolling a die, tossing a coin, or randomly choosing a ball
from a box which could be repeated over and over again and which have well-
defined results are calledexperiments.The results of an experiment are
calledoutcomes.The set of all outcomes in an experiment is called asample
space. An event is a subset of the sample space.

Simple Events:Consider rolling a die.

a. “Getting a number 5” is called asimpleevent.
b. “Getting a 6” is also a simpleevent.

What about the event of “getting an odd number”?

Probability of Simple Events:If each of the outcomes in a sample space is

equally likely to occur, then the probability of an eventE, denoted asP(E) is
given by

PE
number�
of�
ways�
the�event�
can�
occur
number�of�possible�
outcomes
or

PE
number�
of�outcomes�in�
the�
event
number�
of�
outcomes�in�
the�sample�
space

329
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 Activity 2:

Consider the situation below. Use the tree diagram given below in
answering the questions that follow.

A school canteen serves lunch for students. A set of menu

consists of 1 type of rice, 1 type of viand, and 1 type of drink. The tree
diagram below shows the possible menu combinations.

1. Give the sample space of combination

Rice Viand of rice, viand,
Drink and
drink. How many possible outcomes are there?
2. List the outcomes of selecting a lunch with pineapple pineapple juice
juice.
chicken adobo orange juice
3. How many outcomes are there for selecting any lunch with
pineapple juice?
Fried rice pineapple juice
4. How many outcomes are there for selecting a lunch
pinakbet with
orange juice
steamed rice and with pineapple juice?
5. How many outcomes are there for selecting a lunch pineapple
withjuice
chicken adobo orange juice
chicken
Steamedadoborice and a pineapple juice?
6. How many outcomes are there for selecting a lunch
pinakbet withjuice
pineapple
pinakbet and an orange juice? orange juice

A student taking lunch in the canteen is selected at random.

7. What is the probability that the student chose pineapple juice
as a drink?
8. What is the probability that the student chose steamed rice
and pineapple juice?
9. What is the probability that the student chose chicken adobo
and orange juice?
10. What is the probability that the student chose pinakbet and
pineapple juice?

330
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 Reflect:
a. What does the tree diagram tell you?
b. How did you determine the sample space?
c. Differentiate an outcome from a sample space.
Give another example of an outcome.
d. Aside from the tree diagram, how else can you find
the total number of possible outcomes?
e. Describe the outcome in this situation as compared to
the events that you studied in grade 8.

From the above activity, you were able to recognize that the events in the
given situation are not simple events. This is because in finding the sample, you
need to find first the sample space using the fundamental counting principle. The
events mentioned here are called compound events. Typically, when the sample
space is finite, any subset of the sample space is an event. Any subset of the
sample space is an event. Since all events are sets, they are usually written as
sets (e.g., {1, 2, 3}).

Compound Events:Events which consist of more than one outcome are

calledcompound events. Acompound eventconsists of two or moresimple
events.

Example:Finding the probability of “getting a 6 and a 1” when two dice are rolled
is an event consisting of (1, 6), (6, 1) as outcomes. The first die falls in 6 different
ways and the second die also falls in 6 different ways. Thus, using the
fundamental counting principle, the number of outcomes in the sample space is
66 or 36. The outcomes in the sample space are:
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3),…,(6, 5), (6, 6)}.

Take note that “getting a 6 and a 1” when two dice are rolled is an event
consisting of {(1, 6), (6, 1)} as outcomes. This is a compound event.

It is often useful to use a Venn diagram to visualize the probabilities of

events. To understand more about the probability of the union and intersection
of events, you may proceed toActivity 3.

The next activity will help you understand the concept of intersection and
union of events.

331
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 Activity 3:

The extracurricular activities in which the senior class at

Kananga National High School participate are shown in the Venn
diagram below.

Extra-curricular
activities participated
by senior students

1. How many students are in the senior class?

2. How many students participate in athletics?
3. If a student is randomly chosen, what is the probability that the
student participates in athletics or drama?
4. If a student is randomly chosen, what is the probability that the
student participates only in drama and band?

