LAB MANUAL

Metallurgy Laboratory
TE (Mechanical)
Part-I

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SVERI’s COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
PANDHARPUR

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 SVERI’s College of Engineering, Pandharpur
Department of Mechanical Engineering
VISION AND MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE AND DEPARTMENT

INSTITUTE DEPARTMENT

To be nationally To be nationally
recognized among the recognized for
best institutes in India excellence in
VISION for excellence in education, geared
technical education with research, in the
field of Mechanical
Engineering

To impart value based To impart value

technical education added education by
through ambiance of creating ambience of
academic excellence, academic excellence
MISSION research and life- and research along
skills by inculcating with participation in
personal touch and product development
respect in relationship by inculcating
amongst the personal touch
stakeholders mutual respect

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COs to PEOs Practical Flow Chart:

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CO - Experiment Mapping:

Expt. Expt. Expt. Expt. Expt. Expt. Expt. Expt.

No 1 No 2 No 3 No 4 No 5 No 6 No 7 No 8
CO 1 √
CO 2 √ √ √ √
CO 3 √
CO 4 √
CO 5 √ √
CO 6

Sr. BT Related
Course Outcome Levels Topic
No.
Demonstrate relevance of principles of physical metallurgy and
1 its significance. BL-2 1

Identify and Make use of various ferrous materials for

2 engineering applications. BL-3 2

Identify and Make use of nonferrous alloys & advanced materials

3 for engineering applications. BL-3 3

Apply the knowledge for selection of proper heat treatment

4 process for obtaining desired properties. BL-3 4

Make use of suitable destructive and non-destructive methods for

5 material testing. BL-3 5

Utilize the powder metallurgy process for manufacturing of

6 BL-3 6
products.

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CO to PO Mapping:
Sr. Programme Outcomes (POs)
Subject Course Outcome (CO)
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. Demonstrate relevance of
principles of physical metallurgy
and its significance.
2. Identify and Make use of various
ferrous materials for engineering
applications.
3. Identify and Make use of
nonferrous alloys & advanced
materials for engineering
Metallurgy applications.
4. Apply the knowledge for selection
of proper heat treatment process
for obtaining desired properties.
5. Make use of suitable destructive
and non-destructive methods for
material testing.
6. Utilize the powder metallurgy
process for manufacturing of
products.

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTSBASED ON CURRICULUM

Sr. No. Name Of Experiments Page No.

1 Preparation of the Specimen for Metallurgical Experiment 3-7

2 Study of microstructures of plain carbon & alloy steel 9-15

3 17-23
Study of microstructures of cast iron
4 25-32
Study of microstructure of non-ferrous alloys
5 33-36
Study of macro examination of spark test.
6 Study and Demonstration of Heat Treatment Processes such as 37-43
Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening
7 (A) Study of Hardness Testing 45-49

7 (B) Study of the Tensile Test on Various Specimens 50-51

7 (C) Study of Impact Test. 52-57

8 Demonstration of Non Destructive Testing Methods 58-63

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS BASED ON CONTENT BEYOND

SYLLABUS

Sr. No. Name Of Experiments Page No.

1. Study of Metallurgical Microscope 66-69

2. 72-74
Study of Jominy End Quench Test.

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EXPERIMENT NO.1

Preparation of the Specimen for Metallurgical Experiment

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Objective: To understand the details of Specimen preparation for

Metallographic examination.

Theory:

1) Introduction
Metallographic or microscopy consists of the microscopic study of the Structural
characteristics of material or an alloy. It is possible to determine grain size & shape with
distribution of various phases & inclusions which have a great effect on the mechanical
properties of metal. The microstructure will reveal the mechanical & thermal treatment of
the metal & it may be possible to predict its behavior under a given set of conditions.
The procedure to be followed in the preparation of a specimen is comparatively similar
and simple & involves a technique which is developed only after constant practice. The
ultimate objective is to produce a flat, scratch free, mirror like surface. The steps
involved or required to prepare a metallographic specimen properly are covered in the
coming section explained below.

