Journal of Manufacturing Processes 34 (2018) 313–328

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Post weld heat treatment of hypereutectoid hadfield steel: Characterization T

and control of microstructure, phase equilibrium, mechanical properties and
fracture mode of welding joint
⁎
Masoud Sabzia, , Saeid Mersagh Dezfulib
a
Department of Materials Engineering, Ahvaz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahvaz, Iran
b
Department of Materials Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, the effect of temperature and time of austempering process on microstructural evolutions, phase
Hypereutectoid hadfield steel equilibrium, mechanical properties and fracture mode of weld metal in Hadfield steel joints were evaluated. For
Austempering process this purpose, the austempering process was carried out at 500, 600 and 700 °C for 15 and 30 min on Hadfield
Microstructural evolutions steel weld joints, which were prepared using shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) method. Optical Microscope
Mechanical properties
(OM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) as well as energy
Fracture mode
Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray Diffraction spectroscopy (XRD) were used to evaluate microstructural
Welding joints
and phase evolutions of the weld metals. Mechanical properties of the weld joints were examined using tensile,
Charpy and Vickers microhardness tests. After tensile and Charpy tests, fracture mode of the fractured surfaces
was also determined by SEM. Results of the study showed that increasing the time and temperature of the
austempering process leads to the increased yield strength, tensile strength, microhardness, proeutectoid (Fe,
Mn)3C carbide content and reduction of austenite grain size, plastic deformation capability, fracture energy as
well as reduction of the ductile fracture tendency in the weld metal of Hadfield welding joints. According to the
results of this study, the most optimal austempering heat treatment cycle which yields the suitable combination
of microstructure, phase equilibrium, mechanical properties and fracture mode in the weld metal of Hadfield
welding joint relates to the 600 °C and 30 min cycle.

Introduction this steel, includes solution annealing or austenitizing at a temperature

of 950–1150 °C, and then directly quench in the water, resulting in the
Austenitic manganese steel containing 1–1.4 wt% carbon and formation of austenite structure with a small amount of carbide. But the
10–14 wt% manganese was developed by Robert Hadfield in 1882 main disadvantage of this microstructure is the low wear resistances in
[1,2]. Hadfield manganese austenitic steel has a good combination of slow slip wear conditions [11–13]. Over the past few decades, extensive
high toughness and work hardening and shows high resistance to research has been carried out on Hadfield austenitic manganese steel,
abrasion [3,4]. which can be stated to increase its mechanical properties (increasing
This steel with small modifications in its chemical composition or the relatively low yield stress), increasing the wear resistance, im-
heat treatment is widely used in various fields of industry. The most proving the machining properties and grain refining and micro-
common use of this steel is in impact-wearing conditions, which is used structural modification [12–14]. In this regard, the achievement of fine-
in drilling tools, crushing hammerers, mills, excavator nails, railway grained and homogeneous structure and its results on the mechanical
lines and etc. [5–7]. Chromium is also added to the composition of the and practical properties has always been considered by various re-
steel in the range of 1.5–2.5% to increase the yield strength of the searchers. In order to create such a structure, two main methods have
manganese steel [8,9]. Excellent wear resistance in terms of the impact- been proposed [13–16]:
wearing condition is one of the most prominent properties of this steel,
which has expanded its use in the industry [8–10]. Therefore, it is ne- - To create controlled conditions during solidification and the im-
cessary to perform the appropriate heat treatment to increase this portance of casting temperature.
mechanical property in the steel. The conventional heat treatment on - Use of nuclei materials (grain refiners) such as titanium during the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M. Sabzi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.06.009
Received 26 April 2018; Received in revised form 17 May 2018; Accepted 8 June 2018
Available online 19 June 2018
1526-6125/ © 2018 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli Journal of Manufacturing Processes 34 (2018) 313–328