Reflect:

a. How were you able to find the total number of students in

the senior class?
b. How does the concept of set help you in finding the
intersection and union of two or more events?
c. What are some notations that are used in your study of
sets in grade 7 that you can still recall? Do you think
these are needed in the study of probability of compound
events?

332
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Illustrative Example: The Venn diagram below shows the
probabilities of grade 10 students joining either soccer (S) or
basketball (B).

B probabilities.S
Use the Venn diagram to find the

a. P(B)
b. P(S)
c. P(B∩S)
d. P(B∪S)
e. P(B’∩S’)

To further understand the above problem, read the discussion of the

solution.

Actually, the diagram does not show or represent the entire

sample space for B and S. What is shown are the probabilities.

a. To find the P(B), we will add the probability that only B

occurs to the probability that B and S occur to get 0.4 + 0.3
= 0.7. So, P(B) = 0.7.
b. Similarly, P(S) = 0.2 + 0.3 = 0.5
c. Now, P(B∩S) is the value 0.3 in the overlapping region
d. P(B∪S) = 0.4 + 0.3 +0.2 = 0.9.
e. P(B’∩S’) = 1 - P(B∪ S) = 0.1

Complement of an Event
The complement of an event is the set of all outcomes that are
NOT in the event. This means that if the probability of an event, A, is
P(A), then the probability that the event would not occur (also called
the complementary event) is 1 – P(A), denoted by P(A’). Thus, P(A’) =
1 – P(A).

So the complement of an event E is the set of all the outcomes

which are not in E. And together the event and its complement make
all possible outcomes. Consider item e on this page.

333
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 P(B’∩S’) can be determined by finding the part of the diagram
where everything outside of B overlaps with everything outside of S. It
is the region outside of both circles and that probability is 0.1. Another
way to think of this is P(B∪S)’ or 1 - P(B∪S).

The next activity will help you understand the concepts of events which are
mutually exclusive and which are not mutually exclusive. As you answer the next
activity, try to figure out events which are mutually exclusive and which are not.

Activity 4:
Consider the situations below and answer the questions that follow.

1. A bowl contains 15 chips numbered 1 to 15. If a chip

is drawn randomly from the bowl, what is the
probability that it is
a. 7 or 15?
b. 5 or a number divisible by 3?
c. even or divisible by 3?
d. a number divisible by 3 or divisible by 4?
2. Dario puts 44 marbles in a box in which 14 are red, 12 are
blue, and 18 are yellow. If Dario picks one marble at random,
what is the probability that he selects a red marble or a yellow
marble?
3. Out of 5200 households surveyed, 2107 had a dog, 807 had
a cat, and 303 had both a dog and a cat. What is the
probability that a randomly selected household has a dog or a
cat?

Reflect:
a. How did you answer each question?
b. What do you notice about the events in each question?
(e.g., 1.c as compared to 1. d, question 2 as compared to
question 3).
c. Draw a Venn diagram showing the sample space for
numbers 3 and 4. What do you notice about the Venn
diagrams?
 334
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 To help you understand the concepts of mutually exclusive and non-
mutually exclusive events, read the discussion below.

The events in the above activity may be either mutually

exclusive or not mutually exclusive. Events that cannot occur at the
same time are called mutually exclusive events.

Consider the Venn diagram below. What do you notice about

the events A and B? These two events are mutually exclusive. In
problem 1b of the preceding activity, the event of getting a 5 and the
event of getting a number divisible by 3 from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15} are mutually exclusive events.

If two events, A and B, are mutually exclusive, then the

CO
probability that either A or B occurs is the sum of their
probabilities. In symbols,

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

On the other hand, the event of getting a number divisible by 3

or the event of getting a number divisible by 4 in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15} are not mutually exclusive events. Observe that a
subset of numbers divisible by 3 also contains an element which is a
subset of the numbers divisible by 4.

The Venn diagram below shows events A and B which are not
mutually exclusive because A and B intersect. Note that there are
outcomes that are common to A and B which is the intersection of A
and B.

