Design of 38 Mega Watts Steam Power Plant in Majayjay Laguna

CHAPTER 1
PROJECT BACKGROUND
1.1 The Project
For each economical development of one nation, there is always an increase in the needs
for energy. As the economy in the Philippines grow, the demand in energy also arises due to the
increasing needs of big companies for energy and electricity. The needs in energy is very essential
on every aspect of people’s life, from small devices up to the large equipments, people are using
energy to make it work. To address the increasing needs in power generation, Power plants are built
to sustain the energy needs of our society. Some Power plants sources of energy to create electricity
are scarce and limited, that’s why engineers look for ways to create energy from renewable and
natural energy sources. Fossil fuels are non-renewable, that is, they draw on finite resources that
will eventually dwindle, becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging to retrieve. In
contrast, the many types of renewable energy resources-such as hydro, wind and solar energy-are
constantly replenished and will never run out.
Each and every year, as the population and economic status of the Philippines grow, the
demand in energy also increases. Based from the latest data of the Department of Energy, the total
dependable generating capacity in the Philippines in the year 2016 was 19,097 MW. The outlook for
electricity demand in energy for the year 2017 and 2018 will also increase as the economy and
population increases. Among the different energy sources which are the Coal, Oil-based, Natural
Gas and Renewable Energy sources, the two that produces a large share of energy is the Coal and
the Renewable Energy. The Philippines depends too much energy from Coal which generates
36.5% of the Philippines total electricity and the Renewable energy sources from Geothermal, Hydro
and Biomass, solar and wind produces 31.4% of the Philippines total electricity. With these data, we
can see that the Philippines are mostly dependent on the Coal which is a non-renewable energy
source.
The Philippines are known for many renewable sources because of its rich natural
resources. These energy sources can be used to generate electricity. From our natural energy
sources, we can solve the continuous needs for energy demand and also help to preserve our
environment. This natural and renewable energy sources also has good sustainability that ensures
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the good future for our country or society. In selecting the most suitable power plant to be designed,
many trade-offs and multiple constraints are considered especially in the effects of the power plant
on the economy, environment and the sustainability.
Laguna, officially known as the Province of Laguna, is a province in the Philippines,

located in the Calabarzon region in Luzon. Its capital is Santa Cruz and the province is situated
southeast of Metro Manila, south of the province of Rizal, west of Quezon, north of Batangas and
east of Cavite. Laguna hugs the southern shores of Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the country.
As of the 2015 census, the province's total population is 3,035,081
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguna_(province).
Laguna covers a total area of 1,917.85 km2 (740.49 sq mi) occupying the north-central
section of the CALABARZON region in Luzon. The province is situated southeast of Metro
Manila, south of Rizal, west of Quezon, north of Batangas and east of Cavite. Laguna is the third
largest province in the CALABARZON region and the 63rd largest in the entire country. The
municipalities of Cavinti and the city of San Pablo have the largest land areas with
203.58 km2 (78.60 sq mi) and 197.56 km2 (76.28 sq mi), respectively. The municipality
of Victoria has the smallest land area with 57.46 km2 (22.19 sq mi)
(https://wikivisually.com/wiki/Laguna_(province).
2
Table 1.1.1 Statistics of Laguna Province, Philippines
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguna_(province)
Laguna is powered by electric companies namely MERALCO and FLECO (Laguna Electric
Cooperative, Inc. ). The First Laguna Electric Cooperative, Inc. (FLECO) was incorporated and
registered with the National Electrification Administration (NEA) on April 3, 1973 under Presidential
Decree 269. The operation of FLECO commenced on September 1, 1973 when it took-over the
seven (7) private electric franchises and municipal systems, namely: Siniloan Electric which
covered the towns of Siniloan, Pangil, Pakil, Mabitac and Sta. Maria; Pagsanjan Electric System;
Paete Electric Service; Lumban Electric System; Kalayaan Electric System; Cavinti Electric System
and Calim &. Jamilano Electric Co., which served the town of Famy. Initially, FLECO contracted a
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loan with NEA used chiefly as payment for taken-over private systems, rehabilitation of old lines,
and service expansion (http://fleco.com.ph/).
Fig 1.1.1 Coverage area of FLECO service in Laguna, Philippines
(http://124.83.47.8/Fleco%20Online%20Bills/aboutus.php)
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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The constant increase in the needs of power also means that more generation of energy is
needed. Power plants are the main source of immense energy and power. From these, we can satisfy
the continuous increase in the demand of electricity. The most common sources of energy that are
used in the Philippines is Coal, but considering the scarcity and the near depletion of this energy
source, renewable energy and natural gases are also considered in designing the most suitable
power plant.
The designers chose to design a 38 Mega Watts Steam Power Plant to provide sufficient
energy source for the area of Laguna and the municipalities near it. The power plant will be situated
in the municipality of Majayjay, Laguna. The researchers chose this location to increase the energy
production in this area with the help of FLECO and MERALCO electric cooperatives in the distribution
of power for the costumers. In the Distribution Development Plant (DDP) prepared by the Department
of Energy (DOE) clearly shows the annual projected peak demand from 2010 to 2019. The table
shows that FLECO has an increasing need for additional power in the upcoming years.
(https://www.doe.gov.ph/distribution-development-plan)
The proposed power plant design is Steam Power Plant using Coal, Oil or Natural Gas as
energy sources. The study will also consider choosing the best energy source among Coal, Oil and
Natural Gas in terms of its advantage on its sustainability, economical and environmental aspects.
Choosing the most suitable energy source for the steam power plant will be based from the research
and computations made by the researchers. The trade-offs and multiple constraints that will be
considered will highly affect the decision in which type of energy source the steam power plant will
use. Since power plants have a long life, this trade-offs and multiple constraints will affect the design
on the long term that’s why it is very important to consider those factors in selecting a power plant to
design.
5
Table 1.2.1 Energy/Power Management Distribution Development Plan
(https://www.doe.gov.ph/distribution-development-plan)
6
1.3 Projects Objectives
General Objectives:
 To design a 38 MW Capacity steam power plant in Majayjay, Laguna.
Specific Objectives:
 To design a steam power plant using conventional energy sources such as Coal, Oil and
Natural Gas.
 To determine factors and conditions for the selection of the suitable energy source for the
steam power plant that would produce better efficiency and production of power.
 To design a steam power plant from the best energy source considering the trade-offs and
multiple constraints and standards.
1.4 The Client
The beneficiaries of this project are:
1.) Manila Electric Company or Meralco (Manila Electric Railroad And Light Company)
2.) Franchise areas of FLECO (First Laguna Electric Cooperative, Inc.)
 Cavinti
 Pagsanjan
 Paete
 Pakil
 Pangil
 Siniloan
 Famy
 Mabitac
 Sta. Maria
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1.5 Project Scope and Limitations
This project objective is to design two proposed steam power plants with a capacity of 21
MW situated in area of Majayjay, Laguna with an immense potential source of energy namely Coal
and Oil.
 For Design Alternative 1: Coal-Fired Steam Power Plant, the following main components to
be included in the design are turbines, boiler, furnace, condenser, steam reheater,
superheater, economizer, steam preheater, stack, condenser and cooling system. The
prospective power plant is planned to be installed at Laguna. The difference of coal-powered
from oil-powered is that the design include furnace and it uses chain grate.
 For Design Alternative 2: Oil-Fired Steam Power Plant, the following main components to
be included in the design are turbines, boiler, condenser, steam reheater, superheater,
economizer, steam preheater, stack, condenser and cooling system. The prospective power
plant is planned to be installed at Laguna. The difference of oil-powered from coal-powered
is that the design doesn’t include furnace and it does not use chain grate, instead it uses
burner for combustion.
 For Design Alternative 3: Natural Gas-Fired Steam Power Plant, the following main
components to be included in the design are turbines, boiler, condenser, steam reheater,
superheater, economizer, steam preheater, stack, condenser and cooling system. The
prospective power plant is planned to be installed at Laguna. The design of this power plant
is the same from the oil-fired steam power plant; the only difference is the fuel used and the
combustion of fuel.
Among the proposed design, the most suitable energy source that is sustainable, and will
be appropriate to the budget and environment will be preferred for the selection of the final design of
power plant. Also, the designers will consider the computations, trade-offs and multiple constraints
in choosing the best suitable steam power plant.
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1.6 Project Development
Selection of proposed location Computation

and capacity needed
 Components Specification
38 MW Power plant design in  Design of each
Majayjay, Laguna components
 Economic standards
General Objectives Constraints

To design a 38 MW capacity steam  Sustainability
power plant in Majayjay, Laguna  Environmental Constraints
 Economic Constraints
Design alternatives
Applying Trade-offs
 Coal-Fired Steam Power
Plant Choosing between what is more
 Oil-Fired Steam Power Plant efficient, economical,
 Natural Gas-Fired Steam environmental, and sustainable in
Power Plant the 3 alternatives declared
Design Inputs
 Propose location sites for FINAL COMPLETION OF THE

the 3 alternative sources of CHOSEN DESIGN ALTERNATIVE
steam power plants
 Pros and Cons of each
design alternative
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CHAPTER 2
DESIGN INPUTS
2.1 Design Description
The design of steam power plant powered by different alternative sources will be installed in
Majayjay, Laguna. The project aims to design and install a Steam Power plant powered by different
alternative sources to help the electric providers in Laguna such as Meralco and FLECO to cope up
with the increasing demand of electricity in the province.
2.2 Site Location
Laguna covers a total area of 1,917.85 km2 (740.49 sq mi) occupying the north central
section of the CALABARZON region in Luzon. Laguna is the third largest province in the
CALABARZON region and the 63rd largest in the entire country.
Majayjay, Laguna is a 4th class municipality in the province of Laguna, Philippines. It is

located at the foot of Mount Banahaw, and stands 1,000 feet above sea level. 120 km south
of Manila, it is bounded by the municipality of Magdalena on the north-west, by Lucban in Quezon
provinceon the southeast, by Luisiana on the north-east, and by Liliw on the west.
Fig 2.2.1 Satelite View of Majayjay, Laguna
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(http://www.tageo.com/index-e-rp-v-33-d-m3357869.htm)
The Figure shows the geographic area where the power plant will be situated. It is among
one of the municipalities of the province of Laguna.
Fig. 2.2.2 Google View of Majayjay

http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/896736
2.3 Geography
Majayjay is geographically a landlocked area situated in the southernmost part of the
province of Laguna. It nestles at the foot of the mystical Mt. Banahaw, and due to its higher altitude
at some 2,700+ ft above sea level, the town makes for a good vacation destination during summer
season in the Philippines.
2.3.1 Natural Resources
Laguna’s natural resources are water with about 300 million gallons of underground water
recharged by at least seven principal watersheds. It has Asia’s 3rd biggest lake-the Laguna de
Bay- which ably supplies the Province’s fresh water resource requirements and form part of the
people’s livelihood.
Laguna is nestled in the foothills of three mountains namely, Mount Makiling, Mount Banahaw, and the Sierra Madre
Range that not only provide attraction for the tourism industry and
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sources of many forest-based products, but also serve as stewards for the clean air that
Laguna generously share. The soil is heaven for those seeking opportunities in agriculture and
horticulture given its richness and fertility.
2.4 Demography
2.4.1 Population
Table 2.4.1 Population Census of Majayjay, Laguna from 1903 to 2015
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2.5 Topography
Laguna Island Philippines has a total area of 175,973 hectares (or about 1,759.7
square kms.), the third largest province in Region IV. Its size is approximately 3.75 percent
of the whole Region IV and about 0.58 percent of the total land area of the country. The
provincial capital is Santa Cruz.
Eighteen of the twenty-nine municipalities of Laguna belong to the coastal zone

namely: San Pedro, Biñan, Santa Rosa, Cabuyao, Calamba City, Los Baños, Bay,
Calauan, Victoria, Pila, Santa Cruz, Lumban, Kalayaan, Pangil, Pakil, Paete, Siniloan and
Mabitac. It has a total coastal length of 109.2 kms. or about 49.64 percent of the total
coastal length of Laguna de Bay. A total coastal zone area of 580.2 sq. kms.or 57.37
hectares is also present (http://calabarzon.islandsphilippines.com/laguna/geography.php).
Fig 1.3.1 Map of Laguna, Philippines

(http://keywordsuggest.org/gallery/1283523.html)
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2.6 Area Analysis
The power plant is located in the area of Majayjay, Laguna and the total land area and
land used by the power plant is shown on the table. This is the proposed area allocation for the
steam power plant design.
Table 2.6.1 Area analysis of the Steam Power Plant
L A N D U S E
S P A C E A L L O C . A R E A
TOTAL LAND AREA 5 0 , 0 0 0 s q . m
MAIN POWER PLANT AREA 4 0 , 0 0 0 s q . m
AREA ALLOWANCE 1 0 , 0 0 0 s q . m
2.7 Design Alternatives
To come up with the best power plant energy source from the three alternatives, the
researchers considered the information released by the Department of Energy (DOE). The DOE
released sufficient and enough data which becomes the standard in choosing the best from the 3
power plant alternative sources to be installed in Majayjay, Laguna.
The three alternatives are namely:
 Coal-Fired Steam Power plant

 Oil-Fired Steam Power plant
 Natural Gas-Fired Steam Power Plant
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2.7.1 COAL–FIRED STEAM POWER PLANT
.
Coal-fired steam power plant is a good alternative in deciding what power plant to
design because of the advantages it possesses. Coal costs very low price in production and
available in most of the countries. Though abundant, coal is a dirty energy source and is
responsible for global warming emissions. Coal also has significant and harmful
consequences for the environment since burning coal releases toxins such as carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. Also, coal-fired steam power plant demands heavy water
resources which are suitable in the area of Laguna since it has rich water resources. Overall,
considering coal as a fuel is not good environmentally but is very good economically since
it has the cheapest fuel.
 Design Alternative 1:
o Coal-fired Power Plant will run using a fuel with the following composition:
 C – 84.05%
 H2 – 4.5%
 O2 – 6%
 N2 – 1.17%
 S – 0.55%
 Ash – 3.73%
2.7.2 OIL-FIRED STEAM POWER PLANT

Oil-fired power plant is also a good alternative because it can also produce reliable
energy. As compared to coal, oil is more expensive but diesel emits less carbon thus making
this environmentally accepted. The disadvantage of this is also the same to the coal since it is
depleting, the designers are considering the life span of this energy source for its fuel
sustainability. Also, oil-fired generators produce less electricity than coal which means that it is
more expensive to operate in the long term.
o Oil-fired Power Plant will run using Diesel Oil with a chemical formula of
C12H23with the heating value of 45000 KJ/kg.
2.7.3 NATURAL GAS-FIRED STEAM POWER PLANT
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Natural Gas use a fossil fuel whose emissions also contribute to global warming,
making it a far less attractive climate solution than lower-and zero-carbon alternatives. But
since the other alternatives also contribute to global warming, this alternative is also good
but problems may arise in the sustainability and availability of the natural gasses.
o Natural Gas-fired Power Plant will run using natural gas which is almost 100%
Methane with the Higher heating value of 15.4 Kwh/kg (CH
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2.8 Schematic Diagram
2.7.1 Steam Power Plant Diagram
Nomenclature:
A. Steam Boiler P. Cooling tower
B. Furnace Q. Generator
C. Ash pit R. Transformer
D. Super heater S. Main transformer
E. Economizer T. Pump
F. Air preheater U. Condensate pump
G. Stack V. Boiler feed pump
H. High pressure turbine W. Steam trap
I. Steam reheater X. Forced draft fan
J. Low pressure turbine Y. Atmospheric pressure
K. Condenser Z. Hot saturated air
L. Low pressure heater
M. Deaerator A`. Spray nozzle
N. High pressure heater
B`. Baffles
O. Heat exchanger
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2.9 Steam Power Plant Parts and Two Types of Boiler:
Components
1. Fire-tube boiler:
2.9.1 Steam Turbine
Here, water partially fills a boiler
barrel with a small volume left above to
accommodate the steam (steam space).
Fire-tube boilers usually have a
comparatively low rate of steam
production, but high steam storage
capacity. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn
solid fuels, but are readily adaptable to
those of the liquid or gas variety.
Steam Turbine is one of the most
important prime movers for generating
electricity. This falls under the category of
power producing turbo-machines. In the
turbine, the energy level of the working
fluid goes on decreasing along the flow
stream.
2.9.2 Boiler
A boiler is a closed vessel in

which water or other fluid is heated. The
heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler
for use in various processes or heating
applications, including water heating,
central heating, boiler-based power
generation, cooking, and sanitation
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2. Water-tube boiler:
In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible
configurations; often the water tubes connect large drums, the lower ones containing water and the
upper ones, steam and water. In other cases, such as a mono-tube boiler, water is circulated by a
pump through a succession of coils. This type generally gives high steam production rates, but less
storage capacity than the above Water tube boilers can be designed to exploit any heat source and
are generally preferred in high-pressure applications since the high-pressure water/steam is
contained within small diameter pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall.
2.9.3 Furnace
A furnace is a device used for high-temperature heating. The name derives from Greek word
fornax, which means oven. The term furnace can also refer to a direct fired heater, used in boiler
applications in chemical industries or for providing heat to chemical reactions for processes like
cracking, and are part of the Standard English names for many metallurgical furnaces worldwide.
The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by electricity such as
the electric arc furnace, or through induction heating in induction furnaces.
2.9.4 Steam Reheater
A steam reheater is a steam boiler component in which heat is added to intermediate-

pressure steam, which has given up some of its energy in expansion through the high-pressure
turbine.
Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases
outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is passed through these heated
tubes to collect more energy before driving the intermediate and then low pressure turbines.
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2.9.5 Superheater
A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into dry steam used
in steam engines or in processes, such as steam reforming. There are three types of superheaters
namely: radiant, convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few tens of
feet to several hundred feet (a few meters to some hundred meters).
In a steam engine, the superheater re-heats the steam generated by the boiler, increasing
its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it will condense inside the engine. Superheaters
increase the thermal efficiency of the steam engine, and have been widely adopted. Steam which
has been superheated is logically known as superheated steam; non-superheated steam is called
saturated steam or wet steam.
2.9.6 Economizer
Economizers are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform

useful function such as preheating a fluid. The term economizer is used for other purposes as well.
Boiler, power plant, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) uses are discussed in this
article. In simple terms, an economizer is a heat exchanger.
Economizers are commonly used as part of a heat recovery steam generator in a combined cycle power
plant. In an HRSG, water passes through an economizer, then a boiler and
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then a superheater. The economizer also prevents flooding of the boiler with liquid water
that is too cold to be boiled given the flow rates and design of the boiler. A common application of
economizers in steam power plants is to capture the waste heat from boiler stack gases (flue gas)
and transfer it to the boiler feed water. This raises the temperature of the boiler feed water, lowering
the needed energy input, in turn reducing the firing rates needed for the rated boiler output.
Economizers lower stack temperatures which may cause condensation of acidic combustion gases
and serious equipment corrosion damage if care is not taken in their design and material selection.
2.9.7 Air Preheater
An air preheater (APH) is a general term used to describe any device designed to heat air
before another process with the primary objective of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process.
They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil.
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which
increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a
consequence, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas stack or chimney at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the conveyance system and the flue gas stack. It also
allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack.
2.9.8 Feed Water Heater (Low Pressure Heater and High Pressure Heater)
A feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to a steam
generating boiler. Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibility involved in steam. This
reduces generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This
reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the
feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle.
In a steam power plant, feedwater heaters allow the feedwater to be brought up to the
saturation temperature very gradually. This minimizes the inevitable irreversibility associated with
heat transfer to the working fluid. The energy used to heat the feedwater is usually derived from
steam extracted between the stages of the steam turbine. Therefore, the steam that would be used
to perform expansion work in the turbine (and therefore generate power) is not utilized for that
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purpose. The percentage of the total cycle steam mass flow used for the feedwater heater is termed
the extraction fraction and must be carefully optimized for maximum power plant thermal efficiency
since increasing this fraction causes a decrease in turbine power output.
2.9.9 Deaerator
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of oxygen and other dissolved
gases from the feed water to steam-generating boilers. In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feed
water will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to the walls of metal piping
and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). Dissolved carbon dioxide combines with
water to form carbonic acid that causes further corrosion.
The deaerators in the steam generating systems of most thermal power plants use low
pressure steam obtained from an extraction point in their steam turbine system. However, the steam
generators in many large industrial facilities such as petroleum refineries may use whatever low
pressure steam is available.
2.9.10 Stack
A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through
which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air. Flue gases are
produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace, a
power plant's steam-generating boiler, or other large combustion device. The flue gas stacks are
often quite tall, up to 400 meters or more, so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater
area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental
environmental policy and environmental regulation.
2.9.11 Condenser
A condenser is a commonly used term for a water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger
installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in stations. These condensers are heat
exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state at a pressure below atmospheric
pressure. Where cooling water is in short supply, an air-cooled condenser is often used. An air-
cooled condenser is however, significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam
turbine exhaust pressure (and temperature) as a water-cooled condenser.
Condensers are also used in applications and industries other than the condensing of steam
turbine exhaust in power plants. In thermal power plants, the purpose of a condenser is to condense
the exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain maximum efficiency, and also to convert the turbine
exhaust steam into pure water (referred to as steam condensate) so that it may be reused in the
steam generator or boiler as boiler feed water.
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2.9.12 Cooling Tower
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which rejects waste heat to the atmosphere
through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the
evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air
temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working
fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
2.9.13 Piping
Within the industry, piping design is a system of pipes used to convey fluids from one location
to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the efficient transportation of fluid.
The in-line components, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically sense and control the
pressure, flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and usually are included in the field of
Piping Design or Piping Engineering. Piping systems are documented in piping and instrumentation
diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can be cleaned by the tube cleaning process.
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ASME B 16.9
A106. The same material may be used for condensate lines, although copper tubing is preferred in
some industries. For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such
as chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance at high
temperatures. Typically, pipes are supplied in 6 meters length.
2.10 Steam Power Plant Design Inputs