casting process. Table 1

Chemical composition of the Hadfield steels used in this study (wt%).
Improvement of structural properties, especially reducing the size of Element C Mn Si P Fe
austenite grains by cold work, can also be achieved. But there are two
general limitations to this method. First, most austenitic manganese ASTM A-128 1–1.4 10–14 1 Max 0.07 Max Balance
Prepared Sheets 1.28 13.44 0.36 0.002 Balance
steels are used as casting and then heat treated state, and cold work is
only applicable to a limited number of materials [17–19]. Otherwise, if
the cold work is applied too much, the flexibility of the piece will be
heat treatment to modify the microstructure and improve the me-
greatly reduced. In this regard, grain boundary brittle fracture has been
chanical properties, which has not been considered in previous studies.
reported in cases where there has been a great deal of deformation
Therefore, it was decided to study the effect of temperature and time of
[18–120]. The use of elements such as boron, titanium and vanadium in
the austempering process on microstructural evolutions, phase equili-
this type of steel as a nucleus can also increase its wear resistance, by
brium, mechanical properties and fracture mode of weld metal in hy-
reducing the size of austenite grains and formation of stable carbides
pereutectoid Hadfield steel welding joints, which has not been ad-
[19–21].
dressed in previous researches. Also, in this research, a great deal of
Heat treatment of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel makes it possible to
efforts has been done to obtain the optimal austempering heat treat-
reliably use it in a wide range of engineering applications. The con-
ment cycle, which provides a suitable combination of microstructure,
ventional heat treatment of this steel is solution annealing and then
phase equilibrium, mechanical properties, fracture modes in the weld
rapid quenching in water [21–23]. Although the complete austenite
metal of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel welding joints.
structure and free from any carbide phase, is a desirable structure for
this steel, this structure especially in thick parts and Hadfield steels
containing carbidizing elements such as chromium, molybdenum, va- Materials and methods
nadium and titanium are not always available. However, if the carbide
phase is present in the microstructure, its dispersed and discrete mode The steel used in this study was hypereutectoid Hadfield steel
is more favourable than its continuous and boundary condition (ASTM A-128) which is one of the most widely used high-carbon steels.
[23–25]. First, a number of austenite hypereutectoid Hadfield steels were pre-
In alloys with Face Centered Cubic (FCC) structure and low stacking pared with 5 mm thickness. Then the chemical composition of them was
fault energy due to plastic deformation, twins arise [23–25]. This analyzed by spark emission spectrometer, model Foundry Master
phenomenon is called Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP). Hadfield Optimum (made in Germany) which is represented in Table 1.
austenitic manganese steels with austenite structure and random dis- All the samples were wrapped using a grinding machine with 35° to
tribution of manganese and carbon atoms have low stacking fault en- prepare the desired joint to be welded. Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the
ergy (about λ = 23 mJ / m2) [24–26]. Therefore, the low stacking fault prepared joint in this study. It should be noted that in order to butt weld
energy and high concentration of interstitial elements (1.2 wt% carbon the wrapped hypereutectoid Hadfield steel samples with the V-shaped
or 5–8 atomic percent) in this high carbon steel play a major role on the groove, AWS B2.1 [34] standard was used. The SMAW method was then
plastic deformation behaviour and its hardness [23–27]. Studies have used for welding the samples using manganese electrodes based on
shown that the major plastic deformation in hypereutectoid Hadfield AWS A5.13 code. In order to calculate the heat input of the welding
steels is based on twin formation [25,24–27]. Some references joint Eq. (1) was utilized [35]:
[7,16,28] indicate that this portion reaches 40% for Hadfield Steel. On
Q = η (60 VI / 1000 S) (1)
the other hand, the high work hardening rate in this steel is also related
to other phenomena known as Dynamic Strain Aging (DSA) [25,24–27]. In this equation, η is the constant coefficient which is equal to 0.75
It has been shown that the relative elongation and high rate of work for SMAW method. In addition, Q is the heat input into the weld joint
hardening of this steel are strongly influenced by the DSA and TWIP (kj/mm), V is the used voltage (V), I is the used current in the welding
phenomena [28–30]. However, the association of these phenomena process (A) and S is the welding rate (mm/min). The calculated heat
with the fracture mechanism and how it results in a very ductile frac- input according to Eq. (1) and all of the welding parameters used in this
ture and without necking is not properly described. study are reported in Table 2. It should be noted that after the end of
The most commonly used method for welding Hypereutectoid the SMAW process, the welded hypereutectoid Hadfield samples were
Hadfield steel is the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), and for the also cooled in air. The chemical composition of the electrodes used in
welding of these steels, suitable electrodes containing high Ni and Mn this study was also evaluated by the spark emission spectrometer of
are available. Because of the sensitivity of Hadfield steel to heat (due to Germany and reported in Table 3.
the amount of carbon and high amounts of carbidizing elements in the After the welding process, in order to compare the microstructure
chemical composition of this steel), many studies have been carried out and mechanical properties of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel welding
on the properties of welding joints, weldability and its weldability with joints at different welding and heat treatment conditions, one of the
different electrodes [31]. Curiel-Reyna et al. [32] studied the effect of joint weld was kept in the as welded condition and the remaining joints
cooling rate on microstructural evolutions and Hardenability of heat were also prepared for the austempering heat treatment. At this stage,
affected zone (HAZ) in weld joints of Hadfield manganese steels. They
reported that by the reduction of cooling rate after welding process, the
amount of microhardness of the HAZ increase. In another study, Na-
sajpour et al [33] investigated the effect of molybdenum on mechanical
properties and wear behaviour of the Hadfield manganese steel coating
produced by flux-cored gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). They found
that increasing the molybdenum content in the Hadfield manganese
steel coating resulted in improved mechanical properties and wear re-
sistance of the coating obtained by the used welding method.
According to the contents presented in this section, hypereutectoid
Hadfield steel has a high sensitivity to heat during the welding process
(given the high carbon content of this steel). Therefore, welding joints
of this steel after welding process require an additional supplementary Fig. 1. Schematic of the weld joint used in this study.

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Table 2 monochromator (single crystalline graphite) was also used. Phase

Parameters of SMAW process used for the welding of hypereutectoid Hadfield analyses of the weld metal joints after XRD analysis were completed
steel samples. using Xpert Highscore software. X-ray diffraction measurements were
Number of Interpass Q (kJ/ V (V) I (A) S (mm/ Welding performed in the range of 10 to 100° for the 2θ axis, and the interval
passes temperatures (⁰C) mm) min) Process between each measurement step was 0.02 degrees and the rest time was
3 s per degree. After finishing the welding and austempering processes,
2 1000 9 20 200 20 SMAW
the samples required for the uniaxial tensile test were prepared by a
CNC machine according to ASME Sec IX [36]. Standard specimens for
Table 3
the Charpy impact test were prepared by CNC machine according to
Chemical composition of the used electrodes in this study (wt%). AWS B4.0 [37]. The uniaxial tensile test was performed by a SANTAM
400-ASTM machine at 25 °C with a strain rate of 10−3 s−1. Charpy
Element C Mn Si Ni P Fe
impact test was also carried out by SANTAM machine with a capacity of
Amount 0.67 12.70 0.96 3.88 0.002 Balance 400 Jules at a temperature of 25 °C. The hardness of the weld metal
samples was measured by Vickers microhardness test of TECH-FUTURE
co. with 800-FM model. Microhardness test was performed under a
the austempering process was carried out in an electric furnace under 0.01 N force and loading for 25 s to measure the microhardness of the
the blowing argon gas as follows on hypereutectoid Hadfield steel welding metal of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel Weld joints. It
welding joints: should be noted that the final results of the tensile test, Charpy impact
and microhardness tests have been obtained and reported from an
1) Austenitization of the weld metal of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel average of 5 times. In addition, fractography and fracture mode analysis
joints at a temperature of 1000 °C for 20 min. of the samples after tensile and impact tests were examined by SEM of
2) Rapid quenching in the melt salt bath to 500, 600 and 700 °C. the model VEGA \ TESCAN-XMU with a working voltage of 30 kV.
3) Keeping the samples at these temperatures for 15 and 30 min.
4) Air cooling of the joint samples to room temperature. Results and discussion