A B
335
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P(A or B)
 If two events, A and B, are not mutually exclusive, then the
probability that either A or B occurs is the sum of their probabilities
decreased by the probability of both occurring. In symbols,

P(A or B)= P(A)+ P(B) – P(A and B).

Activitythe
Consider 5: situation below and answer the questions that follow.

O
1. This section requires
serves you to use the mathematical ideas you learned from

C
A restaurant a bowl of candies to their customers.
the activity and from the discussion. Answer the problems in the following
Theinbowl
activities of candies
different Gabriel
ways when receives has 10 chocolate
possible.
candies, 8 coffee candies, and 12 caramel candies. After
Gabriel chooses a candy, he eats it. Find the probability of
getting candies with the indicated flavors.
a. P (chocolate or coffee) c. P (coffee or caramel)
b. P (caramel or not coffee) d. P (chocolate or not caramel)

2. Rhian likes to wear colored shirts. She has 15 shirts in the

closet. Five of these are blue, four are in different shades of
red, and the rest are of different colors. What is the probability
that she will wear a blue or a red shirt?

3. Mark has pairs of pants in three different colors, blue, black,

and brown. He has 5 colored shirts: a white, a red, a yellow,
a blue, and a mixed-colored shirt. What is the probability
that Mark wears a black pair of pants and a red shirt on a
given day?

4. A motorcycle licence plate has 2 letters and 3 numbers.

What is the probability that a motorcycle has a licence plate
containing a double letter and an even number?

336
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 Did you answer all the questions correctly? To help you understand more
about mutually exclusive events, you may proceed toActivity 6.

Activity 6:

Consider each problem below. Draw a Venn diagram for each.

Determine whether the events are mutually exclusive or not mutually
exclusive. Then, find the probability.

1. Mario has 45 red chips, 12 blue chips, and 24 white chips. What
is the probability that Mario randomly selects a red chip or a
white chip?

2. Of 240 students, 176 are on the honor roll, 48 are members of

the varsity team, and 36 are in the honor roll and are also
members of the varsity team. What is the probability that a
randomly selected student is on the honor roll or is a member
of the varsity team?

3. Ruby’s dog has 8 puppies. The puppies include white females,

3 mixed-color females, 1 white male, and 2 mixed-color males.
Ruby wants to keep one puppy. What is the probability that she
randomly chooses a puppy that is female and white?

4. Carl’s basketball shooting records indicate that for any frame,

the probability that he will score in a two-point shoot is 30%, a
three-point shoot, 45%, and neither, 25%. What is the
probability that Cindy will score either in a two-point shoot or in
a three-point shoot?

In previous lessons, you learned about counting techniques and you were
able to differentiate permutation from combination. In the next activity, observe
how the concepts of permutation and combination are used in solving
probabilityproblems.
 337
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 Activity 7:

Consider the situation below and answer the questions that follow.

There are a total of 48 students in Grade 10 Charity. Twenty are

boys and 28 are girls.

1. If a teacher randomly selects a student to represent the class

in a school meeting, what is the probability that a
a. boy is chosen?
b. girl is chosen?

2. If a committee of 3 students is formed, what is the probability that

a. all are girls?
b. two are boys and one is a girl?

3. Suppose that a team of 3 students is formed such that it is

composed of a team leader, a secretary, and a spokesperson.
What is the probability that a team formed is composed of a girl
secretary?

Reflect:
a. How did you answer each question?
b. In finding the probability of each event above, what
concepts are needed?
c. Differentiate the event required in question 1 as
compared to questions 2 and 3.
d. Compare the events in questions 2 and 3. What
necessary knowledge and skills did you need to get the
correct answer? How did you compute for the probability
of an event in each case?

Notice that the above problems involved concepts of combination and

permutation in determining the sample space and in determining the events. Do
you remember your previous lesson on combination and permutation? How
useful are your knowledge and skills on permutation and combination in solving
problems onprobability?
 338
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 This time you need to reflect on and further find out your understanding of
compound events and mutually and not mutually exclusive events. You may also
apply your knowledge and skills on the Fundamental Counting Principle,
combinations, and permutations in determining the possible outcomes in the
sample space.