Pressures from point 2 to point 8 of the Steam Power Plant Diagram need to be assumed in
order to perform the first and second checking.
P o i n t Pressure/Temperature
2 9 M P a / 4 3 0 ° C
3 6 . 5 M P a
4 6 . 5 M P a / 4 2 0 ° C
5 4 . 5 M P a
6 2 . 5 M P a
7 0 . 5 M P a
8 0 . 0 1 M P a
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Table 2-1: Pressure Assumptions for Steam Power Plant
In order to find the best design, multiple constrains and trade-offs must be considered and
these will be applied in the type of fuel used in running the power plant. Three types of fuel are
considered namely coal, oil, and natural gas. The following data will be used in determining the
weight of fuel used, weight of gas, and percentage of carbon dioxide in the power plant’s emissions.
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CHAPTER 3
CONSTRAINTS AND TRADE-OFFS
3.1 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS AND TRADE-OFFS
Upon designing a power plant, there are many factors, constraints and trade-offs to be
considered. These factors may hinder the design to attain the best possible result because of the
limitations and constraints of the design. The proponents will design thermal and mechanical system
to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economical, environmental, and
sustainability. The constraints in this project will serve as a media for the evaluation of the parameters
and limitations of the trade-offs laid by the designers to choose the best trade-off to be implemented
within the design and specification of the project.
1. Economical (Cost)
The cost of the power plant is very vital since huge amount of money is going to be used as
an investment for this project. Money is important in daily lives of people and is used for transactions
in buying needs and wants. Therefore, it must be used efficiently in financing the project. This
constraint is important to the owner especially to the investors. The budget is always dependent on
the client’s ability to pay. It has high regards with its financial comparability to current or existing
power plant, specific to the following points: establishment or erection, operational, and maintenance.
The graph below shows the statistical data of the average cost of coal, oil/petroleum, and
natural gas for electricity generation in the United States from the year 2005 up to 2016. As of 2016,
the average cost of all fossil fuels for electricity generation was 2.47 US dollars per million British
thermal units (BTU).
25
Figure 3.1.1 Cost of fossil fuels as of year 2016
(Source: www.statistica.com)
1. Environmental
This factor honors the ecosystem integrity of the design. This is important to consider
because of the possible effects of the project to the environment. Air pollution is highest in this
consideration, branching up to global warming, defining the carbon emission of each design.
Effects on the bodies of water and landscape are also considered. Biodiversity within the potential
area of the project shall also be considered because it could affect the lives of the people near the
area. Hence, designing a power plant also considers this constraint for the future of the project.
Computations were done and shown below to easily identify the amount of harmful gases emitted
by the three design alternatives.
Coal Fuel Analysis
A. SOLID FUEL COMBUSTION (CHONSA)

GIVEN: ULTIMATE ANALYSIS COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
C 0.8405 C + O₂ → CO₂
H₂ 0.045 H₂ + ½ O₂ → H₂O
O₂ 0.06
N₂ 0.0117
S 0.0055 S + O₂ → SO₂
Ash 0.0373
Total: 1 ( MUST EQUAL TO 1)
26
EXTERNAL OXYGEN (& NITROGEN)
Carbon 32 O₂
X 0.8405 C = 2.241333 O₂
12 C
Hydrogen 16 O₂
X 0.045 H₂ = 0.36 O₂
2 H₂
Oxygen
-0.06 O₂
Sulfur 32 O₂
X 0.0055 S = 0.0055 O₂
32 S
TOTAL: 2.546833 O₂
Nitrogen 0.768 N₂
2.546833333 O₂ X = 8.430897 N₂
0.232 O₂
Air - Fuel Ratio, raf = 10.97773 AIR
EXHAUST GAS
Carbon Dioxide 44 CO₂

X 0.8405 C = 3.081833 CO₂
12 C
Water Vapour 18 H₂O
X 0.045 H₂ = 0.405 H₂O
2 H₂
Sulfur Dioxide 64 SO₂
X 0.0055 S = 0.011 SO₂
32 S
Nitrogen
0.0117 N₂ + 8.4308966 N₂ = 8.442597 N₂
TOTAL: 11.94043 GAS
Gas - Fuel Ratio, rgf = 11.94043 GAS
27
CHECK:
Fuel + Air = Gas + Ash

1 + raf = rgf + Ash
1 + 10.97773 = 11.94043 + 0.0373
11.97773 = 11.97773
GAS COMPOSITION:
CO₂ 3.081833333
X 100% = 25.8101 %
11.94042989
H₂O 0.405
X 100% = 3.39184 %
11.94042989
SO₂ 0.011
X 100% = 0.09212 %
11.94042989
N₂ 8.442596552 X = 70.706 %
100%
11.94042989
TOTAL: 100 %
28
Oil Fuel Analysis Molecular Weight
Fuel = C12H23 C = 12
Where: n = 12 H = 1
M = 23 O = 16
N₂ = 28
Solve for complete combustion:
Cn Hm + a(O₂ + 3.76 N₂) → bCO₂ + cH₂O + a3.76N₂

C: b = n
b = 12
H: m = 2c
c = m
2
c = 11.5
O: 2a = 2b + c
a = 2b + c
2
a = 17.75
29
Cn Hm + 17.75 (O₂ + 3.76N₂) → 12 CO₂ + 11.5 H₂O + 17.75 (3.76)N₂
[12(n) + m] + a[2(16) + 3.76(28)] → b[12 + 2(16)] + c(2 + 16) + a3.76(28)
167 + 2436.72 → 528 + 207 + 1868.72

167 167 167 167 167
14.5911377 3.16167664
1 + 2 → 7 + 1.239520958 + 11.18994012
14.5911377
1 + 2 → 15.59113772
Rated Air Fuel Rated Gas Fuel

(raf) (rgf)
(kg air/kg fuel) (kg gas/ kg fuel)
14.59113772 15.59113772
30
Gas Analysis
CO₂: 3.161676647 3.161676647
x 100% = x 100%
rgf 15.59113772
= 20.2786782 %
H₂O: 1.239520958 1.239520958

x 100% = x 100%
rgf 15.59113772
= 7.950163612 %
N₂: 11.18994012 11.18994012

x 100% = x 100%
rgf 15.59113772
= 71.77115819 %
Total = 100%
Natural Gas Fuel Analysis
Fuel: CnHm
n = 1
m = 4
*For Complete Combustion
CH4 + a (O2 + 3.76 N2) → bCO2 + cH2O + a3.76N2
C: b = N
b = 1
H: m = 2c
c = m
2
c = 2
O: 2a = 2b + C
a = 2b + C
2
a = 2
31
FUEL + AIR → GAS
C1 H4 + 2(O2 + 3.76N2) → 1CO2+2H2O+2(3.76) N2
Molecular Weight:
C=12 H=1 O=16 N2=28
(12(1)+1(4)) + 2(16(2)+3.76(28)) → 1(12+16(2))+2((1)2+16)+ 2(3.76(28))
CO2 H2O N2
16 274.56 44 36 210.56
+ = + +
16 16 16 16 16
1 + 17.16 = 2.75 + 2.25 + 13.16
1 + 17.16 = 18.16
raf = 17.16
rgf = 18.16
Gas analysis for natural gas (Methane):
CO₂: 2.75 2.75

x 100% = x 100%
rgf 18.16
= 15.14317181 %
H₂O: 2.25 2.25

x 100% = x 100%
rgf 18.16
= 12.38986784 %
N₂: 13.16 13.16

x 100% = x 100%
rgf 18.16
= 72.46696035 %
Total = 100%
32
Fuel Percent Carbon Emission
Coal 25.8101%
Oil 20.2787%
Natural Gas 15.1432%
Table 3.1.1 Summary of Percent Carbon Emission
Based on the computations on combustion as shown above, coal has a higher carbon
dioxide emission compared to the two alternatives. Coal emits 25.8101% carbon dioxide while the
oil and natural gas emits 20.2787% and 15.1432% respectively. Therefore, the Coal has the most
negative effect on the environment while the natural gas or Methane is considered as the most
environmentally friendly among the three design alternatives.
2. Sustainability
The sustainability of the power plant’s fuel is important to maintain the plant in producing
reliable power. The power plant’s fuel sustainability is important to know the best fuel to be used
while considering its possible future depletion. Life-span is the main concern in term of sustainability.
The proponents collected a data from different resource on three fuels that should be used for this
design project. Sustainability is the ability of the plant to work and produce electricity in a consistent
manner. It also considers how long does the design of the project last measured in total number of
years which it will still be considered useful, functional and structurally safe.
Figure 3.1.2 Sustainability of Renewable Energy Sources
33
The data below shows the fossil fuel reserves based on the year 2016. The graph shows
the life span on how many years the fossil fuels can last. Among the three alternatives, it can be
seen on the graph that the coal is the most sustainable type of fuel because of its long years of
reserve left.
2.2 TRADE-OFFS
3.2.1. COAL-FIRED STEAM POWER PLANT
Coal energy is a nonrenewable energy which means that this is a type of energy that
we cannot re-create. The supply of coal energy is limited and therefore if we continue to consume
too much of this, we will eventually run out of this kind of energy.
Coal energy is used for the creation of electricity to power industrial or manufacturing
plants and even to power our appliances at home. Many industrial plants or manufacturing plants
use coal energy to generate electricity because coal energy is an affordable source of energy.
Moreover, coal is very abundant even if it is non-renewable because it has the largest reserve
around the world.
Figure 3.2.1.1 Diagram of Coal Fired Power Plant
ADVANTAGES
 Coal is easy to burn
 Coal produces high energy upon combustion

34
 Coal energy is inexpensive
 Coal is abundant
 Coal energy is a reliable energy source
DISADVANTAGES
 Coal energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide which leads to global warming and climate
change
 The burning of coal is not environmental friendly because it produces harmful byproducts and gas
emissions such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide that causes pollution to the
environment including acid rain
 Coal energy is nonrenewable energy source
 Coal is fast depleting because we consume too much of it
 Coal mining ruins the environment and puts the lives of people specially the coal miners in danger
3.2.2 OIL-FIRED STEAM POWER PLANT
Oil is one of the most important commodities in the world playing an important part in some
of the biggest industries like chemicals, transport, power, petrochemicals etc. The high energy
density and easy availability have made mankind almost completely dependent on oil for most of his
needs. Almost all of the world’s cars run on petrol /gasoline which is derived from crude oil. Despite
new evidence that burning oil leads to massive pollution and greenhouse warming nothing had been
done to prevent its usage growth
35
Figure 3.2.1.2 Diagram of Oil Fired Power Plant
ADVANTAGES
 It has greater power compared to any other energy source.
 It is easy to distribute and cheaper to transport.
 It can be used for many things including:
 Oil is easier to extract from the ground than coal.
DISADVANTAGES
 it is a nonrenewable resource
 creates air pollution
 It also is often produced by countries who are unstable politically
 it can be harmful if spilled in the ocean or some other wildlife habitat.
3.2.3 NATURAL GAS-FIRED STEAM POWER PLANT
Natural gas power plants are a type of power plant that use natural gas as their fuel in order to generate
electricity. This process is done using a large gas turbine, where the natural gas
36
is input along with a stream of air which is combusted, and then expands through a turbine
causing a generator to spin.
Figure 3.2.1.3 Diagram of Natural Gas FiredPower Plant
ADVANTAGE
 Environment friendly
 Safer and easier to store
 Natural gas is reliable
 It’s less costly compared to other fossil fuel energy sources
 Natural gas is in bountiful supply
 Minimizes dependency on foreign oil
DISADVANTAGE
 It’s highly combustible
 Non-renewable energy source
 Natural gas is a source of violence and terrorism
 Natural gas emits some quantities of greenhouse gas
37
1.2 DESIGNER’S RAW RANKING:
Our Trade-offs is based on the constraints stated above. There are three designs that we are
going to proposed these were considered to satisfy the constraints that are stated at Chapter 3.1. In
identifying the client satisfaction we by Otto and Antonsson (1991), scaled the criterion’s importance
from 0 to 5, 5 being the highest and 0 will be the lowest scale.
Computation of ranking for ability to satisfy criterion of materials:
(𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 – 𝐋𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞)

% difference = Equation 1
(𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞)
Subordinate Rank = Governing Rank – (% difference) x 10 Equation 2
The presided ranking is depending on the final choice of the designers based on their study and analysis.
In criterion for the importance of each constraints they had research and come up with ranking it from 0-5, 0
will be the lowestrank and 5 will be the highest rank. It is not just a choice but it is all based on the research
and supporting analysis.
Before having a decision on which constraint won they had estimated on each proposal.
Figure 3.3.1: Ranking Scale for Percentage Difference

*Reference: Otto, K. N. and Antonsson, E. K., (1991). Trade-off strategies in engineering design. Research in
Engineering Design, volume 3, number 2, pages 87-104
Table 3.3.1 Designer’s Raw Ranking
38
ABILITY TO SATISFY THE CRITERION (on scale from 1 to 10)
Criterion's Importance
DECISION CRITERION
(on the scales of 1 to 10)
COAL OIL NATURAL GAS
ECONOMICAL 10 10 5 8
ENVIRONMENTAL 8 6 8 10
SUSTAINABILITY 7 10 8 7
Table 3.3.2 Initial Estimated Values
SUMMARY OF INITIAL ESTIMATED VALUES
CONSTRAINTS
ECONOMICAL 2.11 $/million BTU 5.25 $/million BTU 2.87 $/million BTU
ENVIRONMENTAL 25.8101% 20.2787% 15.1432%
39
3.3.1 Computation of ranking for Economic Constraint
Table 3.3.1A Cost of Fuel per million BTU
INITIAL ESTIMATED VALUES
CONSTRAINTS
ECONOMICAL 2.11 $/million BTU 5.25 $/million BTU 2.87 $/million BTU
Table 3.3.1B Initial Estimated Values for Economical Constraint

DECISION CRITERION
COAL-OIL
ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

% 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 10
ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
5.25 − 2.11
5.25
%𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 5.98 = 6
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 𝐺𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 − %𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 10 − 6
40
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒌 = 𝟒
Figure 3.3.1.1 Ranking Scale for Percentage Difference for Coal and Oil
COAL-NATURAL GAS

2.87 − 2.11
2.87
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒌 = 𝟕
Figure 3.3.1.2 Ranking Scale for Percentage Difference for Detention Basin and Box Culvert
41
Table 3.3.1C Actual Trade off values for Economic Constraint

DECISION CRITERION
3.3.2 Computation of ranking for Environmental Constraint
Table 3.3.2A Percent of Carbon Emission
CONSTRAINTS
ENVIRONMENTAL 25.8101% 20.2787% 15.1432%
Table 3.3.2B Initial Estimated Values for Environmental Constraint

DECISION CRITERION
42
NATURAL GAS-COAL

25.8101 − 15.1432
25.8101
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒌 = 𝟓
Figure 3.3.2.1 Ranking Scale for Percentage Difference for Detention Basin and RC Pipes
NATURAL GAS-OIL

20.2787 − 15.1432
20.2787
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒌 = 𝟕
43
Table 3.3.2C Actual Trade off values for Economic Constraint

DECISION CRITERION
3.3.3 Computation of ranking for Sustainability
Table 3.3.3A Life expectancy of fuel in years
CONSTRAINTS
SUSTAINABILITY 114 years 50.7 years 52.8 years
Table 3.3.3B Initial Estimated Values for Sustainability Constraint

DECISION CRITERION
44
COAL-OIL
114 − 50.7
114
Figure 3.3.3.1 Ranking Scale for Percentage Difference for Detention Basin and RC Pipe
COAL-NATURAL GAS

114 − 52.8
114
45
Table 3.3.3C Actual Trade off values for Sustainability Constraint

DECISION CRITERION
3.3.4 Designer’s Final Ranking

Table 3.3.4ADesigner’s Final Ranking

DECISION CRITERION
Overall Rank 210 124 178
46
3.4 Sensitivity Analysis
3.4.1 Case 1: Sensitivity Analysis for Economic Constraints > Environmental > Sustainability
The table below shows that the Economic constraint has been given importance as per basis for
the trade-off selection.
Table34.4.1 Sensitivity Analysis for Case 1

DECISION CRITERION
The Table above shows that when the Economical>Environmental>Sustainability, the Coal is the
better choice.
3.4.2 Case 2: Sensitivity Analysis for Economic Constraint > Sustainability > Environmental
The table below shows that the environmental constraint has been given importance as per basis
for the trade-off selection.
47
Table 3.4.2 Sensitivity Analysis for Case 2

DECISION CRITERION
The Table above shows that when the Economical>Sustainability>Environmental, the Coal is the
better choice.3.4.3 Case 3: Sensitivity Analysis for Environmental Constraint > Economical >
Sustainability

DECISION CRITERION
48
The Table above shows that when the Environmental>Economical>Sustainability, the Natural Gas
is the better choice.
3.4.4 Case 4: Sensitivity Analysis for Environmental Constraint > Sustainability > Economical

DECISION CRITERION
ECONOMICAL 4 10 4 7
49
The Table above shows that when the Environmental>Sustainability>Economical, the Natural Gas
is the better choice.
3.4.5 Case 5: Sensitivity Analysis for Sustainability Constraint > Economical > Environmental

DECISION CRITERION
ECONOMICAL 8 10 4 7
The Table above shows that when the Sustainability>Economical>Environmental, the Coal is the
better choice.
3.4.6 Case 6: Sensitivity Analysis for Sustainability Constraint > Environmental > Economical
50

DECISION CRITERION
ECONOMICAL 6 10 4 7
The Table above shows that when the Sustainability>Environmental>Economical, the Coal is the better
choice.
51
3.5 Summary of Sensitivity Analysis
250
Coal
Oil
210 210
200 Natural Gas
200
200
174
162 162
150 158 156
150 152
150
120 114 120

110 110 114
100
50
0
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
Figure 3.5.1 Summary of Sensitivity Analysis
The table shows the relation between the different alternative sources with respect to the constraint
sand trade-offs that was considered by the designers. The table shows that in any case, the Coal-Fired
Steam Power Plant dominates almost all the cases.
52
3.6 TRADE-OFF ASSESSMENT
The Trade-off Assessment discussed the results of justification in rating the criteria above of the
designers based on research and analysis shown above:
3.6.1. Economic Assessment

The designers estimated the overall economic design through percentage difference of each
trade-offs. Each trade-offs has different characteristics on how to control rainfall runoff and prevent
flooding. But economically the designers should be considerate of the prices and its properties
precise to design in the said location like Majayjay City so that designers can target the satisfactory
of the government and the people living in the area.
3.6.2. Constructability Assessment

We designers took a review on construction processes of each trade-offs and come up on a
large conclusion that construction on detention basins are more easy to design especially if there is
already an existing pipes installed in the area.
3.6.3. Serviceability Assessment

We designers estimated the serviceability through estimating the maximum discharge
capacity of each trade-offs from Manning’s Formula.
3.6.4. Sustainability Assessment

We designers examine long term flows, economic and environmental impacts in equal
measures, effects, identify synergies and every trade-offs across domains and respects open and
transparency of processes. Through this examination we found out that drainage won for the
sustainability of a construction.
53
3.7 Design Standards
In order for the designers to have a best project proposal, the designers made sure that this
project will comply on the standards and codes of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME).
The designers will only include the standards and codes for the equipments used and the
piping. The codes and standards for buildings and other codes is not included as the designers
pointed out in the limitations.
Many standards and codes were cinsidered in designing a steam power plant. The ASME
Performance Test Codes provide standard directions and rules for conducting and reporting tests of
specific materials such as fuels, equipment and process functions related to power plants.
3.5.1 ASME Performance Test Codes
 PTC1 - 1999 - General Instructions
 PTC2 - 1980 (R1985) - Code on Definitions and Values
 PTC4- 1998 - Fired Steam Generators
 PTC4.2 - 1969 (R1997) - Coal Pulverizes
 PTC4.3 - 1968 (R1991) - Air Heaters
 PTC4.4 - 1981 (R1992) - Gas Turbine Heat Recovery Steam Generators
 PTC5 - 1949 - Reciprocating Steam Engines
 PTC6 - 1996 - Steam Turbines
 PTC6A - 2001 - Test Code for Steam Turbines - Appendix to PTC 6
 PTC6-REPORT - Guidance for Evaluation of Measurement Uncertainty in Performance Tests of
Steam Turbines
 PTC6-S - Procedures for Routine Performance Test of Steam Turbines
 PTC7.1 - 1962 (R1969) - Displacement Pumps
 PTC8.2 - 1990 - Centrifugal Pumps
 PTC9 - 1970 (R1997) - Displacement Compressors, Vacuum Pumps and Blowers
 PTC10 - 1997- Test Code on Compressors and Exhausters
 PTC11 - 1984 (R1995) – Fans
 PTC12.1 - 2000 - Closed Feedwater Heaters
 PTC12.2 - 1998 - Steam Surface Condensers
54
 PTC12.3 - 1997 - Deaerators PTC12.4 - 1992 (R1997) - Moisture Separator Reheaters
 PTC17 - 1973 (R1997) - Reciprocating Internal-Combustion Engines
 PTC18 - 1992 - Hydraulic Prime Movers
 PTC18.1 - 1978 (R1984) - Pumping Mode of Pump/Turbines
 PTC19.1 - 1998 - Measurement Uncertainty
 PTC19.2 - 1987(R1998) - Pressure Measurement
 PTC19.3 - 1974 (R1998) - Temperature Measurement
 PTC19.5 - 1972 - Application, Part II of Fluid Meters: Interim Supplement on Instruments and
Apparatus
 PTC19.5.1 - 1964 - Weighing Scales
 PTC19.7 - 1980 (R1988) - Measurement of Shaft Power
 PTC19.8 - 1970 (R1985) - Measurement of Indicated Power
 PTC19.10 - 1981 - Flue and Exhaust Gas Analyses
The designers also comply with A ME’s B31 code. B31 Code for pressure piping, developed by American
Society of Mechanical Engineers - ASME, covers Power Piping, Fuel Gas Piping, Process Piping, Pipeline
Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids, Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer
Components and Building Services Piping. ASME B31 was earlier known as ANSI B31.
B31.1 - 2012 - Power Piping