For the ease of analyzing the results, all samples in this study were Microstructural analysis of the weld metal
coded with the various codes which are reported in Table 4.
In order to evaluate the microstructure of the welded joints, the Fig. 2 shows OM, SEM and TEM images of the weld metal of hy-
joints were prepared by different sand papers (60–1500 No.) using wet pereutectoid Hadfield weld joints at different welding and heat treat-
method. For the microscopic studies of the weld metal, two-stage ment conditions in this study. In OM images and TEM images, the
etching and immersion in 2% Nital solution was used. The metallo- austenitic matrix (primary phase) is bright in colour and the pre-
graphic test has been carried out according to ASTM E112. cipitates (secondary phase) are dark. As shown in Fig. 2, the micro-
For this purpose, the specimen was first immersed in 2% Nital so- structure of the weld metal (whether in the welded state or in the
lution for 15 s and then immediately washed with alcohol and dried austempered state) has an austenitic matrix. This austenitic matrix re-
with hot air. Subsequently, by immersion of the sample in a 10% so- lates to the presence of high content of carbon and manganese in the
lution of HCl in alcohol, a yellow-brown thin film formed in the pre- chemical composition of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel. Lee and Choi
vious step on the sample surface was removed. This process was re- [38] reported that with the increase of the manganese content in Fe-Mn
peated for three times. At the last stage, the sample was washed with alloys, the martensite start temperature greatly reduces. It is therefore
alcohol and then dried with hot air blow. Finally, the microstructures of assumed that in alloys containing a lot of manganese, such as hyper-
the prepared weld metals were examined by the Olypmus optical mi- eutectoid Hadfield steel, a completely austenitic matrix in their mi-
croscope, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of the VEGA / TESCAN- crostructure can be observed. In fact, one of the main factors in the
XMU model with a working voltage of 30 kV, and a Transmission observation of a stable austenite phase in hypereutectoid Hadfield
Electron Microscope (TEM) of Philips, CM120 model with a voltage of steels is the presence of manganese in the chemical composition of this
80 kV. high carbon steel.
In order to measure the amount of precipitates formed in the mi- Fig. 2a shows that the weld metal of the Hadfield steel welding joint
crostructure of the weld metal of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel welding kept at as welded condition (sample X) has the austenitic micro-
joints, Image J software was used and the size of the grains of this structure with a certain amount of precipitates (granular and in-
region was also examined by Image analyzer software. In addition, grained). According to the chemical composition of the hypereutectoid
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray Diffraction spectro- Hadfield steels, the steels belong to high-carbon steels and during mild
scopy (XRD) methods were used to analyze the phases and precipitates cooling from single-phased austenite region (temperatures above
formed in the weld metal of the joints. 900 °C), precipitation of manganese carbides at austenite grain
In this research, X-ray diffraction machine of Germany's Seisert boundaries are expected. The presence of high amounts of manganese
model with a Cu tube (Kα beam with a wavelength of 1.54°A, 40 kV in the chemical composition of this steel helps to stabilize the austenite
voltage and 30 mA current) equipped with a filter (nickel) and a phase and greatly reduces the temperature of perlite transformation
[5,12,23].
According to all the images in Fig. 2, austenite is stable in the
Table 4
Coding of the samples examined in this research.
structure of these steels to low temperatures, and these manganese
steels always have a large amount of austenite in their structures
Heat treatment condition of the weld metal Code [10,15,19]. The microstructure observed also resembles with the results
Without heat treatment and kept at as welded state X of Hosseini et al. [23,24]. The researchers previously reported that in
Austempered at 500 °C for 15 min A1 high manganese Hadfield steels it can be seen austenitic matrix along
Austempered at 500 °C for 30 min A2 with some manganese carbides. By comparing the microstructure of the
Austempered at 600 °C for 15 min B1 weld metal of austempered hypereutectoid Hadfield steel and without
Austempered at 600 °C for 30 min B2
heat treatment, it is observed that in austempered weld metals, as in the
Austempered at 700 °C for 15 min C1
Austempered at 700 °C for 30 min C2 case without heat treatment, the dominant phase is the austenite ma-
trix, with the difference that the morphology of the carbides transforms

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Fig. 2. Microstructural images of the weld metal joints: a–c) X Sample, d–f) A1 Sample, g–i) A2 Sample, j–l) B1 Sample, m–o) B2 Sample, p–r) C1 Sample, s–u) C2
Sample.

from continuous to discrete and dispersed mode within the austenite 3 Carbide precipitates are hard particles that prevent the movement of
grains. According to the microstructure images of austempered weld the grain boundaries and prevent the growth of austenite grains in
metal, it is observed that samples A1 and A2 have lower carbide con- the microstructure of the weld metal of the hypereutectoid Hadfield
tents than the B1, B2, C1, and C2 samples due to the lower temperature steel joints.
and time range of the austempering process. Actually, Fig. 2 describes
well the phenomenon that, due to the increase of temperature and time These factors (1, 2, 3) provide conditions that allow us to observe
in the process of austempering, the amount of precipitates and the size that as the temperature and time rise in the process of the austempering
of austenite grains in the weld metal of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel process, both the amount of carbide precipitates increases and the size
joints increased and decreased, respectively. This phenomenon has of the austenite grains decreases.
occurred for three reasons: The size of the austenite grains and the amount of the precipitates of
the weld metal joints respectively were calculated by the Image ana-
1 The heat transfer rate in hypereutectoid Hadfield steel has been very lyzer and Image J softwares, as shown in Fig. 3. It is also seen from
low after the austempering process. Fig. 3 that the increase in temperature and time in the austempering
2 Hypereutectoid Hadfield steel contains a lot of carbon (1.3 wt.%) process has led to an increase in the amount of precipitates and a de-
and carbidizing elements (Mn and Fe). crease in the size of the austenite grains of the hypereutectoid Hadfield

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Fig. 2. (continued)