Activity 8:

Answer the following questions

1. How does a simple event differ from a compound event?

2. Differentiate mutually exclusive events from non-mutually
exclusive events.
3. Suppose there are three events A, B, and C that are not
mutually exclusive. List all the probabilities you would need
to consider in order to calculate P(A or B or C). Then, write
the formula you would use to calculate the probability.
4. Explain why subtraction is used when finding the
probability of two events that are not mutually exclusive.

What new realizations do you have about probability of compound events?

How would you connect this topic to other concepts that you have previously
learned? How would you use this in reallife?

339
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 This section gives an opportunity for you to apply what you have learned
in this lesson to real-life situations. You are asked to do certain tasks that will
demonstrate your understanding of probability of compound events, mutually
exclusive events, and not mutually exclusive events.

Activity 9:

Answer the following questions. Write a report of your answers using

a minimum of 120 words. Be ready to present your answers in the
class.

1. Describe a situation in your life that involves events which are

mutually exclusive or not mutually exclusive. Explain why the
events are mutually exclusive or not mutually exclusive.
2. Think about your daily experience. How is probability
utilized in newspapers, television shows, and radio
programs that interest you? What are your general
impressions of the ways in which probability is used in the
print media and entertainment industry?

SUMMARY/SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION

In this lesson, you learned that an event is any collection of

outcomes of an experiment. Typically, when the sample space is finite,
any subset of the sample space is an event. Any event which consists
of a single outcome in the sample space is called an elementary or
simple event. Events which consist of more than one outcome are
called compound events. You also learned that to each event, a
probability is assigned. The probability of a compound event can be
calculated if its outcomes are equally likely. Events can be mutually
exclusive or not mutually exclusive. If two events, A and B, are
mutually exclusive, then the probability that either A or B occurs is the
sum of their probabilities. In symbols, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B). On the
other hand, if two events, A and B, are not mutually exclusive, then the
probability that either A or B occurs is the sum of their probabilities
decreased by the probability of both of them occurring. In symbols,

P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) – P (A and B).

 340
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Consider the situations below and answer the questions that follow.

Situation
and
and
In 1:
probability
then put
Consider
Lesson
9 yellowofballs.
compound
back
a box
1 of this

inside
that contains
module,
A ball events.
is drawn
the
you learned
You
box.
at will
random
Then,
COP
14 red
about
and
formally
balls,

another
12 blue
the basic
the color
learn,
ball is
balls, of the
concepts
is notedwhy the
for example,
drawn at it.
outcome of the flip of a fair coin is independent of the flips that came before
random. Find the probability that:
a. both are blue.
Activity 1:

Y
b. the first is red and the second is yellow.

Situation 2: Consider a box that contains 14 red balls, 12 blue balls,

and 9 yellow balls. Suppose that two balls are drawn one after the
other without putting back the first ball. Find the probability that:
a. the first is red and the second is blue.
b. both balls are yellow.

Reflect:
a. Compare the process of getting the probabilities in each of
the situations above?
b. In situation 1, is the probability of obtaining the second ball
affected by the first ball? What about in situation 2?
c. What conclusion can you make about events happening in
the given situations above? How are these events
different?

341
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 You have just completed Activity 1 on understanding dependent and
independent events. Continue by considering the discussion that follows. Please
read thoroughly and if needed, you may go back to the situations given inActivity
1of thislesson.