Piping for industrial plants and marine applications. This code prescribes minimum requirements for the
design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection of power and auxiliary service piping systems for
electric generation stations, industrial institutional plants, central and district heating plants.
The code covers boiler external piping for power boilers and high temperature, high pressure water boilers
in which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 PSIG; and high temperature water is
generated at pressures exceeding 160 PSIG and/or temperatures exceeding 250 degrees F.
55
B31.2 - 1968 - Fuel Gas Piping
This has been withdrawn as a National Standard and replaced by ANSI/NFPA Z223.1, but B31.2 is still
available from ASME and is a good reference for the design of gas piping systems (from the meter to the
appliance)
B31.3 - 2012 - Process Piping
Design of chemical and petroleum plants and refineries processing chemicals and hydrocarbons, water and
steam. This Code contains rules for piping typically found in petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical,
textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants; and related processing plants and terminals.
This Code prescribes requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection,
examination, inspection, and testing of piping. This Code applies to piping for all fluids including: (1) raw,
intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2) petroleum products; (3) gas, steam, air and water; (4) fluidized
solids; (5) refrigerants; and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages
within a packaged equipment assembly.
B31.4 - 2012 - Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection, and testing
of piping transporting liquids such as crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied
petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia and liquid petroleum products
between producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, stations, ammonia
plants, terminals (marine, rail and truck) and other delivery and receiving points.
Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings and the pressure containing
parts of other piping components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other equipment items
56
necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing parts. It does not include support structures such
as frames of buildings, buildings stanchions or foundations
Requirements for offshore pipelines are found in Chapter IX. Also included within the scope of this Code are:
(A) Primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping at pipeline
terminals (marine, rail and truck), tank farms, pump stations, pressure reducing stations and metering
stations, including scraper traps, strainers, and prover loop;
(B) Storage and working tanks including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and fittings, and piping
interconnecting these facilities;
(C) Liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property which has been set aside for
such piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk plants;
(D) Those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating to the safety and
protection of the general public, operating company personnel, environment, property and the piping
systems.
B31.5 - 2013 - Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components
This Code prescribes requirements for the materials, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, test, and
inspection of refrigerant, heat transfer components, and secondary coolant piping for temperatures as low as
57
-320 deg F (-196 deg C), whether erected on the premises or factory assembled, except as specifically
excluded in the following paragraphs.
Users are advised that other piping Code Sections may provide requirements for refrigeration piping in their
respective jurisdictions.
This Code shall not apply to:
(a) any self- contained or unit systems subject to the requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or other
nationally recognized testing laboratory:
(b) water piping;
(c) piping designed for external or internal gage pressure not exceeding 15 psi (105 kPa) regardless of size;
or
(d) pressure vessels, compressors, or pumps,
but does include all connecting refrigerant and secondary coolant piping starting at the first joint adjacent to
such apparatus.
B31.8 - 2012 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
This Code covers the design, fabrication, installation, inspection, and testing of pipeline facilities used for
the transportation of gas. This Code also covers safety aspects of the operation and maintenance of those
facilities.
B31.8S - 2012 - Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
This Standard applies to on-shore pipeline systems constructed with ferrous materials and that transport
gas.
Pipeline system means all parts of physical facilities through which gas is transported, including pipe, valves,
appurtenances attached to pipe, compressor units, metering stations, regulator stations, delivery stations,
holders and fabricated assemblies.
The principles and processes embodied in integrity management are applicable to all pipeline systems. This
Standard is specifically designed to provide the operator (as defined in section 13) with the information
58
necessary to develop and implement an effective integrity management program utilizing proven industry
practices and processes.
The processes and approaches within this Standard are applicable to the entire pipeline system.
B31.12 - 2011 - Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines
Gaseous and liquid hydrogen service and to pipelines in gaseous hydrogen service.
B31G - 2009 - Manual for Determining Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines
A supplement To B31 Code-Pressure Piping
3.5.2 Chapter 2 PSME Code – Commercial and Industrial Building

Section 2.0 Plant Design Procedure
2.1 Basis of the Structure Design
For Industrial works, the utilization demand of the industry for which the building is to be used is of utmost
importance in the design of buildings. Aside from geographical location and economic consideration, the
59
mechanical and electrical equipment requirements are extremely important for all modern buildings,
particularly factories.
2.2 Requirements for number, size, location and height of rise for elevators with particular attention to
penthouse dimensions and equipment loads.
 General requirements for plumbing with particular attention to the location of soil stacks, standpipes,
main pumps, water storage tanks and sprinkler systems.
 If steam is to be produced within the buildings, requirements of the boiler room and accessories,
such as fuel storage, the probable location of steam mains and ducts and their approximate sizes in
order to avoid interference with a structure member of other utilities.
 Typical lighting demands with particular attention to ceiling outlets as their proper locations may
influence the framing of the building and the necessary space required for the electric conduits often
affect the floor design.
 For industrial buildings, all specific demands of the manufacturing processes such as special
mechanical and electrical equipment of interior clearances should be identified.
Section 4.0 Machinery and Equipment

a. Specific Requirements
For Stacks– stacks and foundation become integral structures.

 The Maximum pressure on the soil is equal to the pressure due to the weight and the wind movement.
Allowable pressure may be taken as the sum of 2,566.36 kg/m2/m deep foundation plus 2,566.36
kg/m2/m due to wind or a total of 5,132.73 kg/m2/m depth of foundation. Guyed Steel Stacks.
These are used principally because of their relative cheapness. Heavy foundations are unnecessary.
Guyed stacks seldom exceed 1.83m diameter and 30.48 meter high. Guys are usually applied in one
to three seats. The angle between the stack and guy wire usually 60o, and the angle between wires
in a set is 1200 for a set three.
 Reinforced Concrete Chimney. Together with its base, this chimney forms and integral structure.
Wall thickness decreases progressively to the top of the stack. Less area is required than for masonry
or self-supporting steel stack because of the relatively thin walls compared to masonry stacks and
the elimination of the conical flare of the self-supporting steel stack. They can be erected rapidly.
60
The success depends to a great extent upon the care with which material is selected, mixed and
poured.
3.5.3 Chapter 7 PSME Code – Boilers and Pressure Vessels

Section 1.0 General Requirement for Boilers and Pressure Vessel Installation
1.1 Installation and Operating Permits Application for permits to install and operate steam generators
for power or heat, unfired pressure vessels for steam, air or gases shall be secured from the place or locality
of installation. For municipalities, permits shall be secured from the office of the Municipal/City Engineer or
Building Official, if available, or from the Regional Office of the Department of Labor and Employment. A
similar permit to install and operate pollution sources equipment shall also be secured from the offices of the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Application forms shall be accompanied by plans and
specifications in quadruplicate showing:
 General Layout giving a plan view longitudinal view and at least a front view showing location of
boiler with respect to building, location, size, height of smoke stack, location of steam generator
auxiliaries and location and size of fuel supply. Building permit and location plan of the same,
Electrical Permit, Fire Department permit and other permits necessary should also be stipulated on
the plan.
 Detailed assembly plan of boiler should show all appendages indicating instruments, panels if any
for controls and all safety devices. Details should show actual joints, riveting, welding, thickness of
plates, tubes, fusible plugs etc. Steam conditions like temperature, pressure, degrees superheat
should be indicated. Piping drawing, preferably in isometric drawing showing elevation headers,
leads to headers preferably from the bottom, branches from headers, preferably from the top,
expansion joints, pipes covering sizes, fittings and valves and method support.
 All plan and specification should be prepared under supervision of a Professional Mechanical
Engineer and should have his signature and seal on every page, regardless of boiler horsepower.
1.2 Locations Steam boilers should be preferably located:
 In detached buildings of fire resistant construction used for no other purpose and situated not less
than 3 m distances from the buildings not forming part of the factory, or in structures of fire resisting
61
materials, preferably stone or concrete walls connected to or in close proximity to other factory
buildings.
 No part of the steam boiler should be closer than one meter from any wall.
 In case of fire tube boilers, sufficient room for tube removal either thru the front or rear should be
provided.
1.3 Steam Boiler Rooms
 Although not to be used for passage, boiler rooms should be provided with two doors preferably on
opposite ends or sides which if locked may be opened without key from the inside.
 As the room air is usually the source of combustion air, sufficient ventilation from outside should be
provided.
 Steam boilers should be mounted over a suitable foundation or concrete pad of not less than 305
mm thick and with sufficient area t base to be supported by the bearing capacity of the soil with a
safety factor of not less than four (4).
1.4 Where brickwork is necessary, the surface facing the hot gases should be fired brick and the outside may
be red brick or other suitable material,
 Brickwork should be provided with sufficient expansion joints both vertically and horizontally to take
care of expansion at operating temperature.
 Insulating cables is used for medium pressure boiler.
1.5 No structural stress other than its own weight should be imposed on any brick and on and any brickwork
and in no case should the full weight or part weight of the steam boiler or its appurtenances be supported on
brickwork.
1.6 No steam boiler should be enclosed or walled-in without authorization and inspection by authorized
government representative and who will conduct a hydrostatic test of 130% of stipulated working pressure.
1.7 Ceiling Clearance
62
 When boilers are replaced, new boilers are installed in either existing or new buildings, a minimum
height of at least 2,130 mm should be provided between the top of the boiler proper and the ceiling
except in single installation of self-contained boilers where a minimum height requirement of at least
915 mm shall be provided between the highest point of any valve stem or fitting and the ceiling.
1.8 Other Requirements
 All boiler and unfired pressure vessels shall be so located that adequate space will be provided for
the proper operation of the boiler and its appurtenances, for the inspection of all surfaces, tubes,
water walls, valves, and other equipment and for their necessary maintenance and repair.
 Smokestacks should be of sufficient capacity to handle flue gases, self-supporting or guyed to
withstand a wind load 160 kph and rise at least 5,000 mm above the eaves of any building within a
radius of 50 meters. However, in lieu of the said height requirement, a system should be so designed
and constructed to eliminate smoke nuisances to the neighboring structures.
 No smokestack should be closer than 305 mm from any exposed woodwork or framing.
 Where two or more steam boilers will be connected in parallel, each steam outlet should be provided
with a non-return valve and a shut off valve.
 Only stem pressure sufficient for requirements should be allowed. No high pressure will be generated
just to be reduced on the line to suit requirements.
 All construction features of boiler should be in conformity with the ASME Boiler Construction Code
when available or its equivalent. (JIS, ASTM, ISO Standards). All boiler installations, including
reinstalled boilers, shall be installed in accordance with the requirements of the latest revision of the
A.S.M.E. Boiler Construction Code and/or Rules and Regulations provided herein.
 Ladders and Catwalks. A steel catwalk or platform at least 455 mm wide and provided with standard
handrails and toe-board on either side shall be installed across the tops of adjacent boilers or at
some other convenient level for the purpose of affording safe access to the boilers. All catwalks shall
be remotely located from the other, and connected to a permanent stairway or inclined ladder leading
the floor level.
63
3.5.4 Chapter 10 PSME Code – Pumps
Section 1.0 General Requirements
1.1 Scope. This standard deals with the selection and installation of pumps supplying water for domestic,
industrials, for private and/or public fire protection. Items include water supplies, suction, discharge and
auxiliary equipment, power supplies, electric drive control: internal combustion engine drive and control,
acceptance test, operations and maintenance.
1.2 Purpose. The purpose of this standard is to provide a reasonable degree technical knowhow, and safety,
through installation requirements for pumps based on sound engineering principles, test data and field
experience. Guidelines are established for the design, installation and maintenance for pumps, drivers and
associated equipment. This standard endeavors to continue the excellent record that has been established
by pumps installation and to meet the needs of changing technology.
1.3 Other Pumps. Pumps other than those specified in this standards and having different design features
may be installed when such pumps are listed by a testing laboratory. Pumps shall be selected based on the
64
conditions under which they are to be installed and used. The pump manufacturer shall be given complete
information concerning the water, or liquid and power supply characteristics.
1.4 Unit Performance. The unit consisting of pumps, driver and controller, shall perform is compliance with
this standard as an entire unit when installed. Certified shop test curves, showing head capacity and brake
horsepower of the pump shall be furnished by the manufacturer to the purchaser Engineer.
1.5 Installation of pumping equipment to supply buildings, from existing water supply should only be allowed
if there is always water in the mains to prevent contamination of water systems when air gains entrance due
to negative pressure created by pumping.
1.6 A shut off valve followed by a check valve shall be placed between the suction of pump and water mains
to prevent any return of water to mains when pump is stopped.
1.7 Overhead Tank Supply. A water tank may be installed above the roof of the building or by separate tower
for the purpose. Water from the water mains is pumped to the tank and the building draws its supply from
overhead tank.
o Suitable float switch or other devices should be installed with the tank to stop or start
operation of pump depending on water level in the tank.
o A check valve should be installed between the pump and tank.
o Water tank should be provided with an overflow pipe, leading to storm drain and a vent
properly protected from insects.
o Water tank should be fully covered to keep out flying debris and to prevent growth or moss
o For multi-storey buildings, suitable pressure reducing valves should be supplied to regulate
water pressure for each floor.
3.5.5 Chapter 11 PSME Code – Piping

Table 3-11: Identification Colors for Pipes
Material Piped Pipe Color Pipe Identification Acetylene Orange Acetylene Acid Yellow Acid Air-High Pressure
Yellow H.P. Air Air-Low Pressure Green L.P. Air Ammonia Yellow Ammonia Argon-Low Pressure Green L.P.
65
Argon Blast Furnace Gas Orange B.F. Gas Carbon Dioxide Red Carbon Dioxide Gasoline Orange Gasoline
Grease Orange Grease Helium-Low Pressure Green L.P. Helium Hydrogen Orange Hydrogen Nitrogen-Low
Pressure Green L.P. Nitrogen Oxygen Orange Oxygen Oil Orange Oil Steam-High Pressure Yellow H.P.
Steam Tar Orange Tar Producer Gas Orange Producer Gas Liquid Petroleum Gas Orange Producer Gas
3.5.6 Environmental Laws and Standards

The Philippine Clean Air R.A. 8749
The Clean Air Act outlines the government’s measures to reduce air pollution and incorporate environmental
protection into its development plans. It relies heavily on the polluter pays principle and other market-based
instruments to promote self-regulation among the population. It sets emission standards for all motor vehicles
and issues registration only upon demonstration of compliance. It also issues pollutant limitations for industry.
Polluting vehicles and industrial processes must pay a charge. Any individual, enterprise, corporation or
groups that installed pollution control devices or retrofitted its existing facilities to comply with the emissions
standards in the Act can apply for tax incentives of accelerated depreciation, deductibility of R&D
expenditures or tax credits on the VAT of the equipment and are exempt from real property tax on the
machinery or equipment used to comply. It also establishes a R&D program for air pollution reduction
mechanisms and technologies. It bans incineration and smoking in public places. At the local and municipal
levels, governments are allowed to set emission quotas by pollution source, and the development of recycling
programs is encouraged.
66
CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
4.1 Design of Methodology
The designers designed an 18 MW Steam Power Plant and determine which the best fuel among
the three classifications such as: Coal, Oil and Natural Gas. Undergoing trade off analysis, the designers
were able to determine the best fuel and will be presented as the final design.
IDENTIFIYING THE PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED
SETTING UP MULTIPLE CONSTRAINTS, TRADE – OFFS

AND STANDARDS
TRADE OFF ANALYSIS BASED ON CONTRAINTS
DESIGN OF AN 18 MW STEAM POWER PLANT
FINAL VALIDATION OF CONSTRAINTS BASED ON THE

RESULTS OF FINAL DESIGNERS RAW RANKING
FINAL DETAILS OF THE GOVERNING TRADE – OFF
Figure 4 - 1: Design Methodology
67
Figure 4 – 1 is the design methodology for Steam Power Plant. The designers arrived on the step
by step process from the first thing to do up to the last, to solve a problem and satisfy the needs of certain
client. The designers are also considered multiple constraints and trade – offs that will set as a limitation
of the design project. Only 1 trade – off will be chosen to represent the design based on the 3 constraints
mentioned in Chapter 3 and the final details of the governing trade – off will be shown in chapter 5 of this
design.
4.2 Design Process of an 38 MW Steam Power Plant
START
DATA GATHERING
ANNUAL PEAK POWER DEMAND AND

PROJECTED DEMAND
IDENTIFY THE DESIRED POWER CAPACITY NAME THE THREE ALTERNATIVE FUELS
COMPUTE FOR THE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION COST AND

ANNUAL CARBON DIOXIDE EMMISION OF EACH FUELS
IDENTIFY THE REMAINING YEARS OF LIFE SPAN OF EACH

POWERPLANT
CALCULATE THE ANNUAL FUEL COST AND THE

ANNUAL CO2 EMISSION
SELECT THE BEST DESIGN USING TRADE – OFF

CRITICAL ANALYSIS
START THE DESIGN OF STEAM POWER PLANT USING

THE THREE ALTERNATIVES FUEL
68
END
Figure 4 - 2: Design Process of an 38 MW Steam Power Plant
4.3 Design of an 38 MW Steam Power Plant

4.3.1 Coal – Fired Power Plant
IDENTIFY COAL – FIRED

Start
POWER PLANT LIFE SPAN
18 MW - year =18 000 kW - year
Ng = 96.0169 % COMPUTE FOR 18 000 kW - hr
COMPUTE FOR FUEL

HEAT RATE CONSUMPTIONS
MULTIPLYING FACTOR
COAL = 214.3 lb – CO2 / million BTU

COMPUTE FOR OVER ALL FUEL
COST
COMPUTE FOR lbs of

SUMMARY
CO2
END
69
Figure 4 - 3: Design Flow Chart of Coal – Fired Power Plant
Coal – Fired Power Plant Design Result

Traditional Coal Plants
How it Works: Traditional coal plants burn coal to make steam. The steam is used as fuel in a type
of engine, called a “turbine”. This turbine runs a generator to make electricity. When coal is burned, CO2
is released by the plant. In Option 1, this CO2 escapes into the air because no equipment is added to
capture the CO2.
Table 4 - 1: MORE INFORMATION (ABOUT TRADITIONAL COAL PLANTS)
ORE INFORMATION (ABOUT TRADITIONAL COAL PLANTS)

Traditional coal plants make cheaper electricity than advanced coal plants. Yet,
Cost *
it is more expensive to add CO2 capture equipment to traditional coal plants. *
CO2 release * Traditional coal plants release CO2 to the air. *
 While these plants are much cleaner than in the past, they still release CO2,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, mercury and particulates to the air. These
pollutants can cause people to have many different health problems. *
 Traditional coal plants produce a lot of ash that contain hazardous
Other Pollution / chemicals. Some ash can be recycled, for example, to make concrete. The
Waste * leftover solid waste is usually put in a landfill near the plant.
 Traditional coal plants use a lot of water to cool the plant’s equipment. The
water comes from wells, lakes, rivers or oceans. Some of it will evaporate
after use. The rest is returned to its source. Since it is hot, the water may
disturb plants and animals living in the water source.
Availability Experts say that the U.S. has enough coal to meet its needs for at least 100 years.
Reliability Coal can provide steady and dependable electricity.
Traditional coal plants release a lot of CO2. They cannot make all of the electricity
Limits of use that is needed in PA if we want to reduce CO2. Other types of plants must also
be built.
Noise These plants are about as loud as average street traffic.
Coal mining near the surface disturbs the land, plants and animals. It also disrupts
Land use and
and pollutes streams. Underground mining can cause acidic water to leak into
ecology
streams. If the mine collapses, it can also cause the ground to sink or shift.
Safety These plants are quite safe for operators. Coal mining is dangerous for the miners
The lifetime of any plant is uncertain. But, a new traditional coal plant built today
Lifespan
would likely make electricity for at least 50 years.
Current use There are more than 1,000 of these plants working in the U.S. today
70
Computation for kW – h for Coal
38 MW = 38 000 kW
365 days 24 hour

38 000 kW - year x x = 332 880 000 kW - h
1 year 1 day
Computation for fuel consumption per kwh
The formula will be use are based on US Energy Information Administration
Ng = Generator Efficiency
Ng = 96.0169
Btu
3412
kW of Electricity
Ng =
Btu
Heat Rate
kWh
Btu
3412
kWh
Heat Rate =
Ng
Btu
3412
kWh
Heat rate =
0.960196
Btu
Heat Rate = 3 553.441172 kWh
Btu
3 553.441172
kWh
Coal used per kWh =
19 146 000 Btu
1 short ton
Short ton
Coal used per kWh = 0.185970528 x 10 – 3
kWh
Computation for the fuel cost per kwh for Coal
Cost per kwh = 0.185970528 x 10 - 3 Short ton x $ 40 x P 52.24
71
kWh 1 Short ton $1
Cost per kwh = P 0.3886039627 per kWh
Computation for over all fuel cost
18 MW = 18 000 kW
365 days 24 hour 157 680 000 kW –

18 000 kW - year x x =
1 year 1 day h
P 0.3886039627
Over all fuel cost = x 157 680 000 kW - h
kW - h
Over all fuel cost = P 61 275 072.84
Computation for fuel consumptions
Coal
3412 Btu 1 short ton

157 680 000 kW - h x x = 28 100.08148 short ton
1 kW - h 19 146 000 Btu
Computation for Carbon dioxide emission (Referring to US Energy Information Administration we have
gathered some data to compute for the CO2 emission)
Table 4 - 2: Multiplying Factor for Coal
lbs CO2
Fuel Multiplying Factor
million Btu
Coal 214.3
Oil 161.3
Natural Gas 117.0
214.3 lbs CO2 19 146 000 Btu

x x 28 100.08148 short tons = 115 294 291.5 lbs CO2
106 1 short ton
4.3.2 Design of Oil – Based Power Plant
72
IDENTIFY OIL - BASED POWER
Start
PLANT LIFE SPAN
COMPUTE FOR FUEL

MULTIPLYING FACTOR
Oil = 161.3 lb – CO2 / million BTU

COST
COMPUTE FOR lbs of

SUMMARY
CO2
END
Figure 4 - 4: Design Flow Chart of Oil – Based Power Plant
73
Oil – Based Power Plant Design Result
According to National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
Cost and Performance Assumptions for Modeling Electricity Generation Technologies
Plant Lifetime
Plant lifetimes are shown in Table 11, and in Figure 5. It can be difficult to draw conclusions when
comparing lifetimes. For example, some data sets, such as AEO and EPA do not use plant lifetimes. The
models supported by these two data sets – NEMS and IPM, respectively – allow plants to run for as long
as they are economic, with no pre-determined retirement age. In some data sets, lifetimes represent the
maximum service life, whereas in other models, the reported lifetime is the value used to compute
economic results, such as the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) or for retirement calculations.
Table 4 - 3: PLANT LIFETIME (YEARS) ACCORDING TO NREL
DATA SET
NREL – Standard Coefficient
Technology AEQ GPRA MiniCAM EPA MERGE 21
SEAC Deviation of Variation
Coal x --- 60 45 x 30 15.0 33 %
IGCC x --- 60 45 x 30 15.0 33 %
Combustion
x --- 30 45 x --- 10.6 28 %
Turbine
Combined
x --- 30 45 x 30 8.7 25 %
Cycle
Nuclear x --- 6 60 x 30 17.3 35 %
Biomass x --- 45 30 x 30 8.7 22 %
Geothermal
x + 20 20 x --- 7.1 28 %
(hydrothermal)
Wind
x 20 20 30 x 30 5.8 23 %
(onshore)
Wind
x 20 20 --- x --- 0.0 0%
(offshore)
Solar Thermal x 30 30 30 x 30 0.0 0%
PV x 30 30 30 x 30 0.0 0%
74
--- Technology not included in data set
X Technology included in data set, but lifetime not pre-determined
+ Technology included in data set, but lifetime not reported
A few general trends, though, can be discerned regarding plant lifetimes.
 Renewable technologies – geothermal, wind, and solar – have lifetimes in the range of 20 to 30
years.
 Fossil plants have lifetimes in the range of 30 to 60 years.
 Nuclear plants in most data sets have a lifetime of 60 years (30-40 year initial license plus one 20-
30 year license renewal).
 In the MERGE data set, all plants are assumed to have an economic life of 30 years. These 30-
year plant lifetime values are for economic calculations, and are not intended to reflect service
lifetimes.
75
Computation for kW – h for Oil
38 MW = 38 000 kW
365 days 24 hour