Phase & elemental analysis of the weld metal

Energy dispersive spectroscopy was used to accurately determine

the composition of the precipitates formed in the weld metal of hy-
pereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints and the results of this analysis
are shown in Fig. 4. It is clearly visible from Fig. 4 that the precipitates
formed in all weld metals (whether in the welded state or in the aus-
tempered state) are all of the type proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides.
Proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the hypereutectoid Hadfield steels
are rich in carbon and manganese [16,19,27]. In order to precipitate
these proeutectoid carbides in hypereutectoid Hadfield steels, it is first
necessary that carbon and manganese atoms be able to accumulate in
suitable sites of the weld metal. After the accumulation of carbon and
manganese atoms, conditions for the formation of the proeutectoid (Fe,
Fig. 3. Determination of the precipitates distribution and grain size in the weld Mn)3C carbides in the hypereutectoid Hadfield weld metals will be
metal of welded joints for different welding and heat treatment conditions. provided. Therefore, the higher the temperature and time in the aus-
tempering process, the conditions for carbon and manganese diffusion
are improved, and as a result, the precipitation rate and growth of the
steel weld joints. It is seen from Fig. 3 that among austempered weld
(Fe, Mn)3C carbides are also increased in the microstructure of the weld
metals, the austempered weld metal at a temperature of 500 °C - 15 min
metal of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints. But there is an im-
(A1 Sample) includes the least amount of precipitates and the largest
portant fact that manganese due to the higher atomic radius, has less
size of austenite grains, while the austempered weld metal at 700 °C -
mobility than carbon, and hence its diffusion is more difficult than that
30 min (C2 Sample) has the highest amount of precipitates and the least
of the carbon. Therefore, by increasing the carbon content in the che-
amount of austenite grains. Because the C2 Sample has been subjected
mical composition or by increasing the temperature and time of the
to an austempering process for a longer time at higher temperatures and
austempering heat treatment, the precipitation rate of the proeutectoid
has higher carbide contents in its microstructure and these precipitates
(Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints
also cause the grain boundaries to be locked and prevent the growth of
also increases. Increasing the temperature and time of austempering
austenite grains.
heat treatment provides better diffusion conditions for carbon and
especially manganese atoms.

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Fig. 4. EDS analysis of the carbides formed in weld metal of the Welded joint: a) X Sample, b) A1 Sample, c) A2 Sample, d) B1 Sample, e) B2 Sample, f) C1 Sample, g)
C2 Sample.

For this reason, it is clearly seen in Fig. 2 that, with increasing joints conditions.
temperature and time of austempering heat treatment, in sample C2, It is also seen that with increasing the temperature and time of the
the highest volume fraction of proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides is ob- austempering process, the proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbide content has
served. In fact, in this welding joint, the precipitation of proeutectoid also increased in the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints, which is
(Fe, Mn)3C carbides begins at a higher temperature and for a longer consistent with the microstructural observations (Fig. 2) and measure-
time than the other welding joints. ments performed by the Image J software (Fig. 3). It can be seen from
X-ray diffraction analysis has been used to study the phases formed Fig. 5 that in the weld metals of all joints, the austenite phase peaks at
in the weld metal of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel at different 43.2°, 50.2°, 73.8°, 89.5° and 94.8° correspond to the (111), (200),
conditions of welding and heat treatment and the patterns of this (220), (311) and (222) planes respectively which is consistent with
analysis are shown in Fig. 5. The results of the XRD analysis in Fig. 5 standard card number of 00-023-0298. (face-centered cubic, Fm-3 m E
show that in all weld metals of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld with lattice size of 3.6000°A, ICDD card #00- 023-0298).
joints, either in the welded state or in the austempered joints, the main It is also seen from Fig. 5 that the increase in temperature and time
phase is austenite (γ), which is well consistent with the microstructure of the austempering process has caused the intensity of the peaks at all
images observed in Fig. 2. In addition to the austenite phase, the angles and crystallographic planes to change. As we see in Fig. 5,
proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbide phase has also been identified. It is among of the all examined weld metals, the weld joint that has been
seen from Fig. 5 that the weld metal of all austempered weld joints austempered in the 600 °C–30 min cycle (B2 specimen), has the highest
contain less (Fe, Mn)3C carbide content than that of the kept in welded peak intensity on the plane (111).

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Fig. 4. (continued)

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Fig. 5. XRD patterns of the hypereutectoid Hadfield weld joints under different welding and heat treatment conditions.

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Given that the preferred {111} planes cause twin strain in hyper-
eutectoid Hadfield steel [12,18,23], it can be concluded that the twin
strain in the B2 sample becomes more active and the plastic deforma-
tion due to a great twin strain in this sample can be observed. Peak
intensity variations are not the case with the rest of the planes, and the
increase in temperature and time of the austempering process of hy-
pereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints has no regular effect on the
decrease or increase of peaks intensity.
The lattice analysis of the weld metals of hypereutectoid Hadfield
steel has been evaluated as a function of the conditions of the aus-
tempering process using lattice geometric equations (Eqs. ([2) (3) and
(4]]) [39] :

nλ = 2dhkl sinθ (2)