Independent and Dependent Events

In situation 1, the probability of getting a blue ball in the second
draw is not affected by the probability of drawing a red ball on the first
draw, since the first ball is put back inside the box prior to the second
draw. Thus, the two events are independent of each other. Two events
are independent if the outcome of one event does not affect the
outcome of the other event.
Example: When a coin is tossed and a die is rolled, the event
that a coin shows up head and the event that a die shows up a
5 are independent events.
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one of the
events gives us no information about whether or not the other event
will occur; that is, the events have no influence on each other.
If two events, A and B, are independent, then the probability of
both events occurring is the product of the probability of A and the
probability of B. In symbols,
P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B)
When the outcome of one event affects the outcome of another
event, they are dependent events. In situation 2, if the ball was not
placed back in the box, then drawing the two balls would have been
dependent events. In this case, the event of drawing a yellow ball on
the second draw is dependent on the event of drawing a yellow ball on
the first draw.
Example: A box contains 7 white marbles and 7 red marbles.
What is the probability of drawing 2 white marbles and 1 red
marble in succession without replacement?
7
On the first draw, the probability of getting a white marble is . On

14
6
the second draw, the probability of getting a white marble is . Then on the

13
7
third draw, the probability of getting a red marble is . So,

12
7
P(1 white, 1 white, 1 red) =
⋅ 6⋅ 7=7
14 13 12 52

342
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 If two events, A and B, are dependent, then the probability of
both events occurring is the product of the probability of A and the
probability of B after A occurs. In symbols,

P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B following A)

Consider the situation below and answer the questions that follow.

1. A bag contains 6 black marbles, 9 blue marbles, 4 yellow marbles,

This section requires you to use the mathematical ideas you learned from
and

COP
the activity and from the discussion. Answer the problems in the following
2 green marbles. A marble is randomly selected, replaced, and
activities in different
a second waysiswhen
marble possible.
randomly selected. Find the probability of
selecting a black marble, then a yellow marble.
Activity 2:

2. A box of chocolates contains 10 milk chocolates, 8 dark

chocolates, and 6 white chocolates. Hanissa randomly chooses
a chocolate, eats it, and then randomly chooses another
chocolate. What is the probability that Hanissa chose a milk
chocolate, and then, a white chocolate?

3. A rental agency has 12 white cars, 8 gray cars, 6 red cars, and
3 green cars for rent. Mr. Escobar rents a car, returns it because
the radio is broken, and gets another car. What is the probability
that Mr. Escobar is given a green car and then a gray car?

Did you answer all the questions correctly? If not, you may go back to the
discussion. Otherwise you may proceed to Activity 3. Now, using your own words,
differentiate independent events from dependent events. Then, you may answer
the questions in the next activity.

343
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 Activity 3:

Determine whether the events are independent or dependent. Then, find

the probability.
1. A toy box contains 12 toys, 8 stuffed animals, and 3 board
games. Maria randomly chooses 2 toys for the child she is
babysitting to play with. What is the probability that she chose
2 stuffed animals as the first two choices?
2. A basket contains 6 apples, 5 bananas, 4 oranges, and 5
guavas. Dominic randomly chooses one piece of fruit, eats it,
and chooses another piece of fruit. What is the probability that
he chose a banana and then an apple?
3. Nick has 4 black pens, 3 blue pens, and 2 red pens in his school
bag. Nick randomly picks two pens out of his school bag. What
is the probability that Nick chose two blue pens, if he replaced
the first pen back in his pocket before choosing a second pen?

Consider the situation below and answer the questions that follow.

1. A bag of jelly beans contains 10 red, 6 green, 7 yellow, and 5

This time you need to reflect on and further find out your understanding of
orange jelly beans. What is the probability of randomly choosing
dependent and independent events.
a red jelly bean, replacing it, randomly choosing another red
jelly bean, replacing it, and then randomly choosing an orange
Activity 4:
jelly bean?

2. Rene and Cris went to a grocery store to buy drinks. They

chose from 10 different brands of juice drinks, 6 different brands
of carbonated drinks, and 3 different brands of mineral water.
What is the probability that Rene and Cris both chose juice
drinks, if Rene randomly chose first and liked the first brand he
picked up?

344
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 Activity 5:

Answer the following questions.

1. What makes two events independent?
2. Differentiate a dependent event from an independent event.

Reflect:
a. What new realizations do you have about the probability of a
dependent event?
b. How would you connect this topic to other concepts that you
have previously learned?
c. How would you use these concepts in real life?