38 000 kW – year x x = 332 880 000 kW - h
1 year 1 day
Ng = 96.0169
Btu
3412
kW of Electricity
Ng =
Btu
Heat Rate
kWh
Btu
3412
kWh
Heat Rate =
Ng
Btu
3412
kWh
Heat rate =
0.960196
Btu
Heat Rate = 3 553.441172
kWh
Btu
3 553.441172
kWh
Diesel used per kWh =
137 452 Btu
1 Gallon
Gallon
Diesel used per kWh = 0.0258522253
kWh
Computation for the fuel cost per kwh for Oil
76
Gallon $ 3.070 P 52.24
Cost per kwh = 0.0258522253 x x
kWh 1 Gallon $1
Computation for over all fuel cost
38 MW = 38 000 kW
365 days 24 hour

38 000 kW - year x x = 332 880 000 kW - h
1 year 1 day
P 4.116331216
kW - h
Over all fuel cost = P 1370244335.1
Computation for fuel consumptions for Oil
3412 Btu 1 Gallon

1370244335.1 kW - h x x = 3 4013 864.27 Gallon
1 kW - h 137 452 Btu
Table 4 - 4: Multiplying Factor for Oil
lbs CO2
million Btu
Coal 214.3
Oil 161.3
Natural Gas 117.0
161.3 lbs CO2 137 452 Btu

x x 3 4013 864.27 Gallon = 754 121 643.2 lbs CO2
106 1 Gallon
4.3.3 Design of Natural Gas Power Plant
77
IDENTIFY NATURAL GAS
Start
POWER PLANT LIFE SPAN
COMPUTE FOR FUEL

MULTIPLYING FACTOR
NATURALGAS = 214.3 lb – CO2 / million BTU

COST
COMPUTE FOR lbs of

SUMMARY
CO2
END
Figure 4 - 5: Design Flow Chart of Natural Gas Power Plant
78
Natural Gas Power Plant Design Result
Natural Gas
How it works: Most of the natural gas in western PA is used to heat homes. But, it can also be used in
power plants to make electricity. In the plant, natural gas is burned. Its heat is used as fuel in a type of
engine, called a “turbine”. This turbine then runs a generator to make electricity. The left-over hot gas is
used to make steam. The steam also fuels a turbine, which runs a second generator to make more
electricity. Because it uses two turbines, the plant is more efficient.
Table 4 - 5: MORE INFORMATION (ABOUT NATURAL GAS PLANTS)
MORE INFORMATION (ABOUT NATURAL GAS PLANTS)

The cost of electricity from natural gas plants is very dependent on the price of
natural gas. The price varies with demand and supply. Demand for natural gas is
Cost *
expected to increase in the future. This will likely cause the price of natural gas
to rise. *
Natural gas plants release about half as much CO2 to the air as traditional coal
CO2 release *
plants. *
 Natural gas plants release nitrogen oxides into the air. These plants are
often used along with solar plants or wind power. Natural gas plants fill in
power when it is not sunny or windy. In this case, the natural gas plant must
be turned on quickly. This can increase the nitrogen oxides released into the
air. This pollutant can cause people to have some health problems. *
Other Pollution /
 There is almost no solid waste from gas plants.
Waste *
 Natural gas plants use a lot of water to cool the plant’s equipment. The
amount is less than traditional coal plants. The water comes from wells,
lakes, rivers or oceans. Some of it will evaporate after use. The rest is
returned to its source. Since it is hot, the water may disturb plants and
animals living in the water source.
 U.S. supplies of natural gas are running low, even though new sources are
still being found. There is lots of gas in other parts of the world. New plants
built in PA could run for their entire lifespan on this world supply. It would
Availability
be transported to the U.S. in large tanker ships.
 Gas prices have gone up and down a lot in the past 10 years. Since the U.S.
has limited supplies, some of our future gas will come from places like the
79
Middle East. A portion of U.S. government funds is used to make sure we
can get gas and oil from the Middle East.
Reliability Natural gas, when available, can provide steady and dependable electricity.
The cost of natural gas may increase in the future. Since U.S. supplies are running
low, we may also become more dependent on foreign (Middle East) natural gas.
Limits of use
For these reasons, it is risky to make all the electricity needed for PA with natural
gas.
Noise These plants are about as loud as average street traffic.
These plants do not use much land. But, pipelines sometimes must be built under
Land use and private land. The landowner and pipeline company will have to agree about how
ecology to maintain the land around the pipeline. Drilling for natural gas can disturb local
land, plants and animals. This is especially true in unpopulated areas, like Alaska.
These plants are quite safe for operators. It is rare for natural gas to leak from a
Safety pipeline. If it does occur, unlike CO2, the gas can burn or explode. Like CO2,
people can suffocate from the gas.
The lifetime of any plant is uncertain. But, a new natural gas plant built today
Lifespan
would likely make electricity for at least 30 years.
Current use There are more than 350 of these plants working in the U.S. today.
80
Computation for kW – h for Natural Gas
38 MW = 38 000 kW
365 days 24 hour

38 000 kW - year x x = 332 880 000 kW - h
1 year 1 day
Ng = 96.0169
Btu
3412
kW of Electricity
Ng =
Btu
Heat Rate
kWh
Btu
3412
kWh
Heat Rate =
Ng
Btu
3412
kWh
Heat rate =
0.960196
Btu
Heat Rate = 3 553.441172
kWh
Btu
3 553.441172
kWh
Natural Gas per kWh =
1 037Btu
ft 3
ft3
Natural Gas per kWh = 3.426654939
kWh
81
Computation for the fuel cost per kwh for Natural Gas
ft3 $ 2.89 P 52.24

Cost per kwh = 3.426654939 x x
kWh 1 000 ft3 $1
Computation for over all fuel cost for Natural Gas
38 MW = 18 000 kW
365 days 24 hour

38 000 kW - year x x = 332 880 000 kW - h
1 year 1 day
P 0.5136201897
kW - h
Over all fuel cost = P 165 837 686.9
Computation for fuel consumptions for Natural Gas
3412 Btu 1 ft3

322 880 000 kW - h x x = 1062 359 267 ft3
1 kW - h 1 037 Btu
Table 4 - 6: Multiplying Factor for Natural Gas
lbs CO2
million Btu
Coal 214.3
Oil 161.3
Natural Gas 117.0
117 lbs CO2 1 037 Btu 1062 359 267 128 894 987.5 lbs
x x =
106 1 ft3 ft3 CO2
82
4.5 Final Estimate Trade off Values
Table 4 - 7: Final Estimate Trade off Values
STEAM POWER PLANT

CONSTRAINT
Coal - Fired Power Plant Oil – Based Power Plant Natural Gas Power Plant
Economic P 61 275 072.84 P 1370244335.1 P 165 837 686.9
Environmental 115 294 291.5 lbs CO2 754 121 643.2 lbs CO2 128 894 987.5 lbs CO2
Sustainability 50 years 60 years 30 years
4.6 Validation of Trade – offs

Looking at the table, large discrepancies between the initial and the final estimate values
appeared. Although the results are almost the same as the highest and the lowest still it is the same for
both estimated values. Having the computed values which is the final estimate, turned to be more
accurate. The coal turned to be much cheaper than the initial estimate. When it comes to environmental,
the pounds of carbon dioxide emission decrease significantly after computing the final estimate and the
sustainability stays the same for every fuel. These results will be used to compute for the final raw ranking
and go along with the sensitivity analysis.
Table 4 - 8: Validation of Trade – offs
Initial Estimated Values Final Estimated Values

Constraint
Natura Natura
Coal Oil Coal Oil
l Gas l Gas
Php
Php
Php Php Php Php P
Economic 165 837
152 525 502.9 1 630 601 513 203 460 269.4 61 275 072.84 1370244335.
686.9
1
Environment 239.5902241 180.3355257 130.7707552 115 294 291.5 86 780 071 62 946
al lbs CO2 lbs CO2 lbs CO2 lbs CO2 lbs CO2 lbs CO2
Sustainability 50 years 60 years 30 years 50 years 60 years 30 years
83
4.6.1 Computation of Ranking for Economic Constraint
Table 4 - 9: Estimated Values for Economic Constraint
FINAL ESTIMATED VALUES

STEAM POWER PLANT TRADE-OFFS
CONSTRAINT Coal - Fired Diesel – Based Natural Gas Power
Power Plant Power Plant Plant
Economic P 61 275 072.84 P 1370 244 335.1

P 165 837 686.9
PERCENT OF Ability To Satisfy The Criterion

CRITERION’S
Decision Criteria Coal - Fired Power Diesel – Based Natural Gas
IMPORTANCE
(%) Plant Power Plant Power Plant
Economic 50 100 9 76
Coal Vs Diesel
higher value – lower value

% difference = X 100
higher value
1370 244 335.1- 61 275 072.84

1370 244 335.1
% difference = 95.52 = 96
Subordinate rank = Governing rank – % difference
Subordinate rank = 100 – 96
Subordinate rank = 4
84
Coal Vs Natural Gas

higher value
165 837 686.9 - 61 275 072.84

165 837 686.9
Figure 4 - 6: Ranking Scale for Percentage Difference
85
4.6.2 Computation of Ranking for Environmental Constraint
Table 4 - 10: Estimated Values for Environmental Constraint

CONSTRAINT Coal - Fired Power Oil – Based Power Natural Gas Power
Plant Plant Plant
Environmental 115 294 291.5 lbs CO2 86 780 071 lbs CO2 62 946 486 lbs CO2
PERCENT OF ABILITY TO SATISFY THE CRITERION

CRITERION’S
DECISION CRITERIA Coal - Fired Power Oil – Based Natural Gas
IMPORTANCE
Environmental 30 55 73 100
Natural Gas Vs Coal

higher value
115 294 291.5 – 62 946 486

115 294 291.5
86
Natural Gas Vs Diesel

higher value
86 780 071 – 62 946 486

86 780 071
87
4.6.3 Computation of Ranking for Sustainability Constraint
Table 4 - 11: Estimated Values for Sustainability Constraint

CONSTRAINT Coal - Fired Diesel Based Natural Gas Power
Power Plant Power Plant Plant
Sustainability 50 years 60 years 30 years
PERCENT OF ABILITY TO SATISFY THE CRITERION

CRITERION’S
DECISION CRITERIA Coal - Fired Power Oil – Based Natural Gas
IMPORTANCE
Sustainably 20 83 100 25
Diesel Vs Coal
higher value
60 – 50
60
88
Diesel Vs Natural Gas

higher value
60 – 30
60
% difference = 50
89
4.7 Final Designer’s Raw Ranking
Table 4 - 12: Final Designer’s Raw Ranking
ABILITY TO SATISFY THE CRITERION

( ON A SCALE FROM 0 – 100 )
PERCENT OF CRITERION’S
DECISION CRITERIA
IMPORTANCE ( % )
Coal Oil Natural Gas
Economical 50 % 100 9 76
Environmental 30 % 55 73 100
Sustainability 20 % 83 100 25
Total 100 %
90
4.8 Trade off assessment
The comprehensive discussions using data are presented below and covers the designers
justification in rating criteria above:
4.8.1 Economic (Cost)

In this criterion, Coal fired fuel Power Plant governed. Coal Fired Fuel got the highest point
of ten(10) since the estimated cost for this design is P 61 275 072.84 since this design is the most
economical and the cost of installation is cheaper than the two trade-offs.
4.8.2 Environmental
Among the three trade – offs coal fired fuel got the lowest Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) Produced Using coal as
a fuel the power plant will extract a 115 294 291.5 lbs of CO2. While having diesel as a fuel will produce
86 780 071 lbs of CO2. For the last option the natural gas will extract 62 946 lbs of CO2.
4.8.3 Sustainability
In terms of sustainability, Coal Fired Fuel Power plant, Oil-Based Power Plant, and Natural Gas Power
Plant has the service life of 50 years , 60 years and 30 years respectively. Oil-Based Power Plant has the
longest service life having 10 years advantage from the picked fuel of the designer.
4.9 Influence of Multiple Constraints, Trade off and Standard

The engineering standards provided for the design of Steam Power Plant were guided to design a
trusted design. The designers assured that every single detail that they have included in the design
conforms to the standards with legitimate data.
The tradeoff is significant by solving the problem regarding the expenses concern and considering the
environmental and economical cost.
91
4.9.1 Economic Alternatives
Figure 4 - 9: Graphical Comparison of Economical
92
4.9.2 Environmental Alternatives
Figure 4 - 10: Graphical Comparison of Environmental
93
4.9.3 Sustainability Alternatives
Figure 4 - 11: Graphical Comparison of Sustainability
4.10 Sensitivity Analysis

After validation the designers came up with the sensitivity analysis of each trade – offs where the
criterion’s importance may varies dependent on the client’s perspectives. By interchanging the value for
criterion’s importance the designers came up on every different perspective that the client can decide by
having different cases to be presented for the best design.
94
Case 1: Economical and Environmental
On the table below, the designers considered the Economical and Environmental to be
interchanged and set the Environmental as the most important constraint, where in they will choose the
environmental issues over the fuel cost of the design
Table 4 - 13: Case 1 Economical and Environmental

DECISION CRITERIA
IMPORTANCE ( % )
Total 100 %
95
Case 2: Economical and Sustainability
For this case the designers chose the sustainability constraint over economical constraint as the
more important. The lifespan of the Power Plant over the fuel cost.
Table 4 - 14: Case 2 Economical and Sustainability

DECISION CRITERIA
IMPORTANCE ( % )
Total 100 %
96
Case 3: Environmental and Sustainability
For the last case the designers considered the Environmental constraint and the Sustainability
taking more consideration for the plant lifespan and neglecting some environmental issues.
Table 4 - 15: Case 3 Environmental and Sustainability

DECISION CRITERIA
IMPORTANCE ( % )
Total 100 %
97
Figure 4 - 12: Sensitivity Analysis of Steam Power Plant
Having the analysis above, the designers made a summary of every case and concluded that a slight
difference happened when interchanging the criterions importance factor. Also a slight affect result of the
final raw ranking. However, the leading trade – off that validated by designers still wins the ranking after
interchanging the importance factor has been interchanged. Lastly, the designers must understand these
variables and come up with a best design choice.
98
CHAPTER 5
FINAL DESIGN
Conclusion
After trade-offs the designers came up with the best alternative design to meet the power demands in
MAJAYJAY LAGUNA specifically in the franchise areas of Therma South Inc. Coal Power Plant. Coal Fired
Power Plant is the best alternative design among other alternative designs (Oil based Power Plant and
Natural Gas Power Plant). Based on the following constraints and its corresponding trade – offs the Coal
Fired Power Plant fit to the designer ideals and achieved the following aspects:
 Economical
 Environmental
 Sustainability
The Coal Fired Power Plant is best suitable when it comes to the manufacturing and sustainability. This
shows how almost insignificant their differences are. But Oil based Power Plant comes to last due to its
reliability of energy sources, meaning arising scarcity in the amount of its fuel.
Recommendation
To the future designer, the group suggests to look for more accurate equipment specifications that
will suit the design capacity. They also suggest justifying the power demand computations as well as the
equipment to be used. Lastly, the designers would like to recommend a precise constraints and trade-off in
choosing the alternative that will suit best in the design.
99
DESIGN OF AN 38 MW STEAM POWER PLANT
(COAL FIRED POWER PLANT)
100
FIRST CHECKING
Assumptions:
P₂ 9 MPa T₂ 430 °C
P₃ 6.5 MPa
P₄ 6.5 MPa T₄ 420 °C
P₅ 4.5 MPa
P₆ 2.5 MPa
P₇ 0.5 MPa
P₈ 0.01 MPa
ww
12 11 10
Figure 5 - 1: Schematic diagram for Checking the Quality of Steam
SOLUTION
Final Feedwater Temperature:
@ P1 = P2 = 9 MPa
= 92.37601776 kg / cm 2
From Figure 8 – 11 of Morse PPPE p 225;
101
@ 3 stages of extraction,
Pressure, kg/cm² Final Feed Temperature, °C

77.34 194.2
84.37 198
92.37601776 T₁₂
by Interpolation,
(194.2 - 198) (77.34 - 92.376)

T12 = 194.2 -
(77.34 - 84.37)
202.32758
T12 = oC
Temperature Difference:
t9
@ P8
=
From the Steam Tables
@ P8 = 0.01 MPa
t9 = 45.81 oC
202.32758 –
t₁₂ - t₉
40.29
Δt = =
No. of
3
Stages
Δt = 52.17334299oC
Temperature @ Point 10
102
t₉ = 45.81°C
t₁₀ = t₉ + Δt
40.29 +
t₁₀ =
52.17334299
t₁₀ = 97.98 °C
t₁₁ = t₁₀ + Δt
t₁₁ = 97.98 + 52.17334299
t₁₁ = 150.15 °C
t₁₂ = t₁₁ + Δt
t₁₂ = 150.15 + 52.17334299
t₁₂ = 202.33°C
Illustration:
2 4
3 5 6 7 8
103
Figure 5 - 2: Schematic diagram of Quality of Steam (First Checking)
P3 = P 4
2 4 P5
T 5’ P6
3’ 6’
3 5 P7
6 7’
7 P8
8 8’
Figure 5 - 3: Moiler Chart
@ Point 2
P2 = 9 MPa
t2= 430 ⁰C
(from Steam Tables, Table 3)
h2 = 3202.7 kJ/kg
s2 = 6.4087 kJ/kg-K
@ Point 3
P3= 6.5 MPa
S3 = S2 = 6.4087 kJ / kg - K
104
from Steam Tables, Table 3 by Interpolation;
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) (6.493-6.4087) ( 3167.7 – 3141.4)

h3 = 3167.7 -
3141.4 6.4535 ( 6.493 – 6.4535 )
h₃ 6.4087
3167.7 6.493 h3 = 3111.367 kJ / kg
Actual Enthalpy @ Point by Stage Efficiency,
h₂ - h₃'
ηs =
h₂ - h₃
3202.7 - h₃'
0.8 =
3202.7 - 3111.367
h3 = 3115.934 kJ / kg
105
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) ( 3141.4 – 3115.933999) ( 6.4535– 6.4127)

s3’ = 6.4535-
3114.5 6.4127 ( 3141.4– 3114.5)
3115.933999 s₃'
3141.4 6.4535 s3’ = 6.415729 kJ / kg -K
@ Point 4
P4 = 6.5 MPa
t4= 430 ⁰C
from Steam Tables, Table 3
h4 = 3244.6 KJ/kg
s4 = 6.5708827 KJ/kg-k
@ Point 5
P5= 4.5 MPa
S5 = S4 = 6.5708827 kJ / kg - K
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) ( 6.593 – 6.57088 ) ( 3131.2 – 3106.1)

h5 = 3131.2 -
3106.1 6.5537 ( 6.593 – 6.5537 )
h₅ 6.5708827
106
3131.2 6.593 h5 = 3116.502 kJ / kg
107
h4 – h5'
ηs =
h4 – h5
3224.6 – h5'
0.8 =
3224.6 – 3116.502
H5` = 3122.907 kJ / kg
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) (3131.2 – 3122.9071)( 6.593 – 6.5537)

s5 ‘ = 6.593–
3106.1 6.5537 ( 3131.2 – 3106.1)
3122.907129 s₅'
3131.2 6.593 s5 ‘ = 6.580923 kJ / kg -K
@ Point 6
P6= 2.5 MPa
S6 = S5’ = 6.580923 kJ / kg - K
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) (6.6007 – 6.580923)(2984.3-2959.3)

H6 = 2984.3 -
2959.3 6.5559 ( 6.6007 – 6.5559)
108
h₆ 6.5809233
2984.3 6.6007 H6= 2972.845 kJ / kg
h5’ – h6'
ηs =
h5’ – h6
3122.907 – h6'
0.8 =
3122.907- 2972.845
H6` = 2980.348 kJ / kg
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) (3008.8 – 2980.348259) (6.6438– 6.6007)

S6‘ = 6.6438 –
2984.3 6.6007 ( 3008.8 – 2946. )
2980.348259 s₆'
3008.8 6.6438 S6‘ = 6.594322kJ / kg -K
@ Point 7
P7= 0.5 MPa
S7 = S6’ = 6.59432152kJ / kg - K
by Interpolation;
109
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) (6.3963 – 6.3938159)( 2913.9 – 2899.9 )
h7 = 2913.9 -
2899.9 6.3703 (6.3963 – 6.3938159 )
h7 6.3938159
2913.9 6.3963 h7 = 2651.951 kJ / kg
h 6’ – h 7'
ηs =
h 5’ – h 7
2980.348 – h6'
0.8 =
2980.348 – 2651.951
H7` = 2668.37 kJ / kg
h ( kJ / kg) s ( kJ / kg – K ) (2671.7 – 2668.370497) (6.6328 – 6.6)