In Eq. (2), dhkl is the distance between the crystallographic planes Fig. 6. Comparison of texture coefficient results for weld joints of hyper-
eutectoid Hadfield steel at different welding and austempering conditions.
obtained from Bragg’s relation. To obtain the lattice parameter and
volume of the crystal, Laue equation was used for the face centered
cubic system and plane (111) [40]. the austempering process of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints
2 2 2 1/2
has caused a change in peak intensity, which can lead to preferential
dhkl = a / (h +k +l ) (3)
crystal orientation and change of crystalline texture. In order to mea-
v=a 3
(4) sure the quantitative preferred crystal orientation, we can use texture
coefficient relation (TC) proposed by Harris [41]:
In Eq. (3), a is the lattice parameter, dhkl is the distance between the
crystalline planes and h, k, l are Miller indices, which is considered here (Ihkl /I*hkl)
TChkl = n
(111). In Eq. (4), a is lattice parameter and v is the volume of the [(1/N) ∑0 /(Ihkl /I*hkl)] (5)
crystal. The lattice parameter and crystal volume have been evaluated
using Eqs. (2),(3) and (4). Then the results of the crystallographic In Eq. (5), Ihkl is the intensity of the crystalline planes of austenite
features are reported in Table 5. Table 5 shows that the lattice para- phase in XRD patterns, h, k and l are Miller’s indices of crystal plane,
meter and crystal volume in hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints I*hkl is the intensity of the crystal planes of the standard data card, and
have significantly changed due to applying austempering process. The N is the total number of diffracted planes. If TChkl for all planes is ap-
values of the lattice parameter and crystal volume have increased by proximately equal to one, this indicates that the direction of growth in
applying austempering process. As shown in the microstructural images the crystalline material is randomized. While, if this value is greater
(Fig. 2), in the welding state, a large amount of proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C than one, then it shows that the frequency of grains is in that particular
carbide had been formed. When proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbide is direction. If the values of TC are between zero and one, it indicates that
formed, it means that carbon is extracted from interstitial spaces of the the growth of the grains is weak in that particular direction. Fig. 6
austenite crystalline lattice and reacts with manganese and iron ele- shows the texture coefficient for hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld
ments and forms proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbide. joints at different welding and austempering conditions.
When carbon is removed from interstitial spaces of the austenite The calculation of the texture coefficient is done for all the detect-
crystal lattice, it causes the lattice parameter to reduce, and as a result, able planes of the austenite phase and in Fig. 6, the texture coefficient
due to the direct relation between the lattice parameter and the volume for different planes is presented in a comparative manner. As shown in
of the austenite crystal (according to Eq. (3)), the crystal volume also Fig. 6, application of the austempering heat treatment process to hy-
decreases. However, by performing the austempering process (samples pereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints has led to a change in the texture
A1 and A2), in comparison to the held weld metal of hypereutectoid coefficient in all planes, which results in a change in the preferential
Hadfield steel at welded state (sample X), the crystal volume and lattice orientation of the growth. According to the calculations, it was found
parameter size were also increases due to the reduction of the volume that the highest value of texture coefficient in the weld joints of hy-
fraction of the proeutectoid (Fe,Mn)3C carbides. Then, by increasing the pereutectoid Hadfield steel, which was austempered in the 600 °C
temperature and time of the austempering process (samples C1 and C2), -30 min cycle (B2 specimen), belonged to the plane (111) at about
the volume of the crystal and lattice parameter size decreases again due 2.76374. By applying the austempering heat treatment process, the
to the increase of the volume fraction of the proeutectoid (Fe,Mn)3C texture coefficient has changed on the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel
carbides. weld joints but, nevertheless, in all weld joints, the highest texture
However, as shown in Fig. 5, increasing the temperature and time of coefficient value belongs to the plane (111). The results obtained in
Fig. 6 illustrate this phenomenon that the preferred growth direction of
weld metal grain boundaries of the Hadfield steel corresponds to [111]
Table 5
Crystallographic specifications for hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld metals at direction.
different welding and heat treatment conditions.
Sample d-Spacing a [Lattice constants v[Unit cell volume Mechanical properties of the weld metal
(°A) (°A)] (°A3)]
Fig. 7 shows engineering stress-strain curve and Table 6 represents
Austenite phase ICDD 2.0800 3.6000 46.6600
the results of mechanical tests (tensile, impact and Vickers micro-
card
X 2.0793 3.6014 46.7105 hardness tests) are presented. According to Fig. 7 and Table 6, it can be
A1 2.0970 3.6321 47.9152 seen that the weld metal of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel held at
A2 2.0954 3.6294 74.8084 welded condition (sample X) has very high yield and tensile strength,
B1 2.0924 3.6241 47.5993 high hardness and less fracture energy, toughness and plastic form-
B2 2.0892 3.6186 47.3829
ability than austempered joints. This phenomenon also has occurred
C1 2.0850 3.6112 47.0928
C2 2.0835 3.6088 46.9990 due to the increase in the size of the austenite grains and the reduction
of the volume fraction of the proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the

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Fig. 7. Engineering stress-strain curve for hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints in various welding and heat treatment conditions.

Table 6 decrease of the relative elongation of the hypereutectoid Hadfield weld

Results of tensile tests, Charpy impact and microhardness tests for hyper- joint.
eutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints under different welding and heat treatment Moving dislocations accumulate by reaching to the grain boundaries
conditions. which increase their density and eventually stop. This increases the
Sample Yield Tensile Elongation at Impact Microhardness strength and hardness [44]. As a result, the higher the percentage of
Strength Strength Break (%) Energy (J) (HV) fine proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides (C1 and C2 samples) the higher
(MPa) (MPa) will be the strength. The results of the uniaxial tensile test are in good
X 742 ± 6 931 ± 6 8±1 59 ± 2 358 ± 3
agreement with the results of Astaf'ev et al. [45]. Astaf'ev et al. sug-
A1 305 ± 6 441 ± 6 32 ± 1 117 ± 2 201 ± 3 gested that by refining the austenite grains in the microstructure of
A2 373 ± 6 558 ± 6 37 ± 1 131 ± 2 221 ± 3 hypereutectoid Hadfield steel, mechanical properties such as hardness,
B1 431 ± 6 692 ± 6 41 ± 1 167 ± 2 256 ± 3 tensile strength and yield strength also increase. In this section, it is
B2 472 ± 6 768 ± 6 49 ± 1 189 ± 2 289 ± 3
explained that with decreasing austenite grain size, the yield strength is
C1 563 ± 6 811 ± 6 19 ± 1 79 ± 2 304 ± 3
C2 672 ± 6 858 ± 6 14 ± 1 65 ± 2 326 ± 3 also increased. Now using the Hall-Pitch equation (Eq. (6)) [46,47],
which states the relationship between grain size and yield stress, it is
possible to justify the increase of the yield stress:
austempered weld metal of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel joints
σ0 = σi + K
(6)
than as welded ones. By the comparison of austempered weld joints in D