1. Describe a situation in your life that involves dependent and

independent events. Explain why the events are dependent or
independent.
2. Formulate your
This section ownopportunity
is an problems involving
for you toindependent andhave learned in
apply what you
dependent events.
this lesson to real-life situations. You are asked to do certain tasks that will
demonstrate your understanding of probability of compound events,
SUMMARY/SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION
dependent events, and independentevents.

Activity 6: CO
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one of the events
gives no information about whether or not the other event will occur; that
is, the events have no influence on each other. If two events, A and B,
are independent, then the probability of both events occurring is the
product of the probability of A and the probability of B. In symbols,
P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B).

When the outcome of one event affects the outcome of another

event, they are dependent events. If two events, A and B, are
dependent, then the probability of both events occurring is the product of
the probability of A and the probability of B after A occurs. In symbols,
P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B following A).

345
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 Conditional probability plays a key role in many practical
applications of probability. In these applications, important conditional
probabilities are often drastically affected by seemingly small changes
in the basic information from which the probabilities are derived.

Consider the situation and answer the questions that follow.

Mario bought four different batteries. Of these four, one is defective.
Two are to be selected at random for use on a particular day.
In this lesson, we will focus on finding a particular kind of probability called
a1.conditional
Draw a tree diagram
probability. Toassociated
understandwith the experiment
conditional of you may begin
probability,
by answering Activity 1.
selecting two batteries from among four, in which one is
defective.
Activity 1:
2. List the sample space. How many outcomes are there?
3. Find the probability that the second battery selected is not defective.
4. What if you find the probability that the second battery
selected is not defective, given that the first was not
defective?

Reflect:
a. How did you answer question number 3? How is the
condition different from that of question number 4?
b. How did you find the probability that the second battery
selected was not defective, given that the first was not
defective?

In Activity 1, you notice that a condition was given when you were asked to
find the probability of an event. How does the given condition affect the probability
of an event? Activity 1 shows an example of probability involving conditions which
we refer to as conditional probability. To understand conditional probability
further, you may proceed to Activity2.

346
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 Activity 2:

Consider the situation and answer the questions that follow.

A proficiency examination for certain technical skills was given

to 100 employees of a manufacturing firm. The breakdown of the
examination results of the employees are shown in the table below.

Male (M) Female (F) Total

Pass (P) 24 36 60
Fail (Q ) 16 24 40
40 60 100

Suppose that an employee is selected at random from among the

100 employees who took the examination.

1. Are the events P and M independent? Explain.

2. Are the events P and F independent? Explain.
3. Find the probability that the employee passed the exam,
given that he was a male.
4. Find the probability that the employee was a male, given that
a passing grade was received.
5. Find the probability that the employee was a female,
given that a passing grade was received.

In many situations, once more information become available, we are able

to revise our estimates for the probability of further outcomes or events
happening. In this lesson, we are interested in answering this type of
question:how the information “an event B has occurred" affects the probability
that “eventA occurs."

The usual notation for "event A occurs given that event B has
occurred" is "A|B" (A given B). The symbol | is a vertical line and does
not imply division. P(A|B) denotes the probability that event A will
occur given that event B has occurred already. We define conditional
probability as follows:

For any two events A and B with P(B) > 0, the conditional
probability of
A given that B has occurred is defined by

P(A ∩ B)
P(A | B) =

P(B)

347
 When two events, A and B, are dependent, the probability of
both events occurring is

P(A and B) = P(B) P(A|B). Also, P(A and B) = P(A) P(B|A).

Sample Problem: A mathematics teacher gave her class two tests.

Twenty- five percent of the class passed both tests and 42% of the
class passed the first test. What percent of those who passed the first
test also passed the second test?

Solution: This problem involves a conditional probability since it asks

for the probability that the second test was passed given that the first
test was passed.

P (First and
P (Second|First ) =
Second ) P
(First )
= 0.25
0.42
= 25
42
= 0.60 or 60%

Activity 3:

Consider the table below showing A as the age group under

30 years old who purchase 2 different brands of shoes.