S7 ‘ = 6.6328 –
2658.9 6.6 ( 2671.7– 2658.9 )
2668.370497 s₇'
2671.7 6.6328 S7 ‘ = 6.632958 kJ / kg -K
@ Point 8
110
P8 = 0.01 MPa
S8 = S7’ = 6.63295782 Kj/Kg-K
h ( kJ / kg ) S ( kJ/kg-K )
F 168.79 0.5764
Fg 2406.01 7.6751
Using the Formula:
S8 = sf +sfg ( x8 ) h8 = hf +hfg ( x8 )
S8 = 0.6493 +7.5009 ( x8 ) h8 = 191.83 + 2392.8 ( 0.79772532 )
x8 = 0.79772532 or 79.77 % h8 = 1 996.622447 kJ/kg
h 7’ – h 8'
ηs =
h 7’ – h 8
2668.37– h8'
0.8 =
2668.37 – 2100.627
h 8’ = 2129.014 kJ / kg
111
Actual Quality of Steam @ Point 8,
h8’ = hf +hfg ( x8’ )
2129.014303= 191.83 + 2392.8 x₈'
x₈' = 0.8098418 or 80.98418 %
112
SECOND CHECKING
Po₁ 19000 kW
Po₂ 19000 kW
Po 38000 kW
ww 0.01 ws
ηt 94 %
Figure 5 - 4: Schematic diagram for Quality of Steam (Second Checking)
Solution:
Generator Efficiencies:
Generator 1:
0.055
ηg1 = 0.98 - ( RatingLoad )
³√(Rated kW1 /1000)
0.055
ηg1 = 0.98 - (0.75 )
³√([19000)1000]
ηg₁= 0.964541308 or 96.45%

Generator 2
0.055
ηg1 = 0.98 - ( RatingLoad )
³√(Rated kW1 /1000)
0.055
ηg1 = 0.98 - (0.75 )
³√([19000)1000]
ηg₁= 0.964541308 or 96.45%
113
Turbine Output
Turbine 1:
Po₁
Pt1=
(ηg₁)(ηt)
9000
Pt1=
(0.964541308) (0.80)
Pt1= 20955.832 kW
Turbine 2:
Po2
Pt2=
(ηg2)(ηt)
9000
Pt2=
(0.960169) (0.80)
Pt2= 20955.832 kW
Total:
Pt = Pt₁ + Pt₂
Pt = 20955.832+ 20955.832
Pt = 41911.665 kW
114
Heat Balance on Turbine Output
2 4
3 5 6 7 8
Figure 5 - 5: Schematic diagram of Turbine Output
Pt = [ws (h₂-h₃') + ws (h₄-h₅') +(ws-x₅) (h₅' - h₆') + (ws – x₅ - x₆) (h₆ ' - h₇') + (ws - x₅ - x₆ -
x₇)(h₇' - h₈')]
h₂ = 3202.7 kJ/kg
h₃' = 3115.934 kJ/kg
h₄ = 3244.6 kJ/kg
h₅' = 3122.9071 kJ/kg
h₆' = 2980.3483 kJ/kg
h₇' = 2668.3705 kJ/kg
h₈' = 2129.0143 kJ/kg
41911.66474 = [(ws) (3202.7- 3115.933999)]+ [(ws-x₅)(3122.907129- 2980.348259)]

+ [(ws-x₅-x₆) (2980.348259- 2668.370497)]+ [(ws-x₅-x₆-x₇)
(2668.370497- 2129.014303)+ ws (3244.6 -3122.907129)
41911.66474 = (86.76600051ws +(142.5588709(ws-x₅) +(311.9777618(ws-x₅-x₆) +

(539.356194 (ws-x₅-x₆-x₇) + ws ( 121.6928706)
41911.66474 = (208.4588711)ws +(142.5588709ws - (142.5588709x₅ +(311.9777618ws-

(311.9777618x₅ -(311.9777618x₆ +(539.356194ws -(539.356194)
115
41911.66474 =(1202.351698)ws -(993.8928266x₅ -(311.9777618 x₆ - (0x₇) - EQUATION1
ww
Heat Balance on Low Pressure Heater
12 11 10
Figure 5 - 6: Schematic diagram of Low – pressure Heater
x₇(h₇') + (ws-x₅-x₆-x₇)(h₉) = x₇(h₇c) + (ws-x₅-x₆-x₇)(h₁₀)
From 1st Checking:
h₇' = 2668.370497 kJ/kg
From Steam Tables:
h₉ = hf at P₈; P₈ = 0.01 MPa
h₉ = 191.8122952 kJ/kg
h₇c = hf at P₇; P₇ = 0.5 MPa
h₇c = 640.1853354 kJ/kg
h₁₀ = hf at t₁₀; t₁₀= 97.98 °C
h₁₀ = 410.5824894 kJ/kg
Substituting:
116
2668.370497 x₇ +191.8122952(ws-x₅-x₆-x₇) =640.1853354x₇ +410.5824894(ws-x₅-x₆x₇)
2668.370497 x₇ + 191.8122952 ws - 191.8122952 x₅ - 191.8122952 x₆ -

191.8122952 x₇ = 640.1853354 x₇ + 410.5824894 ws -
410.5824894 x₅ - 410.5824894 x₆ - 410.5824894 x₇
2246.955356 x₇ + -218.7701942 ws + 218.7701942 x₅ + 218.7701942 x₆ = 0
0= -218.7701942 ws + 218.7701942 x₅ + 218.7701942 x₆ +2246.955356x₇ - Equation 2

ww
Heat Balance on Low Pressure Heater
12 11 10
Figure 5 - 7: Schematic diagram of Low – pressure Heater
x₇(h₇') + (ws-x₅-x₆-x₇)(h₉) = x₇(h₇c) + (ws-x₅-x₆-x₇)(h₁₀)
From 1st Checking:
h₅' = 3122.907129 kJ/kg
From Steam Tables:
h₁₁ = hf at t₁₁; t₁₁= 150.15 °C
h₁₁ = 632.9175975 kJ/kg
h₅c = hf at P₅; P₅ = 4.5 MPa
h₅c = 1122.142993 kJ/kg
h₁₂ = hf at t₁₂; t₁₂= 202.33 °C
117
h₁₂ = 862.8975531 kJ/kg
Substituting:
3122.907129 x₅ +632.9175975(ws+ww)= 1122.142993x₅ +862.8975531(ws+ww)
3122.907129 x₅ +632.9175975(ws +0.01ws)= 1122.142993x₅ +862.8975531(ws +0.01ws)
2000.764137 x₅ +-232.2797551ws = 0
0= -232.2797551 ws + 2000.764137 x₅ - Equation 3
Heat Balance on Deaerator:
Figure 5 - 8: Schematic diagram of Heat Balance
x₅ ( h₅' ) + ( ws + ww ) ( x₅ ( h₅c ) + ( ws + ww ) ( h₁₂

=
h₁₁ ) )
Determined Values:
h₁₁ = 632.9175975 kJ/kg
h₅c = 1122.142993 kJ/kg
h₇c = 640.1853354 kJ/kg
h₁₀ = 410.5824894 kJ/kg
h₆' = 2980.348259 kJ/kg
118
From Steam Tables:
hw = hf at t = 100 °C
hw = 419.099155 kJ/kg
Substituting:
419.099155ww +2980.348259x₆ +410.5824894(ws-x₅-x₆-x₇) +640.1853354x₇ +1122.142993x₅

= 632.9175975(ws+ww)
419.099155(0.01ws) +2980.348259 x₆ +410.5824894ws - 410.5824894 x₅ -410.5824894

x₆ -410.5824894x₇ + 640.1853354 x₇ +1122.142993x₅ = 632.9175975
(ws +0.01ws)
4.19099155ws +2980.348259x₆ +410.5824894ws +711.5605034 x₅ -410.5824894x₆ +

229.6028459 x₇ = 639.2467735ws
-224.4732925 ws + 2569.765769 x₆ + 711.5605034 x₅ + 229.6028459 x₇ = 0
0= -224.4732925 ws + 711.5605034 x₅ + 2569.765769 x₆ + 229.6028459x₇ - Equation
119
Elimination:(Matrix)
A ws x₅ x₆ x₇ b
1 1202.3517) -(993.892827 -(851.334 -(539.356194 41911.665
2 -218.77019 218.7701942 218.77019 2246.955356 0
3 -232.27976 2000.764137 0 0 0
4` -224.47329 711.5605034 2569.7658 229.6028459 0
A⁻ ¹ ws x₅ x₆ x₇ b
1 0.0009977 0.000207527 0.0003617 0.000312875 41911.665
2 0.0001158 2.40929E-05 0.0005418 3.63234E-05 0
3 4.782E-05 -3.01655E-05 -0.000118 0.000407552 0
4` 8.121E-05 0.000465843 -6.06E-06 -1.27546E-05 0
x
ws 41.817214
x₅ 4.8547913
x₆ 2.0044202
x₇ 3.4036141
Where,
x = A⁻ ¹ × b
Amount of Steam and Extracts:
ws = 41.81721406 kg/s
x₅ = 4.854791258 kg/s
x₆ = 2.004420241 kg/s
x₇ = 3.403614136 kg/s
Percent Extraction:
%x = (x₅+x₆+x₇)/ws
120
4.8547913 + 2.0044202 + 3.40361414
%x =
41.817214
%x = 24.542108%
121
THIRD CHECKING
Figure 5 - 9: Schematic diagram of Quality of Steam (Third Checking
Assumptions:
Fuel Number = 5
Boiler Efficiency = 50 %
Air Enthalpy (Entry) = 57.069 kJ/kg
tdb₁ = 30 °C
twb₁ = 20 °C
Air Enthalpy (Exit) = 67.324 kJ/kg
tdb₂ = 40 °C
tw = 10 °C
Cg = 1.04645 kJ/kg-K
122
Table 5 - 1: Ultimate analysis
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
C 0.84 C + O₂ → CO₂
H₂ 0.0452 H₂ + ½ O₂ → H₂O
O₂ 0.0603
N₂ 0.0117
S 0.0055 S + O₂ → SO₂
Ash 0.0373
Total: 1
EXTERNAL OXYGEN (& NITROGEN)

32 O₂
Carbon = X 0.8405 C = 2.24 O₂
12 C
16 O₂
Hydrogen = X 0.045 H₂ = 0.3616 O₂
2 H₂
Oxygen = -0.0603 O₂
32 O₂
Sulfur = X 0.0055 S = 0.0055 O₂
32 S
TOTAL: 2.5468 O₂
0.768 N₂
Nitrogen = 2.546833333 O₂ X = 8.430786 N₂
0.232 O₂
Air - Fuel Ratio, raf = 10.97759 AIR
EXHAUST GAS
44 CO₂
Carbon Dioxide = X 0.8405 C = 3.08 CO₂
12 C
18 H₂O
Water Vapour = X 0.045 H₂ = 0.4068 H₂O
2 H₂
64 SO₂
Sulfur Dioxide = X 0.0055 S = 0.011 SO₂
32 S
Nitrogen = 0.0117 N₂ + 8.4308966 N₂ = 8.442486 N₂
TOTAL: 11.94029 GAS
Gas - Fuel Ratio, rgf = 11.94029 GAS
123
CHECK:
Fuel + Air = Gas + Ash

1 + raf = rgf + Ash
1 + 10.977586 = 11.940286 + 0.0373
11.977586 = 11.977586
Table 5 - 2: Gas Composition
GAS COMPOSITION:
3.08
CO₂ X 100% = 25.795 %
11.94028621
0.4068
H₂O X 100% = 3.40695 %
11.94028621
0.011
SO₂ X 100% = 0.09213 %
11.94028621
8.442486207
N₂ X 100% = 70.7059 %
11.94028621
TOTAL: 100 %
Solve:
Energy In: (Fuel, Air, and Feedwater)
raf = 10.97758621 AIR
rgf = 11.94028621 GAS
Qh = 34356 kJ/kg
124
Fuel:
Heat of Fuel:
Qf = wf (Qh)
Qf = (4.622299853) (34356)
Qf = 158803.7338 kJ/s
From Morse' PPE, p296 ;
ηb = (wfeed) (h₁ - h₁₂)

wf(Qh)
wf = (ws + ww) (h₁ - h₁₂)

ηb(Qh)
Where, Where,
ws = 41.81721 kg/s
ww = 0.01 ws
h₁₂ = 862.8976 kJ/kg
h₁ = hg at P₁ ; P₁ = P₂ = 9
h₁ = 2742.882 kJ/kg
Substituting,
(1.03) (41.81721) (2742.88- 862.9)

wf =
(0.5) (34356)
wf = 4.6223 kg/s
Heat of Fuel:
Qf = wf (Qh)
Qf = (4.6223) (34356)
125
Qf = 87158.01 kJ/s
Air
wair
raf =
wf
wair = raf × wf
wair = (10.9777) (4.6223)
wair = 50.7417 kg/s
hair = 57.069 kJ/kg
Heat of Air:
Qa = wair (hair)
Qa = (57.069) (57.069)
Qa = 2895.778kJ/s
Make-up Water:
ww = wm = 0.01 ws
wm = 0.01 (41.8172)
wm = 0.418172 kg/s
hw = hf at tw ;tw = 20 °C
hw = 83.9199 kJ/kg
Heat of Make-up Water:

Qw = ww (hw)
Qw = (0.41817) (83.9199)
126
Qw = 35.09296 kJ/s
Total Energy In:
Qin = Qf + Qa +Qw
Qin = 158803.7+2895.778+35.09296
Qin = 161734.6 kJ/s
Energy Out: (Power Output, Condenser, Blowdown, Refuse, Flue Gas, Losses)
From 1st and 2nd Checking:
Po = 38000 kW ws = 41.81721406 kg/s
x₇ = 3.403614136 kg/s
h₈' = 2129.014303 kJ/kg x₅ = 4.854791258 kg/s
h₉ = 191.8122952 kJ/kg x₆ = 2.004420241 kg/s
Condenser:
Heat of Condenser
Qc = (ws - x₅ - x₆ - x₇)(h₈' -h₉ )
Qc = (41.81721406- 4.854791258- 2.004420241- 3.403614136 )(2129.014303-191.8122952 )
Qc = (31.55438843) (1937.202008)
Qc = 61127.22 kJ/s
127
Blowdown:
Heat of Blow Down
Qbd = wm (h₁)
Qbd = (0.41817) (2742.88)
Qbd = 1146.997 kJ/s
Refuse:
Ash
wref = (wf)
0.8
0.0373
wref = (4.6223)
0.8
wref = 0.215515 kg/s

Heat of Refuse
Qref = wref (Qh)
Qref = (0.21551) (34356)
Qref = 7404.224 kJ/s

Flue Gas
wg
rgf =
wf
wg = rgf ( wf )
wg = (11.9404)(4.6223)
wg = 55.19158kg/s
tga = 1050 °C
128
Through Superheater:
Heat Increase in Steam
Qs = ws(h₂ - h₁)
Qs = (25.0373) ( 3117.8 - 2742.19)
Qs = 19228.31 kJ/s
Heat Loss in Gas:
Qg = Qs
Qs = 19228.31
Qg = wg (cg)(tga - tgb)
19228.31
tgb = 1050 -
(55.1916) (1.04645)
tgb = 717.072 ⁰C
Through Economizer:
Heat Increase in Feedwater
Qw = ww(hw₂ - hw₁)
Qw = (0.41817) ( 419.04 - 83.96 )
Qw = 140.1626 kJ/s
Heat Loss in Gas
Qg = Qw
Qg = wg (cg)(tgb - tgc)
129
Qw = = 140.1626 Kj/s
140.1626
tgc = 717.072 -
(55.1916) (1.04645)
tcg = 714.646 ⁰C
Through Air Pre – Heater
Heat increase in Air:
From Psychrometric Chart:
h₁ = 57.069 kJ/kg
h₂ = 67.324kJ/kg
Qair = wa(h₂ - h₁)
Qair = (50.7417) ( 67.324 - 57.069)
Qair = 520.3561 kJ/s
Heat Loss from Gas:
Qg = Qair
Qg = wg (cg)(tgc - tgd)
Qair = = 520.3561
520.3561
tgd = 714.646 -
(55.1916)(1.04645)
Heat tgd = 705.636⁰C of Flue Gas:
Qfg = wg (cg) (tgd - tdb₁)
Qfg = (55.1916) (1.04645) (705.636 - 30 )
Qfg = 39021.51 kJ/s
130
Total for Blowdown, Refuse and Flue Gas:
Qb,r,f = Qbd + Qref + Qfg
Qb,r,f = 1146.997 + 7404.22 + 39021.2
Qb,r,f = 47573 kJ/s

Heat Losses
Qlosses = Qin - Po - Qc - Qbd - Qref - Qfg
Qlosses = 161734.6 -38000 -61127.2 -1147 -7404.22 -39021.2
Qlosses = 15034.65 kJ/s

Table 5 - 3: ENERGY IN and ENERGY OUT
ENERGY IN ENERGY OUT

kJ/s % kJ/s or kW %
Qf = 158803.7338 98.18785 Po = 38000 23.49528
Qa = 2895.777798 1.79045 Qc = 61127.22461 37.79477
Qw = 35.09296268 0.021698 Qbd = 1146.996815 0.709185
Qref = 4063.742126 7404.224086
Qfg = 19818.43515 39021.50814
Qb,r,f = 25941.81887 47572.72904
Qlosses = 8607.47362 15034.65086
Qin = 161734.6045 100 Qout = 161734.6045 100
131
STEAM BOILER
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated but the fluid does not necessarily boil.
In North America, the term "furnace" is normally used if the purpose is not to boil the fluid. The heated or
vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water
heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The two types of boiler is
Fire-tube and Water-tube boiler.
The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel (or alloy steel), or historically of wrought
iron. Stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion
and stress corrosion cracking. However, ferritic stainless steel is often used in superheated sections that will
not be exposed to boiling water, and electrically heated stainless steel shell boilers are allowed under the
European "Pressure Equipment Directive" for production of steam for sterilizers and disinfectors. In live
steam models, copper or brass is often used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers.
Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (particularly for steam locomotives), because of its better
formability and higher thermal conductivity; however, in more recent times, the high price of copper often
makes this an uneconomic choice and cheaper substitutes (such as steel) are used instead.
For much of the Victorian "age of steam", the only material used for boiler making was the highest
grade of wrought iron, with assembly by rivet rolled and its suitability for high-reliability use in critical
applications, such as high-pressure boilers. This iron was often obtained from specialist ironworks, such as
at Cleator Moor (UK), noted for the high quality of their In the 20th century, design practice instead moved
towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and
requires less labor. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their
modern-day steel counterparts, and are less susceptible to localized pitting and stress-corrosion. This makes
the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers. Cast iron may be used
132
for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed "boilers" in some
countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, and so they run at low pressure and try
to avoid boiling. The brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers.
In this design, the designers used Water-tube Boiler because this type generally gives higher steam
production rates and is generally preferred in high-pressure applications since the high-pressure water/steam
is contained within small diameter pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall.
Figure 5 - 10: Steam Boiler
(Source: http://www.nonwoventools.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/BoilerSeries_300_ca-01-src.jpg)
133
DESIGN OF STEAM BOILER
Data:
P1 = 10 MPa
T1 = 450˚C
P2 = 9 MPa
T2 = 202.328 ˚C
Ws = 41.81721 kg/s
Assumed Values:
Boiler Rating: 150%
Tube Diameter: 0.05 m
Figure 5 - 11: Steam Boiler Drum

Tube Length: 6 m
Boiler Type Constant: 0.91 m3/HP
Boiler Efficiency, Nb = 53 %
Heating Value, Qh = 34,356 kJ /kg – K
Determining of enthalpies from feed water to discharge from steam table
h1 = hs @ P1 = 10 MPa
h1 = 3240.9 kJ/kg
h2 = hf @ P2 = 9 MPa
At table 1 by Interpolation:
202 861.47
202.3275772 h2
203 863.99
134
(202-202.3275772)(861.47-
h2 = 861.47 – 863.99)
(202-203)
kJ
h2 = 862.9506489
kg
Solve for Developed Boiler Horsepower, DBH
(Ws )(h1-h2)
DBH =
35322
(41.81721) (3240.9-1363.26)
DBH = ( 3600 )
35322
DBH = 8002.481 HP
Solve for Rated Boilers Horsepower, RBH
DBH
RBH =
BR
8002.48076
RBH =
1.5
135
RBH = 5334.987171 HP
Solve for Heating Surface, (H.S)
H.S = k (RBH)
H.S = (0.91) (5334.987171 HP)
H.S = 4854.83833 sq. m
Solve for Number of Tubes, Nt
H.S = π × D × Lt × Nt
H.S
Nt =
π (D) (Lt)
4854.83833
Nt =
π (0.05) (6)
Nt = 5151.14345 tubes
Nt = 5152 tubes
136
Solve for Weight of Fuel Supplied, Wf
(Ws ) (h1 – h2)

Wf =
π (D) (Lt)
(41.817214)(3240.9-1363.26)
Wf =
(0.53)(34356)
kg
Wf = 4.312101
s
Solve for Weight of Air Supplied, Wair
Wair = raf(Wf)
Wair = (10.97759)( 4.312101)
kg
Wair= 47.3364807
s
Solve for Gas Produced, Wg
Wg = rgf(wf)
Wg = (11.94029)(4.312101)
kg
Wg= 51.4877407
s
137
FURNACE
A furnace is a device used for high-temperature heating. The name derives from Greek word fornax,
which means oven. The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by
electricity such as the electric arc furnace, or through induction heating in induction furnaces. In American
English and Canadian English usage, the term furnace refers to the household heating systems based upon
a central furnace, otherwise known either as a boiler, or a heater in British English. Furnace may also be a
synonym for kiln, a device used in the production of ceramics. In British English, a furnace is
an industrial furnace used for many things, such as the extraction of metal from ore (smelting) or in oil
refineries and other chemical plants, for example as the heat source for fractional distillation columns. The
term furnace can also refer to a direct fired heater, used in boiler applications in chemical industries or for
providing heat to chemical reactions for processes like cracking, and is part of the standard English names
for many metallurgical furnaces worldwide.
The first categories of furnaces are natural draft, atmospheric burner furnaces. These furnaces
consisted of cast-iron or riveted-steel heat exchangers built within an outer shell of brick, masonry, or steel.
The heat exchangers were vented through brick or masonry chimneys. Air circulation depended on large,
upwardly pitched pipes constructed of wood or metal. The pipes would channel the warm air into floor or wall
vents inside the home. This method of heating worked because warm air rises.
The system was simple, had few controls, a single automatic gas valve, and no blower. These
furnaces could be made to work with any fuel simply by adapting the burner area. They have been operated
with wood, coke, coal, trash, paper, natural gas, and fuel oil. Furnaces that used solid fuels required daily
maintenance to remove ash and "clinkers" that accumulated in the bottom of the burner area. In later years,
these furnaces were adapted with electric blowers to aid air distribution and speed moving heat into the
home. Gas and oil-fired systems were usually controlled by a thermostat inside the home, while most wood
138
and coal-fired furnaces had no electrical connection and were controlled by the amount of fuel in the burner
and position of the fresh-air damper on the burner access door.
Figure 5 - 12: Furnace
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furnace)
139
DESIGN OF FURNACE
Figure 5 - 13: Schematic of Furnace
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furnace)
Data:
Qfuel = 158803.7338 kJ/s
Qair = 2895.777798 kJ/s
Wf= 4.622299853 kg/s
Assumed values:
Refer to page 336 of Power Plant Engineering by FT Morse
(675,000 – 1 350 kcal