this study, it can be seen that the temperature and time of the aus- In Eq. (6), σ0 is the yield stress, σi is the friction stress opposite to the
tempering process have a very significant effect on the mechanical motion of dislocations, K is a constant that indicates the accumulation
properties of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints. As shown in of dislocations behind the obstacles, and D is the mean diameter of the
Fig. 7 and Table 6, the weld metals of the hypereutectoid Hadfield grain. In accordance with Eq. (6), the yield stress also increases with
steels austempered at 700 °C (C1 and C2 samples) compared to the weld decreasing grain size. The observed mechanical behavior of the hy-
metal of the hypereutectoid steel austempered at 500 °C (specimens A1 pereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joint is directly related to the activa-
and A2), have higher yield and tensile strength and microhardness tion energy of the twining strain mechanism in the weld metal of these
while include lower fracture strain, impact energy and plastic form- joints, since the activation of the twin mechanism due to the plastic
ability. This behaviour is also true for the sample austempered at 700 °C strain of austenite phase strongly depends on the volume fraction of the
for 30 min in compared to the sample austempered at 700 °C for 15 min. proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides [48–51]. As a result, the concentra-
According to the microstructural images of optical and scanning tion of soluble carbon at the austenite phase due to lower volume
microscope in Fig. 2 it is observed that, increasing the temperature and fraction of proeutectoid (Fe,Mn)3C carbides is higher in the weld metal
time of the austempering process leads to an increase in the volume of hypereutectoid Hadfield steels austempered at 500 °C (samples A1
fraction of proeutectoid (Fe,Mn)3C carbide particles and reduction of and A2) in compared to the samples austempered at 700 °C (C1 and C2
the austenite grain size in the weld metal of hypereutectoid Hadfield samples), and thus have a higher toughness, a relative elongation per-
steel. The reduction of the austenite grains sizes of the weld metal by centage and a greater plastic formability. In fact, increasing the tem-
increasing the number of austenite grain boundaries acting as obstacles perature and time of the austempering process, by reducing the con-
to the motion of dislocations leads to increased yield strength, tensile centration of soluble carbon at the austenite phase reduced the twin
strength and microhardness [42] and increasing the volume fraction of activity in the plastic deformation and reduced the plasticity capability
proeutectoid (Fe,Mn)3C carbides by reducing the contribution of the of these joints.
twin strain to the plastic deformation of austenite leads to the reduction
of the plastic formability, the impact energy and fracture strain of the
weld metal [43]. Actually, increasing the temperature and time of the Fractography of the fracture surfaces after tensile and impact tests
austempering process by providing the conditions for the formation of
greater amounts of proeutectoid (Fe,Mn)3C carbides, causes the con- SEM images of the fractured surfaces of the hypereutectoid Hadfield
centration of soluble carbon in the austenite matrix to reduce as well as steel weld joints are shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively, after uniaxial
reduction the twin activation in the plastic deformation and finally tensile and Charpy impact tests. It is seen from Figs. 8 and 9 that the
fracture surface of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joint held in

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M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli Journal of Manufacturing Processes 34 (2018) 313–328

Fig. 8. Fractography after the tensile test for the weld metal of the joints: a) Sample X, b) Sample A1, c) Sample A2, d) Sample B1, e) Sample B2, f) Sample C1, g)
Sample C2.

welded condition (Sample X), has a combination of ductile and brittle slowly and after a large plastic deformation above the tensile strength
fracture. At the fracture surface of sample X, the ductile part with stress. The ductile fracture characteristics under tensile stress include
dimple characteristic and the brittle part with the characteristic of the development of very fine cavities within the necking region and
rocky surfaces are clearly visible. The fractography of ductile fracture connecting them to one another until they create a fine crack and the
surfaces shows that they have their own distinct aspects in the micro- slow growth of the crack to the final fracture [52–54].
scopic state. Most of the metals and alloys, especially those with FCC In fact, the ductile fracture mechanism in the tensile test of soft
lattice, such as austenitic Hadfield manganese steel, usually have a materials consists of three stages [54,55]:
ductile fracture at ambient temperature. The ductile fracture appears

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M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli Journal of Manufacturing Processes 34 (2018) 313–328

Fig. 9. Fractographies obtained after Charpy impact test for the Weld metals of the joints: a) Sample X, b) Sample A1, c) Sample A2, d) Sample B1, e) Sample B2, f)
Sample C1, g) Sample C2.

(1) Nucleation of the cavity packed (hcp) crystals and their alloys at low temperatures (usually
(2) Growth (stable or unstable) of the cavities below ambient temperature) and suddenly appear at high deformation
(3) Interconnection of the cavities rates [56,57].
Fracture surfaces that are broken in a brittle state have their own
After this stage, the final fracture occurs and it leads to the forma- distinct patterns. A brittle fracture occurs along a certain crystalline
tion of the dimple at the fracture surface. This type of fracture is con- planes called the cleavage plane. In brittle fracture, there is generally no
sidered the most important fracture mechanism in the fracture of aus- significant plastic deformation in the fracture region [57,58]. Brittle
tenitic steels [53,55,45]. In fracture mechanics engineering, this kind of fracture (grain boundary) can be due to the weaknesses of the grain
fracture is known as the cup & cone fracture. boundaries due to the existence of stable carbides as the continuous
However, brittle fracture is commonly found in the metals with network in these locations (similar to the phenomenon that occurred in
body centered cubic crystalline structure (bcc) and hexagonal closed sample X). In fact, the reason for the occurrence of this type of fracture