2) Steps of Specimen Preparation:

The steps for specimen preparation for metallographic examination are following-
1. Selection of Sample
2. Mounting of Specimen
3. Grinding of Specimen
4. Polishing of Specimen
5. Etching of Specimen

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Figure 1.1 Mounting of specimen (Cold Setting)

Figure 1.2 wet polishing of specimen

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1) Selection of Sample –
The choice of sample for microscopic study may be very important. If a failure is to
be investigated the sampling should be chosen as close as possible to the area of the
failure & should be compared with one taken from the normal section. If the material
is soft, such as non ferrous metals or alloy & non heat treated steels, the section is
obtained by manual hack sawing /power saw. If the material is hard, the section may
be obtained by use of an abrasive cut off wheels. This wheel is thin disk of suitable
cutting abrasive rotating at high speed. The specimen should be kept cool during the
cutting operation.

2) Mounting of specimen –
Specimens that are very small or odd shaped should be mounted to final polishing.
Wires, small rods steel, sheet metal specimens, thin sections etc. must be
approximately mounted in a suitable material or rigidly damped in a mechanical
mount for easy handling. It is mounted by hot setting or cold setting dies. For quick
operation, cold setting die is used which mount the specimen within 15-20 minute.
Special solution of thermosetting resign and solvent are used for mounting. First of all
apply the grease on walls of cavity in cold setting die. Then keep specimen in cavity
that surface want to observe should bottom side. Then pour mixture of solvent and
thermosetting resign in die cavity around the sample and close the die. After 15
minute above solution get solidified and become hard baking for specimen.

3) Grinding of specimen –
The specimen may be rough ground on a belt sander with by frequent dipping in
water during the grinding operation. In all grinding & polishing operation, the
specimen should be moved perpendicular to the existing scratches this will facilitate,
recognition of stage when the deeper scratches are replaced by shallower one
characteristic of the finer abrasives. The rough grinding is continued until the surface
is flat & free from all scratches due to hacksaw or cutoff wheel are no longer visible.

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4) Polishing of specimen –
After the grinding process the specimen is polished by two methods mentioned as
follows-
A) Dry Polishing – Dry polishing means specimen is polished on a series of emery
paper containing successively finer abrasive of SiC. For this different grade emery
papers were used to achieve fine smooth surface of specimen.
B) Wet polishing- The final approximation to the flat, scratch free surface is
obtained by the use of a wet rotating wheel covered with a special cloth that is
charged by carefully sized abrasive particles. A wide range of abrasive is
available for final polishing, generally gamma form of aluminum-oxides (Al2O3)
used for ferrous & copper based materials, Cerium oxide for Aluminum,
Magnesium & their alloys, and other final polishing abrasives often used are
diamond , chromium oxide & magnesium oxide etc.

5) Etching of specimen–
The purpose of etching is to make the many structural characteristics of the metal or
alloy visible. The process should be such that the various parts of the microstructure
may be clearly differentiated. This indicate the polished surface subjected to chemical
action. In the alloys composed of two or more phases. The competent are revealed
during etching by a special attack of one or more of the constituents by the reagent
because of difference in chemical composition of the phases. In uniform single phase
alloy contact is obtained and the grain boundaries are made visible because of
difference in the rate at which various grains are attacked by the reagent. Because of
chemical attack of the reagent the grain boundary appears as valleys in the polished
surface and appears dark lines. For Ferrous material Nital (mixture of alcohol and
ethylene) is used as etchant and foe non-ferrous materials Ferric chloride (FeCl3) is
used as etchant.

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EXPERIMENT NO.2

Study of microstructures of plain carbon & alloy steel

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Figure 2.2 Fe-Fe3C equilibrium Diagram

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EXPERIMENT NO.2

Study of microstructures of plain carbon & alloy steel

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Objective: To understand the details of microstructures of plain carbon &

alloy steel

THEORY:
Steels are alloys of iron & carbon in which carbon content is between 0.008 to 2 %.
Commercial steels always contain some amount of other elements. If these elements are
accidentally present without any intension they are called as impurities. However, if they
are added purposely, they are called alloying element.
Steels are classified by different methods. The steels in which carbon is major element
after base metal and other alloying element are with negligible % are called as plain
carbon steels. Also, steels having alloying elements, which affect the properties of steel
depend upon % of alloying, are called as alloy steels. According to our requirement,
contents (alloy elements) are added to acquire desired properties.