HRR (Area)=
000) hr-m2
kcal
Use : HRR (Area)= 1 350 000
hr-m2
140
Refer to page 314 of Power Plant Engineering by FT Morse
kcal
HRR (Volume)= (178,000 – 267,000)
hr-m3
HRR kcal
Use : 267 000
(Volume)= hr-m2
Solve for Total Heat, Qt
Qt = Qf +Qair
2895.777798 + 158803.73
Qt =
3600
kcal
Qt = 139029912
hr
Solve for Area of the Furnace, Af
Qt
Af =
HRR (A)
139029912
Af =
1 350 000
Af = 102.9851 m2
141
Solve for Volume of the Furnace, 𝑽𝒇
Qt
Vf =
HRR (v)
139029912
Vf =
267 000
Vf = 520.7113 m3
Solve for Height of the Furnace, Hf
Vf
Hf=
Af
520.71128 m3
Hf=
102.98512 m2
Hf= 5.05618 m
Solve for Volume of Fuel Bed, 𝑽𝒇𝒃
𝐐𝐭
𝑉𝑓𝑏 =
𝐇𝐑𝐑𝐕
𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟗𝟗𝟏𝟐
𝑉𝑓𝑏 = 𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑉𝑓𝑏 520.7113 m3
142
Solve for Weight of Fuel Bed, 𝑾𝒇𝒃
T= 50.13013595 min
Solve for Length of Furnace, 𝑳𝒇
𝑉𝑐𝑔 = Velocity of chain grate = 300 mm/min
𝐿𝑓 = 𝑉𝑐𝑔 (T)
mm (43.204450 1m
𝐿𝑓 = 300
min min) ( 1 000 mm
)
𝐿𝑓 = 15.03904078 m
Solve for Width of the Furnace, Wf
Af
Wf =
Lf
102.98512 m
Wf =
15.03904078 m
Wf = 6.847852 m
143
STEAM REHEATER
Steam Re-heater is a Steam Boiler component in which heat is added to intermediate-pressure
steam, which has given up some of its energy in expansion through the High-Pressure Turbine. The steam
after reheating is used to rotate the second steam turbine where the heat is converted to mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is used to run the alternator, which is coupled to turbine, there by
generating electrical energy.
Power plant furnaces may have a Steam Re-heater section containing tubes heated by hot flue
gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is passed through these heated
tubes to collect more energy before driving the intermediate and then low pressure turbines.
Figure 5 - 14: Steam Re-heater
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamreheater)
144
DESIGN OF STEAM REHEATER
Figure 5 - 15: Schematic of Steam Reheater
Data from 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Checking:

𝑘𝑗
𝑄𝑇 = 88,759.356
𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Raf = 11.977586𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑘𝑔
Ws = 41.817214
𝑠
𝑘𝑔
Wf = 4.361531 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
Wair = 3184536.445 𝑠
𝑘𝑗
hair = 57.06 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑗
h3ˈ = 3115.934 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑗
h4 = 3244.5 𝑘𝑔
LF = 15.03904078 m
145
Assumptions:
Slagging Factor, S = 0.9
Tube Arrangement: a → (δ = π/2)
Tube Diameter, do = 0. 05 m
Solve for Heat of Steam Reheater, Qsr
𝑄𝑠𝑟 = (𝑊𝑠)(ℎ4 − ℎ3ˈ)
𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑠𝑟 = (41.8172141 ) (3244.6 − 3115.9)
𝑠
𝑘𝑗
𝑄𝑠𝑟 = 5380.45369
𝑠
Solve for Fraction of Available Heat, 𝜴
𝑄𝑠𝑟
𝛺=
𝑄𝑡
𝑘𝑗
5380.45369 𝑠
𝛺=
𝑘𝑗
2895.7778 + 158804 𝑠
𝛺 = 0.0332744
Solve for Mass of Cool Per Equivalent Radiant Surface Per HR, Cr
From Page 224 of PPE
1
𝛺=
𝑟𝑎𝑓√𝐶𝑟
1+ 60
1
0.0332744 =
10.97759√𝐶𝑟
1+ 60
𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2
𝐶𝑟 = 25,215.9219
ℎ𝑟
146
Solve for Equivalent Radiant Heating Surface, Ar
From page 285 of PPE
𝑊𝑓
𝐴𝑟 =
𝐶𝑟
𝑘𝑔
2.53690791 𝑠
𝐴𝑟 =
7.004423 ÷ 3600
𝐴𝑟 = 0.6599116035284 𝑚2
Solve for Projected Area of Heating Surface, AP
From page 285 of PPE
𝐴𝑟
𝐴𝑃 =
(𝑆)(𝛿)
0.6599``6035284
𝐴𝑃 = 𝜋
(0.9) ( )
2
𝐴𝑃 = 0.46679197 𝑚²
Lf = Lt
𝐴𝑃 = 𝜋(𝐷𝑜)(𝐿𝑡)(𝑁𝑡)
𝐴𝑃
𝑁𝑡 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑜)(𝐿𝑡)
0.46679197
𝑁𝑡 =
𝜋(0.05)(15.03904 m )
𝑁𝑡 = .197598372960118
Nt = 1 tube
147
CONDENSER
Steam after rotating steam turbine comes to condenser. Condenser refers here to the shell
and tube heat exchanger (or surface condenser) installed at the outlet of every steam turbine in
Thermal Power Stations of utility companies generally. These condensers are heat exchangers which
convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state, also known as phase transition. In doing so, the
latent heat of steam is given out inside the condenser.
The purpose is to condense the outlet (or exhaust) steam from steam turbine to obtain
maximum efficiency and also to get the condensed steam in the form of pure water, otherwise known
as condensate, back to steam generator or (boiler) as boiler feed water.
Figure 5 - 16: Condenser
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condenser)
148
DESIGN OF CONDENSER
Figure 5 - 17: Schematics of Condenser
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condenser)
149
Data and Assumptions:
Mass of Steam from Turbine (Wsˈ): 41.81721406 kg/s
Condenser Pressure (Pc): 0.01 MPa
𝜃1 = 3 ˚C
Terminal Differences:
𝜃2 = 5.6 ˚C
𝜃1 Assume Range:
𝜃1 – (3 – 5.6 ˚C)
𝜃2 - (5.6 – 16.7 ˚C)
Actual Specific Enthalpy of Wsˈ ( hxˈ) : 2129.014303 kJ/kg
Tube Dv=D0 25.4 mm

Diameter: Dw=Dl 22.92 mm
kcal
kt = 39.7 m – hr -
˚C
Solution:
Heat from Steam:
hₓ₋₁ = hf at Pc
hf at Pc = 29.3 kJ/kg
Solve for Heat of Condenser, Qs
Qs = (Ws-x5-x6-x7) × (h8' - h9)

Qs = (41.81721406-3.40361- 2.00442024- 4.8548) (2129.014303 – 29.3)
Qs = 66255.2007 kJ/s
MKS:
150
kJ 3600s 1 kCal
Qs = Qs = 66255.2007 x x 56966496.9kcal / hr
s 1 hour 4.187 kJ
Solve for Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, LMTD
ts' = tsat at Pc
tsat at Pc = 45.81 ºC
twb' = ts' - θ₁
twb' = 45.81 - 3
twb' = 42.81 ºC
twa' = twb' - θ₂
twa' = 42.81 – 5.6
twa' = 37.21 ºC
θmax = ts - twa'= 45.81 – 37.208
θmax = 8.6 ⁰C
θmin = ts - twb'= 45.81 – 42.808
θmin = 3.0 ⁰C
θmax – θmin
LMTD=
ln (θmax/ θmin)
8.6 – 3.0
LMTD=
ln 8.6
151
3.0
LMTD = 5.317382 ⁰C
Solve for Coefficients of Heat Transfer), Us
Water Side Scale Coefficient, Us Range: (4880 - 19530)
Us = 19530 kcal/ m² - hr - ⁰C kCal/ m² - hr - ⁰C
Solve for Water Film Coefficient, Uw
twb' + twa' 42.81 + 37.21

tm = =
2 2
tm = 40.00754821 ⁰C
From PPE by Morse, Table 14-8, p.606
by Interpolation:
Viscosity at 40.00754821 ⁰C = 0.67993 CP
1 1
Fluidity, J = =
CP 0.67993
J= 1.47073665
J⁰·²⁴
b= 1379.7
Dw⁰·²⁷
b = 1379.7 1.4707⁰·²⁴
152
0.02292⁰·²⁷
b = 4195.030264
Uw = bV⁰·⁷³ Velocity: 2.4 m/s
Uw = (4195.030264) 2.4⁰·⁷³
Uw = 7948.575518 kcal/ m² - hr - ⁰C
Solve for Conductivity of Tube, 𝑼𝒕
Dv - Dw 25.4 – 22.92
t= =
2 2
t= 1.24 mm
t= 0.00124 m
kt 39.7
𝑈𝑡 = =
t
𝑈𝑡 = 32016.12903 kcal/ m² - hr - ⁰C
Solve for Vapor Film Coefficient, Uv
111910
Uv = = Av⁰ ·¹⁸
(Qs / Av)⁰·¹⁸⁸ 3897.74 ⁸
Refer from page 276 Equation 9-19 from PPE by Morse,
The following shows the substitution of values in the Equation
153
Heat: Q= 56966497kCal/hr
LMTD: θ = 5.317382 ⁰C
2nd Term in the Quantity:
2 Dv 2 (25.4)
= = 0.00003283733965002410
Ut (Dw+Dv) 32016.129 (22.92 + 25.4)
3rd Term in the Quantity: m² - hr - ⁰C / kCal
Dv 25.4
= = 0.00005674359668617390
Us Dw (19530) (22.92)
4th Term in the Quantity: m² - hr - ⁰C / kCal
Dv 25.4
= = 0.00013551105189437700
Uw Dw (7948.58) (22.92)
Total: = 0.00022900245164632100 m² - hr - ⁰C / kCal
; Simplification
56966497 1
5.317382 = [ + 0.0002 ]
Av 3897.74 Av0.188
154
14615.28 13075.54
5.317382 = +
Av1.188 Av
Av = 2303.124375 m²
Check: 5.317381621 = 7.157686713 ; %Error: 34.60923483
Solve for Water Mass Flow Rate, Ww
Qs = Qw = ( Ww) ( Cw ) (twb' - twa')
66255.2007
Ww=
4.187 (42.80755 – 37.21)
Ww = 2825.719092 kg/s
Solve for Number of Tubes of the Condenser per pass, Nt
Ww = Aw × Vw × Nt
π Dw²
Ww = x Vw x Nt x pw
4
π (0.02292m)2
Ww = x 2.4 m/s x Nt x 1000 kg/m3
4
Nt = 2853.636402
Nt = 2854 Tubes
Solve for Length of the Tubes of Condenser, Lt
Av = π ( Do )( Nt)( Lt) Length Requirement per Pass: (3 - 7.6 meters)
2303.12 =π (0.0254) (2854) ( Lt)
155
Lt = 10.11299596 m
No. of Passes = 2 Pass
Actual No. of Tubes = 5708 Tubes
Actual Length per pass = 5.056498 m
156
COOLING TOWER
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the
cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to
remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of closed
circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, petrochemical and
other chemical plants, thermal power stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The classification is
based on the type of air induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced
draft cooling towers. Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid
structures (as in the adjacent image) that can be up to 200 meters (660 ft) tall and 100 meters (330 ft) in
diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over 40 meters (130 ft) tall and 80 meters (260 ft) long. The
hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants, although they are also used in
some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants. Although these
large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units
installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning.
157
Figure 5 - 18: Cooling Tower
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolingtower)
Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as machinery or
heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat
absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power plants, petroleum refineries,
petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and
for other industrial facilities such as in condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in
crystallization, etc. The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired power plant with
a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic meters an hour (315,000 US gallons per minute)] and the
158
circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic meters an
hour).
If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-through cooling water, it would require
about 100,000 cubic meters an hour. A large cooling water intake typically kills millions of fish and larvae
annually, as the organisms are impinged on the intake screens. A large amount of water would have to be
continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and continuously re-supplied
to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot water may raise the temperature of the
receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures can
kill fish and other aquatic organisms (see thermal pollution), or can also cause an increase in undesirable
organisms such as invasive species of zebra mussels or algae. A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat
into the atmosphere instead and wind and air diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot
water can distribute heat in a body of water. Evaporative cooling water cannot be used for subsequent
purposes (other than rain somewhere), whereas surface-only cooling water can be re-used. Some coal-
fired and nuclear power plants located in coastal areas do make use of once-through ocean water. But
even there, the offshore discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid environmental
problems. Petroleum refineries also have very large cooling tower systems. A typical large refinery
processing 40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day (300,000 barrels (48,000 m3) per day) circulates
about 80,000 cubic meters of water per hour through its cooling tower system.
159
DESIGN OF COOLING TOWER
Data:
Qs = 61127.225 kJ/s
ts = 45.81 ⁰C
td1 = 30 ⁰C
tw1 = 20 ⁰C
RH2 = 80 %
twc = 20 ⁰C
Θ1= 5.6
Terminal Differences:
Θ2 = 7.5
Θ Assume Range:
Θ1 – (3 – 5.6 ⁰C)
Θ2 – (5.6 – 16.7 ⁰C)
160
Solve:
Temperatures of Water:
Condenser - HE Loop:
twb' = ts - θ₁ = 45.81 - 3 = 42.80755 ⁰C
twa' = twb' - θ₂ = 42.80754821 – 5.6 = 37.20755 ⁰C
HE - Cooling Tower Loop:
twb = twa' - θ₁ = 37.20754821 - 5.6 = 31.60755 ⁰C
twa = twb - θ₂ = 31.60754821 - 7.5 = 24.10755 ⁰C
Make - up Water Temperature:
twc = 20 ⁰C
Solve for Cooling Tower Efficiency, Ƞct
twb – twa 31.60754821 – 24.10755

Ƞct= = x 100 %
twb – tw1 31.60754821 - 20
Ƞct = 66.613128 %
Cooling Tower Selection:
Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower: ƞct > 60%
Atmospheric Cooling Tower: ƞct < 60%
Selected: Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower
Temperature of Approach:
tapp = twa - tw₁ (⁰F units)
tapp = 24.1075 - 20
tapp = 75.393587 - 68
tapp = 7.39358677 ⁰F
161
Types of Approach:
Large Approach: 15 - 20 ⁰F
Moderate Approach: 10 - 15 ⁰F
Small Approach: 04 - 08 ⁰F
Used: Moderate Approach
Height of Cooling Tower:
For Moderate Approach
tapp, ⁰F H, feet
10 - 25
11 - 26
12 - 27
13 - 28
14 - 29
15 - 30
tapp = 7.39358677 ⁰F
H = 39.2419835 feet
Air Properties:
Air Entry:( Given td₁,tw₁)
Ps at td₁ = 0.004246 MPa (from Table 1)
Pw at tw₁ = 0.002339 MPa
162
Determining Partial Pressure of Water Vapor by Carrier's Equation:
(P-Pw) (td1 – tw1) (1.8)

Pv1= Pw-
2800 – 1.3 (1.8(td1)+32)
(0.098986) (10) (1.8)

Pv1= 0.002339 -
2800 – 1.3 (32)
Pv₁ = 0.001693065 MPa
Determining Specific Humidity of Air:
Pv
ω₁ = (0.622)
P - Pv
0.001693065
ω₁ = (0.622)
0.101325 – 0.001693065
ω₁ = 0.0105698 kgv / kgda
Determining the Specific Enthalpy of Air:
h₁ ≈ cpa(td₁) + ω₁(2500+1.88(td₁))
h₁ ≈ 1.005 (30) + 0.010569766 ( 2500 + 1.88 (30) )
163
kJ
h₁ ≈ 57.170549
kgda
Determining Specific Volume of Air:
RT1 (0.287) (303)

v1= =
P1 99.63193592
𝑚3
v1 = 0.872823
𝑘𝑔
Air Exit: (Given RH₂)
Determining Temperature of Air:
td₂ = twb - θ₁= 31.6075482 - 5.6 = 26.01 ⁰ C
Ps = 0.005091784 MPa
Determining Partial Pressure of Water Vapor:
Pv₂ = RH₂ × Ps
Pv₂ = (0.8) (0.005091784)
Pv₂ = 0.004073427 MPa
Determining Specific Humidity of Air:
Pv
ω₂ = (0.622)
P - Pv
164
0.004073427
ω₂ = (0.622)
0.101325 – 0.004073427
kgv
ω₂ = 0.02605276
kgda
165
SUPERHEATER
A Superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into dry steam.
Superheaters are used in steam engines or in processes, such as steam reforming. The function of a
Superheater is to increase the temperature of the steam above saturation by utilizing the heat from the
flue gas.
The main advantage of using Superheater is reducing fuel and water consumption. Although using
Superheater will result in increased maintenance costs, benefits outweighed the costs. This is the reason
why Superheaters are widely used.
Figure 5 - 19: Superheater
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheater)
166
DESIGN OF SUPERHEATER
Figure 5 - 20: Schematic Diagram of Superheater
Data:
Ws = 41.81721 kg/s cg = 1.04645 kJ/kg-K
Wg = 51.48774 kg/s Gs = 390.6 kg /m²-s
P₁ = P₂ = 9 MPa Pr₂⁰·³³ = 0.884
t s₁ = t sat = 311.06 ⁰ C k (material) = 39.7 kCal/hr-m-⁰ C
t s₂ = 430 ⁰ C
tga = 1050 ⁰ C
D₁ = 0.04 m REFERENCES:
D₂ = 0.05 m k - Table 9-1. Page 267
S₁ = 0.2 m Gs - Page 279
S₂ = 0.4 m Pr₂⁰·³³ - Page 280
Height = 1.75 m cg – page 280 by P.P.E., F.MORSE
167
Specific Enthalpies:
h₁ = 2742.882 kJ/kg (From Table 2 or 3)
h₂ = 3202.7 kJ/kg (From Table 3)
Solve for Heat Increase in Steam, Qs
Qs = ws(h₂ - h₁) = (41.81721 kg/s) ( 3202.7– 2742.882 )
Qs = 19228.31 kJ/s
Solve for Heat Loss in Gas (Final Temperature), Qg
Qg = wg (cg)(tga - tgb) = Qs= 19228.31 kJ/s
tgb = 1050 – 19228.31 kJ/s / (51.48774068) (1.04645)
tgb = 693.123 ⁰ C
θmax = tga - ts₂= 1050 - 430
θmax = 620 ⁰ C
θmin = tgb - ts₁= 693.122804 - 311.06
θmin = 382.063 ⁰ C
θmax − θmin
LMTD =
ln ( θmax / θmin)
620−382.062804
LMTD =
ln ( 570 062804)
LMTD = 491.4692 oC
168
Solve for Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer, Ut
ws ' = Gs ( ⅟₄ πD₁²) = (390.6) π(0.04²)(⅟₄)
ws ' = 0.490842 kg/s ; Ne = ws/ws' = 88.7091438 = 89
wg' = 2(ws') = 0.490842436 (2)
wg' = 0.981685 kg/s
wg′ 0.981684872
Gg = =
s₁ (h) (0.2)(1.75)
Gg = 2.804814 kg/m²- s
From Figure 9-6 Page 270; at P = 102.6400197 kg/cm²
tgm = 587.3566805n oC tsm = 405.53⁰ C
k₂ = 4.8 x (10¯²) k₁ = 5 x (10¯²)
µ₂ = 38 x (10¯⁷ ) µ₁ = 26 x (10¯⁷ )
h₁ = 3.7(10¯³ )(D₁¯⁰ ·²)(k₁)(Gs/µ₁)⁰ ·⁸
h₁ = 1125.087 kCal/hr-m²-⁰ C
h₂ = 0.0841(D₂¯⁰ ·⁴ )(k₂)(Gg/µ₂)⁰ ·⁶ [Pr₂⁰·³³]
h₂ = 3924405 kCal/hr-m²-⁰ C
Ut = k / t = 2k / (D₂-D₁)
Ut = 7940 kCal/hr-m²-⁰ C
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑈 h₁ 𝑈𝑡 h₂
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑈 1193.787122 7940 39.244046
Ut = 37.84469036 kCal/hr-m²- oC
169
Solve for Number of Tubes of Superheater, Nt
Qs = U(At)(LMTD)
19228.31 =0.052472451(A) 491.4692
At = 745.6129 m²
Ae = At/Ne = 745.6129 / 51
Ae = 8.669918 m²
Le = Ae / πD₂
Le = 8.669918 m² / (π) 0.05
Le = 55.19441 m
Nts = Le / h
Nts = 55.19441 / 1.75
Nts = 31.53966
Nts = = 32 tubes
Solve for Dimensions of Superheater:
Width, w = Ne(D₂) + (Ne+1)S₁
W = 86(0.05) + 87(0.2)
Width = 21.7 m
Length, L = Nt(D₂) + (Nt+1)S₂
= 32 (0.05) + 343(0.4)
Length = 14.8 m
170
ECONOMIZER
Economizers are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform useful
function such as preheating a fluid. In simple terms, an Economizer is a heat exchanger. It recovers more heat
of flue gases which normal air pre-heater cannot do.
A common application of Economizers in steam power plants is to capture the waste heat
from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer it to the boiler feedwater. This raises the temperature of the
boiler feedwater, lowering the needed energy input, in turn reducing the firing rates needed for the rated
boiler output.
Figure 5 - 21: Economizer
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economizer)
171
DESIGN OF ECONOMIZER
Figure 5 - 22: Schematic Diagram of Economizer
Ww 0.418172141 kg/s cg = 1.04645 kJ/kg-K
Wg 51.48774068 kg/s A= 1.22 kCal/hr-m²-⁰ C
∆p, assume: 3.81 cmw B= 0.00075 kCal/kg-⁰ C
t w₁ 20 ⁰C
t w₂ 100 ⁰C
tgb 693.1228039 - ⁰C
dₒ 0.03 m REFERENCES:
S 0.2 m A and B - Page 330 ∆p Assume Range:
∆p - Page 477 (Draft Loss) (1.27 - 3.81 cmw)
cg - Page 280
P.P.E., F. MORSE
Specific Enthalpies:
h₁ = hf = 83.96 kJ/kg (from Table 1 at tw₁)
172
h₂ = hf = 419.04 kJ/kg (from Table 1 at tw₂)
Solve for Heat Increase in Feedwater, Qw
Qw = ww (h₂ - h₁)
Qw = (0.41817) (419.04 - 83.96)
Qw = 140.1211 kJ/s
Solve for Heat Loss in Gas (Final Temperature), tgc
Qg = wg (cg) (tgb - tgc) = Qw= 251.68473 KJ/s
tgc = 693.12 – 140.1211209 (51.4877) (1.04645)
tgc = 690.52 ⁰ C
θmax = tgb - tw₂= 692.123 - 100
θmax = 593.12 oC
θmin = tgc - tw₁= 690.522 - 20
θmin = 670.52 oC
θmax − θmin
LMTD =
ln ( θmax / θmin)
670.52 − 593.123
LMTD = 670.522
ln593.123
LMTD = 631.0315591 oC
Solve for Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer, Ut
∆p = 5.55 x 10¯⁸ (G²)
G = √(∆p ) = √(1.5 )/5.55 x 10¯⁸5.55E − 08
G = 5198.75 kg/hr-m²
Ut= A + B(G)
173
Ut = 1.22 + 0.00075 (5198.75)
Ut = 5.119064 kCal/hr-m²-oC
Ut = 0.005953756 kW/m²-oC
Solve for Dimensions of Economizer
Qw = U(At)(LMTD)
140.1211209 = (.006) (At) (631.032)