Age Group Brand X Brand Y Total

A (under 30 years old) 6% 34% 40%
A’ (30 years and older) 9% 51% 60%
Total 15% 85% 100%

1. What is the probability that a person chosen at random

purchases Brand X?
2. What is the probability that a person chosen at random is
under 30 years old?
3. What is the probability that a person chosen at random
purchases Brand X and is under 30 years old?
4. What is the probability that a person chosen at random
purchases Brand X and he or she is under 30 years old?

348
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Question for discussion: Does the occurrence of event A give
information
about the probability of event X? Why or Why not?

To understand further conditional probability, study the solution to the

above problem.

Solution: We use a Venn diagram to show the relationships of the

events.

1. P(X) = 0.15 S X A
2. P(A) = 0.40
3. P(X ∩ A)= 0.06 0.090.060.34
P (X ∩ A)
4. P (X |A ) =
  0.51
P A

= 0.06
0.40
= 0.15

Take note that from 1) and 4), P(X) and P(X|A) are both equal to
0.15.

Notice that the occurrence of event A gives no information

about the probability of event X. The events X and A are independent
events.

Two events A and B are said to be independent if either:

i. P(A | B) = P(A), i.e., P(B | A) = P(B), or equivalently,
ii. P(A ∩ B) = P(A) ⋅ P(B).

Probabilities are usually very sensitive to an information given

as a condition. Sometimes, however, a probability does not change
when a condition is supplied. If the extra information provided by
knowing that an event B has occurred does not change the probability
of A, that is, if, P(A | B) = P(A)
then events A and B are said to be independent. Since

P (A ∩ B )
P (A|B ) =
 
P B

Notice that two events A and B are said to be independent

if P(A B) = P(A) P(B). This is equivalent to stating that P(A|B) = P(A)
and P(B|A) = P(B) if these probabilities exist.
 349
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 Sometimes a conditional probability is known, and we want to
find the probability of an intersection. By rearranging the terms in the
definition of conditional probability and considering the definition of
independence, we obtain the Multiplicative Rule which is

P(A ∩ B) = P(A)∙P(B).

Let us look at some other problems in which you are asked to

find a conditional probability in Activity 4.

Activity 4:
Answer the following questions.
This section requires you to use the mathematical ideas you learned from
1. previous
the Given that P(S) =and
activities 0.3,from
P(S|Q) = 0.4, and Answer
the discussion. P(Q) = the
0.5,problems
find the in the
following activities
following in different ways when possible.
probabilities:
a. P(S∩Q)
b. P(Q|S)
c. P(S’|Q)
d. P(S|Q’)

2. Assume S and Q are independent events with P(S) = 0.2

and P(Q) = 0.3. Let T be the event that at least one of S or Q
occurs, and let R be the event that exactly one of S or Q occurs.
Find the following probabilities
a. P(T)
b. P(R)
c. P(S|R)
d. P(R|S).
e. Determine whether S and R are independent.

350
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 Reflect:
a. What do you notice about the conditional
probability of independent events?
b. How about the conditional probability of dependent
events?

Activity 5:

1. A family has two children. What is the probability that the

younger child is a girl, given that at least one of the children is
a girl?

2. At a basketball game, 80% of the fans cheered for team A. In

the same crowd, 20% of the fans were waving banners and
cheering for team A. What is the probability that a fan waved a
banner given that the fan cheered for team A?

Activity 6:
This time you need to reflect on and further find out your understanding
For numbers 1 and
of dependent to 3,independent events.
consider the Venn diagram on the right.

EPE 1. What does the Venn diagram illustrate?

2. Using the Venn diagram, how
do you find P(B|A)?
3. Write a situation that can be
illustrated by the Venn diagram.

D
351
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 This section provides an opportunity for you to apply what you have
learned in this lesson to real-life situations. You are asked to do certain tasks
that will demonstrate your understanding of conditional probability.

Activity 7:

Make a research report. Choose your own topic of study or choose

from any of the four recommended topics given below. Focus on the
question that follows:

How can I use statistics and probability to help others make

informed decisions regarding my chosen topic?