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M. Sabzi, S.M. Dezfuli Journal of Manufacturing Processes 34 (2018) 313–328

can be the presence of impurities or the separation and deposition of the first dimples. As shown in Figs. 8 and 9, the interface between two
carbides or brittle phases along the grain boundaries [59–61]. large cavities (dimple) appears with the formation of very fine sec-
The fracture of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joint which ondary dimples of less than one micrometer. That is, the growth and
was held under welded conditions (sample X) occurs, as a result of the interconnection of large primary cavities did not occur by shearing the
competition between the two modes of ductile and brittle fracture. This space between them. Consequently, the centralized necking due to the
phenomenon means that in sample X, a failure occurs in a mode that concentration of high stress around the primary dimples is not ob-
requires less activation energy. In terms of mechanical fracture, it can served. This process is produced in the form of many microneckings
be stated that depending on the type of microstructure and the balance throughout the gauge and in the space between the primary dimples.
of the phases formed in the microstructure, each driving force has a For this reason, fracture occurs in hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld
critical value, and the occurrence of any fracture mode depends on joints without necking. Due to the dynamic strain aging by diffusion of
which driving force reaches its critical value earlier (according to the carbon in high energy sites, including twin boundaries or intersections
available conditions). of primary twins with secondary twins, nanoscale precipitates in de-
In fact, the fracture mode of the sample X during the uniaxial tensile formed grains are produced. Also, the intersections of the twins with
test and the Charpy impact test can be considered as a competition each other or with the grain boundaries also cause cavity defects
between the plastic deformation of austenite phase and grain boundary [62,63]. Therefore, nanoscale precipitates due to dynamic strain aging
brittle fracture due to an excessive volume fraction of the proeutectoid and cavity defects caused by twin boundary interactions will be the
(Fe. Mn)3C carbides in the austenite grain boundaries. source of secondary dimples [64–66]. It should be noted that during the
In this case, the most important parameter for controlling the severe plastic deformation, secondary dimples after nucleation have
fracture mode in sample X is the volume fraction of the proeutectoid grown a lot and reached a size of about 1 μm in the fracture stage. Thus,
(Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the austenite grain boundaries. By increasing the the dimensions of these dimple nuclei, which are formed in the early
volume fraction of proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the austenite stages of plastic deformation, are much smaller and are several nan-
grain boundaries, the growth of the crack in the austenite grain ometers in size.
boundaries reaches its critical value before its shear stress causes plastic The fractography of the austempered hypereutectoid Hadfield steel
deformation of the austenite phase, resulting in a brittle fracture mode. joints at 700 °C (C1 and C2 samples) is also shown in Figs. 8 and 9 after
If the amount of austenite phase of the weld metal is greater than the tensile and impact tests. What is seen in Figs. 8 and 9 are that the
volume fraction of the proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbide in the austenite austempered joints at 700 °C are also less ductile than the other aus-
grain boundaries, then the growth of the crack in the austenite grain tempered joints, in addition, similar to the joint held in the welded
boundaries would not be sufficient to cause a brittle fracture. As a re- conditions (sample X), in both the tensile and Charpy tests have a
sult, the sample X will fracture in ductile mode due to shear stresses ductile-brittle fracture mode. Because, as seen in the microstructure
produced in the austenite phase. images in Fig. 2, the austempering process in the conditions of 700 °C
According to the materials presented in this section as well as mi- -15 min and 700 °C - 30 min resulted in a great increase of the volume
crostructural images in Fig. 2a and b, it can be concluded that as the fraction of proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the microstructure.
austenite phase content is higher than the volume fraction of the grain Because, as seen in the microstructure images in Fig. 2, the aus-
boundary proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in sample X, therefore, the tempering process in the conditions of 700 °C - 15 min and 700 °C -
failure mode of this joint is first as mixed ductile-brittle, and secondly, 30 min resulted in a significant increase in volume fraction of proeu-
most part of the fracture surface is characterized by a ductile mode tectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the microstructure. Actually, with the
(dimpling characteristic). In such a way that the rocky surfaces (glossy) increase of the volume fraction of proeutectoid carbides in austenite
of brittle fracture adjacent to the dimples (cavities) confirm the mixed phase, soluble carbon concentration of the austenite phase in the mi-
ductile-brittle fracture mode in sample X. In fact, the fractography of crostructure decreased and, as a result, the plasticity of the austenite
the fracture surface of sample X indicates that both a ductile and brittle phase has also decreased. For this reason, in addition to the ductile
fracture mechanism has been activated due to the presence of stable fracture mechanism, the brittle fracture mechanism is also activated in
austenite phase and proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides in the austenite C1 and C2 joints. As in the C2 sample, as compared with the C1 sample,
grain boundaries. However, because the austenite phase content is due to the presence of more volume fraction of proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C
larger than the volume fraction of the grain boundary (Fe, Mn)3C car- carbides, the brittle fracture mode is also more activated. However, by
bides, so a lower driving force is required to activate ductile fracture comparing the fracture mode of C1 and C2 joints with the fracture
mechanism, which is why a large fraction of the fracture surface of mode of joint X, it can be seen that although all of these joints have a
sample X includes ductile mode. mixed ductile-brittle fracture mode, however, the activation of the
Figs. 8 and 9 also show the fractography of austempered joints. It is ductile mode in C1 and C2 joints is more than the joint X. Because, as
seen from Figs. 8 and 9 that the austempered joints have a more ductile shown in Fig. 2, the austempering process led to a change in the mor-
fracture mode than the joints held in the welded conditions, in both phology of the proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides from continuous
tensile and Charpy impact tests. Because, as seen in the microstructure granular state to dispersed one within the grains. In conclusion, all the
images in Fig. 2, the austempering process at different temperatures performed fractography and observed fracture modes from all hyper-
and times resulted in a reduction in the volume fraction of proeutectoid eutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints tested in this study were very well
(Fe,Mn)3C carbides and the morphology of the carbides has also suited to the elongation results obtained from the tensile test and the
changed from the continuous state in austenite grain boundaries to the fracture energy obtained from the Charpy impact test.
dispersed state within the austenite grains. Also, by comparing the
fracture mode of the austempered hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld Extraction of optimum conditions of austempering process
joints, it is observed that austempered joints at 500 °C and 600 °C
(samples A1, A2, B1 and B2) have a 100% ductile fracture mode with In this section, all the results obtained in this study are compared
deep dimples, along with secondary micro-dimples. In fact, fracto- and then the optimal conditions have been extracted for the appropriate
graphies and more accurate microscopic observations in these joints combination of microstructure - phase equilibrium - mechanical prop-
indicate the presence of two types of dimples at the fracture surface. erties - fracture mode in hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints. The
The first type is a large initial dimple with a size of 10 μm, the source of results of this overall comparison are also reported in Fig. 10. In Fig. 10,
which is generally inclusions and unsolved precipitate phases. The it can be seen that in the welded state, although in the weld joint of
second type is a very small secondary dimple that is smaller than one hypereutectoid Hadfield steel held in the welded conditions (Sample X),
micrometer or several hundred nanometers which are formed between the size of the austenitic grains was small, and also the volume fraction