At = 37.2959 𝑚2
EQUATION 1: CD, FREE AREA FOR GAS FLOW
CD - x(dₒ (D)) = Wg / G
EQUATION 2: x, NUMBER OF TUBES
x = 10C - 1
EQUATION 3: D, LENGTH OF ECONOMIZER
D = 3C
EQUATIONS 1, 2, AND 3:
(3-30dₒ) C² + (3dₒ)C = Wg / G = 51.48774068 / 1.444097903 = 35.65391m²
x= -b ± √ (b² - 4AC) (Quadratic Formula)
2A
C= - (3 dₒ) ± √[ (3dₒ)² - 4(3-30dₒ)(- 35.653913 ) / 2 (3-30dₒ)
C = 4.099071 and -4.14193
C = 4.0990671 m width
D = 4.099071 (3)
D = 12.29721 m length
x = 4.099071(10) -1
174
x = 39.099071
x = 40 tubes
H = x(dₒ) + (x+1) (S)
H = (40) (0.05) + (40 + 1 ) (0.2)
H = 9.4 m height
Heating Surface Area and Number of Rows:
HS = x (π)(dₒ) (D)
HS = (40)π (0.03) (12.2972)
HS = 43.3594 m²
y = At / HS = 37.29593 / 46.3594
y = 0.804496rows = 1 row
175
AIR-PREHEATER
An Air Pre-Heater is a general term used to describe any device designed to heat air before another
process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective of increasing the thermal efficiency
of the process.
The purpose of the Air Pre-Heater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases
the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a consequence, the
flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower temperature, allowing simplified
design of the conveyance system and the flue gas stack. It also allows control over the temperature of
gases leaving the stack.
Figure 5 - 23: Air Pre-Heater
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airpreheater)
176
AIR-PREHEATER
Figure 5 - 24: Schematic of Air Pre-Heater

Wa 47.33648071 kg/s cg = 1.04645 kJ/kg-K
Wg 51.48774068 kg/s A= 1.95 kCal/hr-m²-⁰ C
∆p, assume: 3.5 cmw B= 0.00045 kCal/kg-⁰ C
t db₁ 30 ⁰C
t wb₁ 20 ⁰C
t db₂ 40 ⁰C
tgc 690.5221576 - ⁰C REFERENCES:
dₒ 0.05 m A and B - Page 472 ∆p Assume Range:
Lt, assume: 3 m ∆p - Page 477 (Draft Loss) (2.54 - 5.08

cmw)
S₁ 0.2 m cg - Page 280
S₂ 0.4 m P.P.E., F. MORSE
Saturation Pressures:
Ps at tdb₁ = 0.004246 MPa (from Table 1)
Pw at twb₁ = 0.002339 MPa
177
Determining Partial Pressure of Water Vapor by Carrier's Equation, Pv
Pv = Pw - (P - Pw) (tdb₁-twb₁) (1.8)/ 2800 - 1.3 (1.8 (tdb₁) +32)
Pv = 0.002339 - (0.098986) (10) (1.8) /2800 - 1.3(86)
Pv = 0.001676197 MPa
Determining Specific Humidity of Air, ω₁
ω₁ = ω₂ = (0.622) Pv / P - Pv
ω₁ = ω₂ = (0.622) 0.001676197 / 0.101325 - 0.001676197
ω₁ = 0.010462688 kgv
Determining Specific Enthalpies of Air:
h₁ = cpa(tdb₁) + ω₁(2500+1.88(tdb₁))
h₁ = 1.005 (30) + 0.010462688( 2500 + 1.88 (30) )
h₁ = 56.89681481 kJ/ kgda
h₂ = cpa(tdb₂) + ω₂(2500+1.88(tdb₂))
h₂ = 1.005 (40) + 0.010462688( 2500 + 1.88 (40) )
h₂ = 67.14351334 kJ/ kgda
Solve for Heat Increased in Air, Qair
h₁ = 57.069 kJ/kg
h₂ = 67.324 kJ/kg
Qair = wa(h₂ - h₁) = (47.3365)( 67.324 – 57.069)
Qair = 485.4356 kJ/s
178
Solve for Heat Loss from Gas (Final Temperature), tgd
Qg = wg (cg)(tgc - tgd) = Qair = 485.4356097 KJ/s
tgd = 690.522 – 485.4356097(51.4877) (1.04675)
tgd = 681.512 ⁰ C
TgC
gas
TgD θMIN
Ta2 θMAX
air
Ta1
θmax = tgc - tdb₂= 690.522 oC - 40
θmax = 650.52 oC
θmin = tgd - tdb₁= 681.512 oC - 30
θmin = 651.51 oC
θmax − θmin
LMTD =
ln ( θmax / θmin)
651.512− 650.522
LMTD = 651.512
ln650.522
LMTD = 651.0172 oC
Solve for Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer, U
∆p = 5.55 x 10¯⁸ (G²)
G =√(∆p ) = √(1.377952756)5.55 x 10¯⁸
G = 4982.768 kg/hr-m²
179
U = A + B(G)
U = 1.95 + 0.00045 (4982.768)
U = 4.192246 kcal/hr-m²-⁰ C
U = 0.00488 kW/m²-oC
Qw = U(At)(LMTD)
485.43561 = (0.005) (At) (651.0172)
At = 152.9298 m²
HS = π (dₒ) (Lt)
HS = π (0.05) (3)
HS = 0.471239 m²
Nt = At / HS
Nt = 152.9298 m² / 0.471239
Nt = 324.52702
Nt = 325 Tubes
Desired Arrangement of Tubes:
Ntx = 17 tubes
Nty = 23 tubes
Dimensions of Air Preheater:
L = Ntx(dₒ) + (Ntx +1)(S₁)
L = (17) (0.05) + (18) (0.2)
L = 4.45 m
180
w = Nty(dₒ) + (Nty +1) (S₂)
w = (23) (0.046) + (24) (0.2)
w = 5.95m
181
STACK
A Stack is a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases
called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air. Flue gases are produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood
or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace, a power plant's steam-generating boiler, or other large
combustion device.
The flue gas stacks are often quite tall, up to 400 metres (1300 feet) or more, so as to disperse the
exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels
required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation.
Figure 5 - 25: Stack
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack)
182
Design of Stack
Figure 5 - 26: Dimensions of Stack
183
Given and Assumptions:
Wg 52.00260165 kg/s
Ds 2 cmw
ta 30 °C
tg 705.6358972 - °C
α 3 (3° - 5°) K Assume Range:
K 2.4 (2.7 for Chimneys; 2.4 for Steel Stacks)
(From Air pre-heater)
Wg = 52.00260165 kg/s
Wg = 55.19158318 kg/s
tg = tgd = 685.071553 - °C
Given Static Draft:
Ds = 2cmw
Mechanical Draft Equation:
Dm = 0.004 (V²) (dg) cmw
From Morse' PPE, page 495;
dg = 0.384482141 kg/m³
Dm = 0.004 (V²)(0.384482141)cmw
Dm = 0.001537929(V²) cmw
184
Available Draft per 30m of Stack/Chimney Equation:
D₃₀ = K(da-dg)-0.007578 (dg) √ (V⁵ /Qg)
; Qg = Wg /(dg)
; Qg =(52.00260165) / (0.384482141)
Qg =135.2536205 m3/s
da = 1.152 kg/m³
D₃₀ = (2.4) (1.152 -0.384482141) -0.007578(0.384482141) √( V⁵ )
= 135.2536205
D₃₀ = 1.842042861 -0.002913606 √ (V⁵ )
= 135.2536205
Height of Stack/Chimney Equation:
DS + DM
H = (30)
D30
2 + 0.001537929(V²)
H = (30)
1.842042861 -0.002913606√ (V⁵ ) - equation 3
FOR STACK TOP DIAMETER EQUATION:
D1 = 1.13 (Qg/Vg) 1/2
D1 = 1.13 (135.2536205/ Vg) 1/2 - equation 4
(From Morse’1 Powerplant Engineering, Vg = 6.1 - 15.24 m/s)
Substituting to equations 3, and 4,
185
Table 5 - 4: SUMMARY TABLE
Vg D₁ H D₁ x H
6.1 5.3209353 33.92861 180.531962
7.014 4.9621514 34.41459 170.770414
7.928 4.6673576 34.98899 163.306116
8.842 4.4195458 35.65818 157.59294
9.756 4.207431 36.42946 153.274426
10.67 4.0231913 37.31127 150.110393
11.584 3.8612117 38.31346 147.936368
12.498 3.717343 39.44752 146.639972
13.412 3.5884436 40.72705 146.146707
14.326 3.4720856 42.16811 146.4113
15.24 3.3663589 43.78991 147.412535
Graph:
200
180
160
140
120
H × D₁
100
80
60
40
20
0
6.1 7.014 7.928 8.842 9.756 10.67 11.584 12.498 13.412 14.326 15.24
Vg, m/s
Economic Choice at Vg = 13.412 m/s

D₁ = 3.58844357 m
H= 40.7270463 m
Corresponding Drafts:
Ds = 2 cmw
Dm = 0.27664527 cmw
D₃₀= 2.00708323 cmw
186
SOLVE FOR MECHANICAL DRAFT (DM):
DM = 0.004 (Vg)2 (dg)
DM = 0.004 (13.142)2 (.3844)

DM = 0.2655622234 𝐻2 𝑂
SOLVE FOR TOTAL DRAFT (DT):
DT = DS + DM
DT = 2 + 0.2655622234 𝐻2 𝑂
DT = 2.2655622234 cm 𝐻2 𝑂
SOLVE FOR DRAFT AT HEIGHT OF 30m, D30
(Using EQUATION 2)
D30 = 1.8026832 - 0.001603528[(Vg5)/ (75.5682)]1/2
D30 = 1.8026832 - 0.001603528[( [(13.142 5)/ 75.5628)]1/2
D30 = 1.471101598 cm 𝐻2 𝑂
SOLVE FOR DIAMETER OF STACK, D1
(Using Equation 4)
D1 = 1.13 (75.5628/ Vg) 1/2
D1 = 1.13 (75.5628/ 13.142) 1/2

D1 = 2.709578473 m
187
SOLVE FOR HEIGHT OF STACK, H
(Using Equation 3)
2 + 0.2655622234 (Vg)2
H = (30)
1.842042861 -0.002913606√ (V⁵ )
2 + 0.2655622234 (13.142)2
H = (30)
1.842042861 -0.002913606√ (⁵ )
2 + 0.2655622234 (13.142)2
H = (30) 1.842042861 -0.002913606√
(13.142⁵ )/135.422
H= 40. 7270463m
SOLVE FOR ALLOWANCE AT DIAMETER AT BOTTOM, X
X = H (tan ( α ) )
X = 40.7270463 m (tan (3 °))
X = 2.134414053 m
SOLVE FOR DIAMETER AT BOTTOM, D2
D2 = D1 + 2(X)
D2 = 2.709578473 m + 2(2.134414053 m)
D2 = 6.978406579 m
188
189
LOW PRESSURE HEATERS
Low pressure (LP) feedwater heaters are basically simple straightforward 'tube and shell' heat
exchangers, with the condensate passing through the tubes and the bled-steam being admitted to the shell.
This type of heater, arranged vertically, has been used for many decades, but two advances worthy of note
have been made in recent years and are now treated as modern practice. With the turbine exhaust being
connected to its underslung condenser by a large, deep, transition piece, a significant volume of unused
space exists between the exhausts of a double-flow cylinder and above the condenser tubenests. This space
can be effectively utilized by inserting one or two Low Pressure feedwater heaters in a horizontal attitude.
Figure 5 - 27: Low-Pressure Heater
190
DESIGN OF LOW PRESSURE HEATERS
H7' = 2590 kj/kg
H7a = 417.36 kj/kg
X7 = 9.2506729
k = 39.7 kCal/hr-m²-⁰C
T7' = 120.562535 °C
T10 = 105.633156 °C
T7a at P7 = 99.63°C
T9 =60.06°C
Us (4880-19530)= 19530 kCal/hr-m²-⁰C
Vw = 2.4 m/s
thickness = 0.005 m
D0 = 0.05m
Di = 0.04m
Solve for temperature at P7’, t7’
h' t'
2572.7 50
2590 t7'
2583.2 55
by: Interpolation ;
t7' = f - (c-b) (f-d)
c-a
t7' = 58.23809524 kJ/kg
191
Solve for Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD);
Qmax = t7' - t10 = 120.562535 - 105.633156
Qmax = 14.929379 °C
Qmin = t7a - t9 = 99.63 - 60.06
Qmin = 39.57 °C
θmax − θmin
LMTD = ln ( θmax / θmin)
14.929379 − 39.57
LMTD = ln ( 14.929379 ÷ 39.57)
LMTD = 25.27916671 ℃
Solve for Thickness of Tube, (t)

𝐷
t = 𝐷𝑜
𝑖
𝑈𝑠𝑒: 𝐷𝑜 = 0.05 𝑚
𝐷𝑖 = 0.045 m
𝐷𝑜 −𝐷𝑖
t= 2
.05−.045
t= 2
t = .0025 m
192
Solve for Thermal Conductivity of Tube, (𝑼𝒕 )
𝑈𝑡 =Centipoise
From Table 9-1: Conductivities of Some Common Materials
Page 267 of Power Plant Engineering by Frederick T. Morse
39.7
k = 39.7
ℎ𝑟− 𝑚2 −℃
𝑘
𝑈𝑡 =
𝑡
39.7
=
.0025
39.7 kcal
𝑈𝑡 = 15880
ℎ𝑟− 𝑚2 −℃
Solve for Mean Water Temperature:

𝑇10+ 𝑇9
t= 2
105.633156 ℃−60.06 ℃
t= 2
t = 82.846578℃
Solve for Centipoise, J
Use: Centipoise = 0.3

1 1
J = Centipoise = .03
J = 4.347826087
193
Solve for Value of b:
Using Equation 9-21 of PPE by FT Morse, page 276
Dw = 𝐷𝑖 =0.05m
𝐽0.24
b = 1379.7 x 𝐷𝑤.27
4.347826087.24
b = 1379.7 x .05.27
b = 4408.06594
Solve for Conductivity of Water (𝑼𝒘 );
- Using Equation 9-20 of PPE by FT Morse, page 276

Use, v – 2.4 m/s
𝑈𝑤 = b 𝑣0.72
𝑈𝑤 = (4408.06594) (2.40.72 )
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑈𝑤 =8352.226994
𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
Solve for Conductivity of Scale on Water, (𝑼𝒔 )
- From page 276 0f PPE by FT Morse

Use:
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑈𝑠 = 19530 𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
Solve for Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer, (U)

1 1 1 1
=𝑈+𝑈 +𝑈
𝑈 𝑠 𝑡 𝑤
1 1 1 1
= 19530+ 7940 + 8352.226994
𝑈
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
U = 3368.405076 𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
194
Solve for Heat at High Pressure Heater, (Q)
Q = 𝑥5 (ℎ5 ′ − ℎ5𝑎 )
Q = 4.8547913 kg/s (3122.9071 – 1122.143) KJ/kg

𝐾𝐽
Q = 8351528.953 𝑠
Solve for Total Heat Surface area of Tubes, (A)
Q = U(A)(LMTD)
𝑄
A=
𝑈(𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷)
𝐾𝐽 3600 𝑠
17280672.34 ( )
A= 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑠 4.18
3368.405076 (25.27916671 ℃)
𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
A = 202.9427628 𝑚2
Solve for Water mass flow rate, (Ww)

𝑄𝑤
Ww = 𝐶𝑤(𝑡10−𝑡9)
20098.38917
Ww = 4.187(105.633156−60.06)
Ww = 105.3292592 kg/s
195
Solve for Area of Shell, (𝑨𝒔 )
𝜋 𝐷𝑜 2 𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑡 = 4 ( )
4
𝜋 (.0025 𝑚)2 (46 )

𝐴𝑡 = 4 ( )
4
𝐴𝑡 = .090320789 𝑚2
𝐴𝑠 = .361283155 𝑚2
Solve for Diameter of Shell, (𝑫𝒔 )
𝜋 𝐷𝑠 2
𝐴𝑠 =
4
4 (𝐴𝑠 )
𝐷𝑠 =√ 𝜋
4 (.090320789 𝑚2 )
𝐷𝑠 =√ 𝜋
𝐷𝑠 = 0.339116499 m
Solve for Design Stress, (Sd)
Using Tables of Design of Machine Elements (4th Edition) by VM Faires, page 576
Use:
AISI No. 8760
Sy = 250,000 psi
As prescribed by Philippine Mechanical Code
FS = 3
𝑆𝑦
Sd = 𝐹𝑆
250,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Sd = 5
Sd = 57.44047619 MPA
196
Solve for Thickness of Shell, (t)
- Using Equation of Design of Machine Elements (4th Edition) by VM Faires, page 35
𝑃5 (𝐷𝑠 )
t=
2 𝑆𝑑
14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(4.5 𝑚𝑝𝑎 𝑥 )(.339116499 𝑥 3.28 𝑥 12)
.101325 𝑚𝑝𝑎
t=
2 (57.44047619 𝑀𝑃𝐴)
t = 0.00590379 in
t = 0.2324267 m
197
HIGH PRESSURE HEATER
Current High Pressure heaters and associated systems use welded joints wherever practicable, as
bolted joints have proved difficult to maintain leak-free when subjected to thermal cycling. It is now
accepted that to maintain heater internals, the heater shell has to be cut off and likewise any defective
valves, etc., have to be cut from the pipework. The subsequent re-welding of the heater shell has proved
to be less difficult than the reassembly of complicated bolted joints, which require special techniques to
ensure precise bolt tensioning and thereafter periodic checking and possible tensioning to allow for gasket
relaxation. As the high-pressure feedwater heaters are on the discharge side of the feed pumps, the
feedwater within the water headers and the tubes is at boiler pressure plus the pressure rise between the
heater and the boiler. To contain this high pressure, various designs of water header have been used in
the past, but virtually all current 660 MW units employ hemispherical-headed heaters with a flat
tubeplate. The tubes are welded onto the back of the tubeplate by the 'Foster Wheeler fusion welding
process' illustrated. This method of tube attachment has been used for many years and, once initial
difficulties with the quality of welds were overcome, it has proved a cost-effective method of tube
attachment.
Figure 5 - 28: High-Pressure Heater
198
DESIGN OF HIGH PRESSURE HEATER
Pressure at Point 5: 𝑃5 = 5.5 mpa
𝑋5 = 4.8547913 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
ℎ5 ′ = 3122.9071 KJ/kg
ℎ5𝑎 = 1122.143 KJ/kg
𝑡5 ’ = 663.36791 ℃
𝑡5𝑎 = 257.48 ℃
𝑡11 = 150.15 ℃
𝑡12 = 202.33 ℃
Velocity of Water: Vw = 2.4 m/s
Solve for Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD);
𝑡5 ’ = 663.36791 ℃
𝑡5𝑎 = 257.48 ℃
𝑡11 = 150.15 ℃
𝑡12 = 202.33 ℃
θ max = 𝑡5 ’- 𝑡12
θ max = 663.36791 ℃ - 150.15 ℃
θ max = 461.003791 ℃
θmin = 𝑡5𝑎 - 𝑡11
θmin= 257.48 ℃ - 150.15 ℃
θmin= 107.33 ℃
199
θmax − θmin
LMTD = ln ( θmax / θmin)
461.003791 − 107.33
LMTD = ln ( 461.003791 ÷ 107.33)
LMTD = 242.6692419 ℃
Solve for Thickness of Tube, (t)

𝐷
t = 𝐷𝑜
𝑖
𝑈𝑠𝑒: 𝐷𝑜 = 0.05 𝑚
𝐷𝑖 = 0.045 m
𝐷𝑜 −𝐷𝑖
t= 2
.05−.045
t= 2
t = .0025 m
Solve for Thermal Conductivity of Tube, (𝑼𝒕 )
𝑈𝑡 =Centipoise
From Table 9-1: Conductivities of Some Common Materials
Page 267 of Power Plant Engineering by Frederick T. Morse

39.7
k = 39.7 ℎ𝑟− 𝑚2 −℃
𝑘
𝑈𝑡 = 𝑡
39.7
= .0025
39.7 kcal
𝑈𝑡 = 15880 ℎ𝑟− 𝑚2 −℃
200
Solve for Mean Water Temperature:
𝑇11+ 𝑇12
t= 2
202.33 ℃−150.15 ℃
t= 2
t = 176.24 ℃
Solve for Centipoise, J
Use: Centipoise = 0.3

1 1
J = Centipoise = .03
J = 2.804289956w
Solve for Value of b:
Using Equation 9-21 of PPE by FT Morse, page 276
Dw = 𝐷𝑖 = .05 m
𝐽0.24
b = 1379.7 x 𝐷𝑤.27
2.804289956.24
b = 1379.7 x .05.27
b = 3967.713116
Solve for Conductivity of Water (𝑼𝒘 );
- Using Equation 9-20 of PPE by FT Morse, page 276