Recommended Topics:
1. Driving and cell phone use
2. Diet and health
3. Professional athletics
4. Costs associated with a college education

SUMMARY/SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION
For any two events A and B with P(B) > 0, the conditional probability of
A given that B has occurred is defined by

P (A ∩ B )
P (A|B ) =
 
P B

In word problems, conditional probabilities can usually be

recognized by words like “given”, “if,” or “among” (e.g., in the context
of samples). There are, however, no hard rules, and you have to read
the problem carefully and pay attention to the entire context of the
problem to determine whether the given probability represents an
ordinary probability (e.g., P(AB)) or a conditional probability (e.g.,
P(A|B) or P(B|A)).
 352
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Complement of an Event – a set of all outcomes that are NOT in the

event. If A is the event, the complement of the event A is denoted by
A’

Compound Events – a composition of two or more simple events

Conditional Probability - The conditional probability of an event B

given A is the probability that the event B will occur given that an event
A has already occurred. This probability is written as P(B|A) and read
as the probability of B given A. In the case where events A and B are
independent (where event A has no effect on the probability of event
B), the conditional probability of event B given event A is simply the
probability of event B, that is, P(B).

Dependent Events – Two events are dependent if the occurrence of

one event does affect the occurrence of the other (e.g., random
selection without replacement).

Events – a set of possible outcomes resulting from a particular

experiment. For example, a possible event when a single six-sided die
is rolled is {5, 6}, that is, the roll could be a 5 or a 6. In general, an
event is any subset of a sample space (including the possibility of an
empty set).

Independent Events – events in which the probability of any one

event occurring is unaffected by the occurrence or non-occurrence of
any of the other events. Formally, A and B are independent if
and only if P(A|B) = P(A).

Intersection of Events – a set that contains all of the elements that

are in both events. The intersection of events A and B is written as A
∩B .

Mutually Exclusive Events – events that have no outcomes in

common. This also means that if two or more events are mutually
exclusive, they cannot happen at the same time. This is also referred
to as disjoint events.

Union of Events – a set that contains all of the elements that are in at
least
one of the two events. The union is written as A ∪ B .

Venn Diagram – a diagram that uses circles to represent sets, in which

the relations between the sets are indicated by the arrangement of the
circles.
 353
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REFERENCES AND WEBSITE LINKS USED IN THIS MODULE

References:

Canonigo, A. (2000). Historical, Philosophical and Psychological

Considerations in Probability Theory Intersection: Official
Journal of Philippine Council of Mathematics Teacher
Educators (MATHED), Inc. Lee-Chua, Editor. MATHED, Inc:
Quezon City. 1(2), 22-32.

Carpenter, T. Corbitt, M., Kepner, H., Lindquist, M. & Reys, R. (1981).

“What are the chances of your students knowing probability?”
The Mathematics Teacher 74(5), 342-344.

Website Links as Reference and Sources of Learning Activities:

Conditional Probability and Independence. Tutorials for Finite Math.

http://people.hofstra.edu/stefan_waner/realworld/tutorialsf3/frames6_5.ht
ml Accessed on 3 March 2014.

Conditional Probability. Wolfram MathWorld.

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ConditionalProbabilit
y.html Accessed on 4 March 2014.

Conditional Probability: Definitions and non-trivial examples. Cut

the Knot. http://www.cut-the-
knot.org/Probability/ConditionalProbability.shtmlAccessed on 6
March 2014.

Conditional
Probability.http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-
98/101/condprob.htm Accessed on 6 March 2014

Independent Events. Math Goodies.

http://www.mathgoodies.com/lessons/vol6/independent_events.ht
ml Accessed on 6 March 2014.

Mutually Exclusive Events. Math Is Fun.

http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/probability-events-mutually-
exclusive.html Accessed on 6 March 2014

The Monty Hall Dilemma. Cut the Knot .http://www.cut-the-

knot.org/hall.shtml Accessed on 6 March 2014

The Monty Hall Problem.http://montyhallproblem.com/ Accessed on

6 March 2014
 354
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