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Fig. 10. Extraction of optimum conditions of austempering process for hyper-

eutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints: a) Comparison of yield strength - tensile
strength - fracture mode in the tensile and impact tests, b) Comparison of vo-
lume fraction of sediments - austenite grain size - fracture mode in the tensile
and impact tests, c) Comparison of elongation at break - engineering fracture
strain - fracture mode in the tensile and impact tests, d) Comparison of mi-
crohardness - impact energy - fracture mode in the tensile and impact tests.

of the proeutectoid (Fe,Mn)3C carbide, strength and microhardness are

very high, but it has a low impact capability and has a mixed ductile-
brittle fracture mode. However, one of the advantages of the use of
Hadfield manganese steel is the impact capability of this steel [67,68].
Therefore, the sample X cannot show a proper behavior in applications
where the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joint is exposed to impact
loads. But with the austempering process, there were significant
changes in the microstructure, mechanical properties and fracture
modes of hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints. According to
Fig. 10, it is observed that the austempering process in the conditions of
500 °C - 15 min and 500 °C - 30 min (samples A1 and A2) greatly re-
duced the strength and hardness of the Hadfield steel weld joint, but
instead, the toughness and its fracture energy has increased. Also, due
to this heat treatment, the fracture mode of Hadfield Steel weld joint
has changed from mixed ductile-brittle mode to 100% ductile mode.
This phenomenon also occurred due to the dissolution of the proeu-
tectoid (Fe,Mn)3C carbides and the increase in the size of austenite
grains relative to the non-austempered state (Sample X) [69,70].
Therefore, in this joint, even though the planned austempering heat
treatment cycle (500 °C -15 min and 500 °C - 30 min) can transform its
fracture mode into a 100% ductile fracture and increase its toughness, it
leads to a decrease in strength and hardness of the hypereutectoid
Hadfield steel weld joint. However, in Fig. 10, it is observed that aus-
tempering process at 600 °C - 15 min and 600 °C - 30 min conditions
(samples B1 and B2) compared to the austempering operation at a
temperature of 500 °C - 15 min and 500 °C - 30 min resulted in a si-
multaneous improvement of the three parameters of strength, hardness
and energy of the fracture, and also reduced the size of the austenite
grains. These evolutions exist while these austempering cycles have
been able to successfully maintain a 100% ductile fracture mode for the
hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joint. It is also seen from Fig. 10 that
the austempering process at 700 °C - 15 min and 700 °C - 30 min (C1
and C2 samples) compared to the austempering process at 600 °C -
15 min and 600 °C - 30 min, increased the strength and hardness as well
as reduced the size of the austenite grains in weld metal joints of the
hypereutectoid Hadfield steel. However, due to the provision of the
conditions to increase the formation of proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C car-
bides, it has reduced the toughness and fracture energy of the weld
joints. In addition, due to the excessive increase in the volume fraction
of the proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides due to these austempering
cycles, the activity of the soluble carbon in the austenite phase has
decreased and, therefore, has activated the brittle fracture mechanism.
As both C1 and C2 samples were exposed to mixed ductile-brittle
fracture.
Therefore, considering the results of this study in this section, the
austempering heat treatment cycle after welding, which produced a
good combination of microstructure - phase equilibrium - mechanical
properties and fracture modes in hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld
joints, is also the 600 °C - 30 min cycle. Due to the application of this
cycle, the size of the austenite grains and the volume fraction of the
proeutectoid (Fe, Mn)3C carbides are in optimum amounts, the yield
strength, tensile strength, fracture energy and microhardness are in a
proper relativity. So that the weld joint simultaneously has good
strength and impact capability. Also, this austempering heat treatment
cycle has been able to provide conditions that the hypereutectoid
Hadfield steel weld joints, along with its suitable strength and hardness,
experience a 100% ductile fracture mode.

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Conclusion indicated that in the first step, the weld joint which was kept in the
welded state, had a mixed ductile-brittle fracture mode and in the
In this study, the effect of temperature and time of heat treatment second step, by applying the austempering process at temperatures
process after welding (austempering) on microstructural evolutions, of 500 and 600 °C, on the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld joints,
phase equilibrium, mechanical properties and fracture mode of the the fracture mode changes from mixed ductile-brittle mode into
weld metal in hypereutectoid Hadfield steel joints were evaluated. For 100% ductile mode. But with the further increase of the aus-
this purpose, the austempering process was carried out at 500, 600 and tempering temperature at 700 °C, the brittle fracture mechanism is
700 °C for 15 and 30 min on Hadfield steel weld joints, which were reactivated and the fracture mode of the joint changes from 100%
prepared using shielded metal arc welding method (SMAW). Then, the ductile to the mixed ductile-brittle state.
microstructure, phase analysis, mechanical properties, and fracture e) According to the microstructural studies, phase analysis, mechanical
mode of all joints in the welded and austempered conditions were tests and fractography of the hypereutectoid Hadfield steel weld
evaluated by an optical microscope, SEM, TEM, EDS analysis, XRD joints in this study, it was found that the heat treatment process of
analysis, tensile test, Charpy impact test, Vickers microhardness test austempering after welding, which has been able to incorporate a
and fractography of the samples were investigated by SEM. The results suitable microstructure, phase equilibrium, mechanical properties
of this research are as follows: and fracture mode in these weld joints is also the 600 °C – 30 min
cycle.
a) The microstructural observations showed that the hypereutectoid
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