Use, v – 2.4 m/s
𝑈𝑤 = b 𝑣0.72
𝑈𝑤 = (3967.713116) (2.40.72 )
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑈𝑤 = 7517.846079
𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
201
Solve for Conductivity of Scale on Water, (𝑼𝒔 )
- From page 276 0f PPE by FT Morse

Use:
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑈𝑠 = 19530 𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
Solve for Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer, (U)

1 1 1 1
=𝑈+𝑈 +𝑈
𝑈 𝑠 𝑡 𝑤
1 1 1 1
= 19530+ 7940 + 7518
𝑈
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
U = 3224.096996 𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
Solve for Heat at High Pressure Heater, (Q)
Q = 𝑥5 (ℎ5 ′ − ℎ5𝑎 )
Q = 4.8547913 kg/s (3122.9071 – 1122.143) KJ/kg

𝐾𝐽
Q = 8351528.953 𝑠
Solve for Total Heat Surface area of Tubes, (A)
Q = U(A)(LMTD)
𝑄
A = 𝑈(𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷)
𝐾𝐽 3600 𝑠
8351525.953
( )
A= 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑠 4.18
3229.096996 (24.6692419)
𝐻𝑅−𝑚2 −℃
A = 10.67439228𝑚2
Solve for Water mass flow rate, (Ww)

𝑄𝑤
Ww = 𝐶𝑤(𝑡10−𝑡9)
20098.38917
Ww = 4.187(105.633156−60.06)
Ww = 105.3292592 kg/s
202
Solve for Number of Tubes, (𝑵𝒕 )
A = 𝜋𝐷𝑜 x 𝐿𝑡 x 𝑁𝑡
4𝑊𝑤
𝑁𝑡 =
𝜋𝐷𝑜 (Uw)(pw)
𝑁𝑡 = 9.434486856
𝑁𝑡 = 10 𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
Solve for Area of Shell, (𝑨𝒔 )

𝜋 𝐷𝑜 2 𝑁𝑡
𝐴𝑡 = 4 ( )
4
𝜋 (.0025 𝑚)2 (20 )

𝐴𝑡 = 4 ( )
4
𝐴𝑡 = .039269903 𝑚2
𝐴𝑠 = .157079633 in
Solve for Diameter of Shell, (𝑫𝒔 )
𝜋 𝐷𝑠 2
𝐴𝑠 =
4
4 (𝐴𝑠 )
𝐷𝑠 =√ 𝜋
4 (.039269903 𝑚2 )
𝐷𝑠 =√ 𝜋
𝐷𝑠 = 0.447213595 m
203
Solve for Design Stress, (Sd)
Using Tables of Design of Machine Elements (4th Edition) by VM Faires, page 576
Use:
AISI No. 8760
Sy = 200,000 psi
As prescribed by Philippine Mechanical Code
FS = 3
𝑆𝑦
Sd = 𝐹𝑆
250,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Sd = 3
Sd = 57.4404762 MPA
Solve for Thickness of Shell, (t)
- Using Equation of Design of Machine Elements (4th Edition) by VM Faires, page 35
𝑃5 (𝐷𝑠 )
t=
2 𝑆𝑑
14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(2 𝑚𝑝𝑎 𝑥 )(.4472136 𝑥 3.28 𝑥 12)
.101325 𝑚𝑝𝑎
t=
2 (57.4404762 𝑀𝑃𝐴)
t = 0.007785687 m
t = 0.306523129 in
204
PIPING
Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids (liquids and gases) from one
location to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the efficient transport of fluid. Industrial
process piping (and accompanying in-line components) can be manufactured
from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel, aluminum, plastic, copper, and concrete. The in-line components, known
as fittings,[3] valves, and other devices, typically sense and control the pressure, flow rate and temperature of
the transmitted fluid, and usually are included in the field of piping design (or piping engineering). Piping
systems are documented in piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can be cleaned
by the tube cleaning process.
Piping sometimes refers to piping design, the detailed specification of the physical piping layout
within a process plant or commercial building. In earlier days, this was sometimes called drafting, technical
drawing, engineering drawing, and design, but is today commonly performed by designers that have learned
to use automated computer-aided drawing or computer-aided design (CAD) software.
Plumbing is a piping system with which most people are familiar, as it constitutes the form of fluid
transportation that is used to provide potable water and fuels to their homes and businesses. Plumbing pipes
also remove waste in the form of sewage, and allow venting of sewage gases to the outdoors. Fire
sprinkler systems also use piping, and may transport non-potable or potable water, or other fire-suppression
fluids.
205
Piping also has many other industrial applications, which are crucial for moving raw and semi-processed
fluids for refining into more useful products. Some of the more exotic materials used in pipe construction
are Inconel, titanium, chrome-moly and various other steel alloys
Figure 5 - 29: Piping
206
DESIGN OF PIPING
Pipe 1: Boiler to Superheater;
Mass flow
Ws = 41.81721 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = high-pressure saturated steam
V= 1219 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = volume at P1 and h1
Np = 1 v = 32.11x10-3m3/kg
Solve for Volume Flowrate (Q);
Q = ws (v)
Q = 41.81721 x 32.11x10-3
Q = 80.56503679 m3/s
Solve for Diameter of Pipe (D);

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(80.56503679)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(1829)
D = 0.2368217093 m = 236.8217093 mm
From, page 665, PPE by Morse
Using schedule No. 80 (Nominal size of pipe, mm)
Di = inside diameter Wp = Weight of pipe Tw = Wall thickness
Di = 254 mm Wp = 42.56 kg/mm Tw = 10.97mm
207
From, page 598, PPE by Morse (Table 14.15)
Trade standards for 85% Magnesia sectional pipe insulation
Di = inside diameter Ts = Standard thickness
Di = 254 mm Ts = 32 mm
Pipe 2: Superheater to High Pressure Turbine;
Mass flow
Ws = 41.81721 kg/s
V= 4000 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = volume at P2 and t2
Np = 1 v = 32.11x10-3 m3/kg
Q = ws (v)
Q = 41.81721 x 32.11x10-3 x 60
Q = 80.56503679 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(80.56503679)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(4000)
D = 0.16010394633 m = 160.1394633 mm
208
Di = 203.2 mm Wp = 64.59 kg/mm Tw = 12.70 mm
Di = 203.2 mm Ts = 32 mm
Pipe 3: High Pressure turbine to Steam Re-heater;
Mass flow
Ws = 2509.0326 kg/min
V= 4200 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = volume at P3 and h3’
Np = 1
By interpolation;
H V
3114.5 42.44
3115.934 V3
3167.7 43.38
Solve;
3114.5 − 3115.934 42.44 − 𝑋
= 42.44 − 43.48 V3 = 0.0424653375
3114.5 − 3167.7
209
Q = ws (v)
Q = 2509.0326 x 0.0424653375
Q = 106.5469162 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(106.5469162)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(4200)
D = 0.17972184 m = 179.72184 mm
Di = 203.2 mm Wp = 64.59 kg/mm Tw = 12.70 mm
Di = 203.2 mm Ts = 32 mm
Pipe 4 Steam Re-heater to low pressure turbine;
Mas flow
Ws = 25.037278 kg/s
210
V= 4000 m/min
Np = no. of pipses v = volume at P4 and h4’
Np = 1 v = 46.10x10-3 m3/kg
Q = ws (v)
Q = 2509.0326 x 46.10x10-3
Q = 115.6664029 m3/min

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(115.6664029)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(4000)
D = 0.1918795444 m = 191.8795444 mm
Di = 203.2 mm Wp = 64.59 kg/mm Tw = 12.70 mm
Di = 203.2 mm Ts = 32 mm
Pipe 5 Low pressure turbine to High Pressure heater;

211
Mass flow
X5 =4.8547913 kg/s x 60
X5 = 291.287478 kg/min
V= 3800 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = volume at P5 and T5
Np = 1
By interpolation;
H V
3061.1 59.71
3122.9071 V3
3113.1 60.99
Solve;
3061.1 − 3122.9071 59.71 − 𝑋
= 59.71 − 60.99 V3 = 0.06056709514 m3/kg
3061.1 − 3113.1
Q = ws (v)
Q = 291.287478 x 0.06056709514
Q = 17.64243639 m3/s
212
(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(17.64243639)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(3800)
D = 0.0681377018 m, 68.13770189 mm
Di = 76.2 mm Wp = 15.33 kg/mm Tw = 7.62 mm
Di = 76.2 mm Ts = 26 mm
Pipe 6 Low pressure turbine to Deaerator;
Mass flow
X6 = 2.0044202 kg/s x 60
X6 = 120.0463212 kg/min
V= 3500 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = volume at P6 and H6’
Np = 1
By interpolation;
213
H V
2959.3 94.32
2980.3483 V6
2984.3 96.63
Solve;
2959.3 − 2980.3483 94.32 − 𝑋
= 94.32 − 96.63 V6 = 96.26486292x10-3 m3/kg
2959.3 − 2984.3
Q = ws (v)
Q = 2.0044202 x 96.26486292x10-3 x 60
Q = 11.55624265 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(11.55624265)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(3500)
D = 0.0648379631 m, 64.8379631 mm
Di = 76.2 mm Wp = 15.33 kg/mm Tw = 7.62 mm
214
Di = 76.2 mm Ts = 26 mm
Pipe 7 Low pressure turbine to Low pressure reheater;
Mass flow
X7 = 3.4036141 kg/s
V= 4572 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = volume at P7 and H7’
Np = 1
By interpolation;
H V
2658.9 333.1
2668.37 V7
2671.7 339.1
Solve;
2658.9 − 2668.37 333.1 − 𝑋
= 333.1− 339.1 V7 = 0.3375390625 m3/kg
2658.9 − 2671.7
Q = ws (v)
Q = 3.4036141 x 0.3375390625 x 60
Q = 68.93116275 m3/s
215
(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(68.9311625)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(4572)
D = 0.1696896603 m = 169.6896603 mm
Di = 203.2 mm Wp = 64.59 kg/mm Tw = 12.70 mm
Di = 203.2 mm Ts = 32 mm
Pipe 8 Low pressure turbine to Condenser;
Mass flow
Ws – X7 – X6 – X5 = 31.5543884 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = high-vacuum exhaust steam
V= 7315 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = volume at P8
Np = 1 v = 0.0010102 m3/kg
Q = ws (v)
216
Q = 31.5543884 x 0.0010102
Q = 1.91257459 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(1.91257459)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(7315)
D = 0.0182455552 m = 18.2455552 mm
Di = 19.1 mm Wp = 3.91 kg/mm Tw = 2.20 mm
Di = 19.1 mm Ts = 22 mm
Pipe 8 Condenser to Condenser Pump;
Mass flow
Ws – X7 – X6 – X5 = 31.5543884 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = pump line suction
V= 152 m/min

217
Np = 1 v = 0.0010102 m3/kg
Q = ws (v)
Q = 31.5543884 x 0.0010102
Q = 1.91257459 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(1.91257459)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(152)
D = 0.1266782974 m = 126.6782974 mm
Di = 127 mm Wp = 30.05 kg/mm Tw = 9.55 mm
Di = 127 mm Ts = 29 mm
Pipe 9 Condenser Pump to LP Heater;
Mass flow
Ws – X7 – X6 – X5 = 31.5543884 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = pump line discharge

218
V= 183 m/min
Np = 1 v = 0.0010102 m3/kg
Q = ws (v)
Q = 31.5543884 x 0.0010102
Q = 1.91257459 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q =𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(1.91257459)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(183)
D = 0.1153556061 m = 115.3556061 mm
Di = 127 mm Wp = 30.05 kg/mm Tw = 9.55 mm
Di = 127 mm Ts = 29 mm
Pipe 10 Low pressure Heater to Deaerator;
Mass flow
219
Ws – X7 – X6 – X5 = 31.5543884 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = plant water service
V= 183 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = vf at [email protected]°C
Np = 1
By interpolation;
T V
96.71 1.0410
97.98 V10
98.20 1.0421
Solve;
96.71 − 97.98 1.0410 − 𝑋
= 1.0410− 1.0421 V10 = 0.001041937511 m3/kg
96.71 − 98.20
Q = ws (v)
Q = 31.5543884 x 0.001041937511 x 60
Q = 1.972662055 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(1.972662055)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(183)
D = 0.1171536597 m, 117.1539597 mm
220
Di = 127 mm Wp = 30.05 kg/mm Tw = 9.55 mm
Di = 127 mm Ts = 29 mm
Pipe 11 Deaerator to High Pressure Heater
Mass flow
Ws + Wm = 42.6535542 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = plant water service
V= 183 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = vf at T11@ 150.15 °C
Np = 1
By interpolation;
T V
149.54 1.0900
150.15 V11
150.32 1.0917
Solve;
149.54 − 150.15 1.0900 − 𝑋
= 1.0900− 1.0917 V11 = 0.001091329261 m3/kg
149.54 − 150.32
221
Q = ws (v)
Q = 42.6535542 x 0.001091329261 x 60
Q = 2.7929452 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(2.7929452)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(183)
D = 0.1393993413 m, 139.3993413 mm
Di = 153.4 mm Wp = 28.28 kg/mm Tw = 7.11 mm
Di = 153.4 mm Ts = 29 mm
Pipe 12 High Pressure Heater to Boiler ;
Mass flow
Ws + Wm = 42.6535542 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = Boiler feed line
V= 183 m/min
222
Np = 1
By interpolation;
T V
201.33 1.1587
202.33 V12
202.89 1.1610
Solve;
201.33 − 202.33 1.1587 − 𝑋
= 1.1587− 1.1610 V12 = 0.00160129193 m3/kg
201.33 − 202.89
Q = ws (v)
Q = 42.6535545 x 0.00160129193 x 60
Q = 0.06830076573 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋
4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(0.06830076573)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(183)
D = 0.0217992875 m, 21.79928758 mm
223
Di = 25.4 mm Wp = 3.24 kg/mm Tw = 4.55 mm
Di = 25.4 mm Ts = 22 mm
Pipe 13 Deaerator to Economizer;
Mass flow
Ww = 0.418172 kg/s
Assuming the flow velocity for = general water flow
V= 100 m/min
Np = no. of pipes v = vf at Twacondenser @ 20°C
Np = 1 v = 0.0010018 m3/kg
Q = ws (v)
Q = 0.418172 x 0.0010018
Q = 0.02513548258 m3/s
(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(0.02513548258)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(100)
224
D = 0.0178895193 m = 17.8895193 mm
Di = 19.1 mm Wp = 2.20 kg/mm Tw = 3.91 mm
Di = 19.1 mm Ts = 22 mm
Pipe 14 Condenser to Heat exchanger ;
Mass flow
Ww = 2825.719092 kg/s
V= 152 m/min
Np = 1
By interpolation;
Twa’ Vg
36.16 1.0064
37.21 Vg
37.63 1.0069
225
Solve;
36.16 − 37.21 1.0064 − 𝑋
= 1.0064− 1.0069 V14 = 0.001006787143 m3/kg
36.16 − 37.63
Q = Ww (v)
Q = 2825.719092 x 0.00100657143 x 60
Q = 170.6887728 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(170.6887728)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(152)
D = 1.195737208 m, 1195.737208 mm
Dpa = Actual Pipe Diameter

𝐷𝑝 1195.737208
Dpa = 𝑁𝑝 = 2
Dpa = 597.8686038 mm
Di = 609.6 mm Wp = 441.99 kg/mm Tw = 30.97 mm
Di = 609.6 mm Ts = 38 mm
226
Pipe 15 Condenser to Heat exchanger
Mass flow
Ww = 2825.719092 kg/s
V= 152 m/min
Np = 1
By interpolation;
Twb’ V
42.67 1.0089
42.81 V15
43.76 1.0094
Solve;
42.67 − 42.81 1.0089 − 𝑋
= 1.0089− 1.0094 V15 = 0.001008826316 m3/kg
42.67 − 43.76
Q = ws (v)
Q = 2825.719096 x 0.001008826316 x 60
Q = 171.0395869 m3/s
227
(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(171.0395869)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(152)
D = 1.1969367 m, = 1196.965367 mm

𝐷𝑝 1196.965367
Dpa = 𝑁𝑝 = 2
Dpa = 598.4823836 mm
Di = 609.6 mm Wp = 441.99 kg/mm Tw = 30.97 mm
Di = 609.6 mm Ts = 38 mm
Pipe 16 Heat Exchanger to Condenser;
Mass flow
Ww = 2109.870236 kg/s
V= 152 m/min
228
Np = 1
By interpolation;
T Vf
30.62 1.0045
31.30 V11
31.40 1.0048
Solve;
30.62 − 31.30 1.0045 − 𝑋
= 1.0045− 1.0048 V16 = 0.001004761538 m3/kg
30.62 − 31.40
Q = Ww (v)
Q = 2109.870236 x 0.001004761538 x 60
Q = 127.194878 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋
4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(127.1949878)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(100)
D = 1.272594548 m, 1272.594548 mm

𝐷𝑝 1272.594548
Dpa = 𝑁𝑝 = 2
Dpa = 636.297274 mm
229
Di = 609.6 mm Wp = 441.99 kg/mm Tw = 30.97 mm
Di = 609.6 mm Ts = 38 mm
Pipe 17 Cooling tower to Heat Exchanger;
Mass flow
Ww = 2109.870256 kg/s
V= 100 m/min
Np = 1
By interpolation;
T Vf
23.52 1.0026
23.80 V12
24.08 1.0027
Solve;
230
23.52 − 23.80 1.0026 − 𝑋
= V12 = 0.00100265 m3/kg
23.52 − 24.08 1.0026− 1.0027
Q = Ww (v)
Q = 2109.870236 x 0.00100265 x 60
Q = 126.9276835 m3/s

(𝐷𝑝)2
Q=𝜋 4
4(𝑄)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(𝑉)
4(126.9276835)(60)
D=√ 𝜋(100)
D = 1.271256644 m, 1271.256644 mm

𝐷𝑝 1271.256644
Dpa = 𝑁𝑝 = 2
Dpa = 635.628322 mm
Di = 609.6 mm Wp = 441.99 kg/mm Tw = 30.97 mm
Di = 609.6 mm Ts = 38 mm
231
REFERENCES
 Fredericks T. Morse, (1953) Power Plant Engineering in MKS Units

 Virgil Moring Faires, Design of Machine Elements (fourth edition)
 Steam Tables Thermodynamic Properties of Water Including Vapor Liquid and Solid Phases
 Otto, K. N. and Antonsson, E. K., (1991). Trade-off strategies in engineering design. Research in
Engineering Design
 Rick Tidball, Joel Bluestein, Nick Rodriguez, and Stu Knoke ICF International Fairfax, Virginia, Cost
and Performance Assumptions for Modeling Electricity Generation Technologies
 Technology_Information_Sheets.pdf
 U.S. Energy Information Administration (https://www.eia.gov/)
 DOE | Department of Energy Portal (https://www.doe.gov.ph/)
 Google Maps (https://www.google.com.ph/maps)
 http://davao.islandsphilippines.com/davao_geography_topography.php
 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/natural-gas-really-better-coal-180949739/
 https://asiafoundation.org/2015/03/18/energy-crisis-in-the-philippines-an-electricity-or-
presidential-power-shortage/
 https://asiafoundation.org/2015/03/18/energy-crisis-in-the-philippines-an-electricity-or-
presidential-power-shortage/
232

Design of 38 Mega Watts Steam Power Plant in Majayjay Laguna

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Design of 38 Mega Watts Steam Power Plant in Majayjay Laguna

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CHAPTER 1

1.1 The Project

Laguna, officially known as the Province of Laguna, is a province in the Philippines,

Fig 1.1.1 Coverage area of FLECO service in Laguna, Philippines

 To design a 38 MW Capacity steam power plant in Majayjay, Laguna.

1.4 The Client

The beneficiaries of this project are:

Selection of proposed location Computation

General Objectives Constraints

 Propose location sites for FINAL COMPLETION OF THE

2.2 Site Location

Majayjay, Laguna is a 4th class municipality in the province of Laguna, Philippines. It is

Fig 2.2.1 Satelite View of Majayjay, Laguna

Fig. 2.2.2 Google View of Majayjay

2.3.1 Natural Resources

Table 2.4.1 Population Census of Majayjay, Laguna from 1903 to 2015

Eighteen of the twenty-nine municipalities of Laguna belong to the coastal zone

Fig 1.3.1 Map of Laguna, Philippines

TOTAL LAND AREA 5 0 , 0 0 0 s q . m

MAIN POWER PLANT AREA 4 0 , 0 0 0 s q . m

2.7 Design Alternatives

The three alternatives are namely:

 Coal-Fired Steam Power plant

2.7.2 OIL-FIRED STEAM POWER PLANT

A boiler is a closed vessel in

2.9.4 Steam Reheater

A steam reheater is a steam boiler component in which heat is added to intermediate-

Economizers are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform

2.9.7 Air Preheater

2.10 Steam Power Plant Design Inputs

CONSTRAINTS AND TRADE-OFFS

3.1 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS AND TRADE-OFFS

Coal Fuel Analysis

A. SOLID FUEL COMBUSTION (CHONSA)

Air - Fuel Ratio, raf = 10.97773 AIR

Carbon Dioxide 44 CO₂

TOTAL: 11.94043 GAS

Gas - Fuel Ratio, rgf = 11.94043 GAS

Fuel + Air = Gas + Ash

Solve for complete combustion:

Cn Hm + a(O₂ + 3.76 N₂) → bCO₂ + cH₂O + a3.76N₂

[12(n) + m] + a[2(16) + 3.76(28)] → b[12 + 2(16)] + c(2 + 16) + a3.76(28)

167 + 2436.72 → 528 + 207 + 1868.72

Rated Air Fuel Rated Gas Fuel

H₂O: 1.239520958 1.239520958

N₂: 11.18994012 11.18994012

Natural Gas Fuel Analysis

(12(1)+1(4)) + 2(16(2)+3.76(28)) → 1(12+16(2))+2((1)2+16)+ 2(3.76(28))

Gas analysis for natural gas (Methane):

CO₂: 2.75 2.75

H₂O: 2.25 2.25

N₂: 13.16 13.16

Natural Gas 15.1432%

Table 3.1.1 Summary of Percent Carbon Emission

Figure 3.1.2 Sustainability of Renewable Energy Sources

Figure 3.2.1.1 Diagram of Coal Fired Power Plant

 Coal is easy to burn

 Coal produces high energy upon combustion

 Coal energy is a reliable energy source