Figure 2.1 classification of plain carbon steel

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Ferrite

Pearlite

Figure 2.3 Low Carbon steel

Average Composition- 0.18% C, 0.5%Mn
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- A two phase structure is observed. Ferrite is bright phase while pearlite is
dark phase. Ferrite occupies 75% volume and pearlite occupies 25% volume.

Ferrite

Pearlite

Figure 2.4 Medium carbon steel

Average Composition- 0.4% C, 0.5%Mn
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- A two phase structure is observed. Ferrite is bright phase while pearlite is
dark phase. Ferrite occupies 50% volume and pearlite occupies 50% volume.

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1) Low Carbon Steels:

The range of carbon % in low carbon steels is 0.008 to 0.3%. They are ductile, soft,
malleable, tough, machine able, wieldable and non hardnable by heat treatment. They
are good for cold working purpose such as rolling in to thin sheets required for
galvanizing, tinning or press work. They are good for fabrication work by welding,
pressing or machining. It is also called as mild steel, which is more useful in day to
day life. Generally maximum carbon % in mild steel is 0.23%. These are used for
wires, nails, rivets, crankshafts, camshafts, connecting rods, railway axles. It is also
known as structural steel because it is mostly used for building bars, grills, beams
angles etc.
The typical micro structure of low carbon steel is as shown in figure 2.3. A two
phase structure is observed.

2) MEDIUM CARBON STEELS :

The range of carbon percentage is 0.3 to 0.6/0.7%. These steels have intermediate
properties to those of low carbon and high carbon steels. They are medium hard, not
so ductile and malleable, medium tough, slight difficult to machine, weld and harden.
They require high cooling rates for hardening, and the hardness produced after
machining is not so high. The depth of hardening is also less and hence they are
shallow hardening type. They are difficult to cold work and hence hot worked. They
are also called as machinery steels. They are used for bolts, axels, lock washers, large
forging dies, springs, wires, wheel spokes, hammers, rods, turbine rotors, crank pins,
cylinder liners, railway rails and railway tires.
The typical micro structure of medium carbon steel is as shown in figure 2.4. A
two phase structure is observed.

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Ferrite

Pearlite

Figure 2.5 High carbon steel

Average Composition- 0.8% C, 0.5%Mn
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- A two phase structure is observed. Ferrite is bright phase while pearlite is
dark phase. Ferrite occupies nearly 10% volume and pearlite occupies nearly 90%
volume.

Ferrite

Pearlite

Alloy
Carbide

Figure 2.5 Tool steel

Average Composition- 0.55% C, 13.5%W, 3.1%Cr, 0.45%V
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- A Three phase structure is observed. Bright spherical carbides are observed
in matrix of ferrite and pearlite.

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3) HIGH CARBON STEELS:

The range of carbon percentages is 0.6/0.7 to 2%. They are hard, wear resistance,
brittle, difficult to machine, difficult to weld, and can be hardened by heat treatment.
The hardness produced after hardening is high. The depth of hardening is also high,
means the hardenability is more as compared to medium carbon steels. This steels
cannot be cold worked and hence are hot worked. They are also called as tool steels.
They are used for forging dies, punches, hammers, springs, clips, clutch discs, car
bumpers, chisels, vice jaws, drills, music wires, knives, balls from ball bearing,
cutters, files, reamers, and metal cutting saws.
The typical micro structure of high carbon steel is shown in figure 2.5. A two
phase structure is observed.

4) TOOL STEEL:
These steels are specially used for working, shaping, and cutting of the metals. Large
numbers steels are available for this purpose. All tool steels should be hard, tough and
wear resistant the requirement of these properties in steel will depend upon intended
service conditions. It is desirable that it should be grindable and machinable. The
tendency for decarburization, oxidation and grain growth during their heat treatment
should be minimum.
The typical micro structure of medium carbon steel is shown in figure 2.6. A
three phase structure is observed.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 3

STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURES OF CAST IRON

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EXPERIMENT NO: 3

STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURES OF CAST IRON

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Objective: To understand the details of microstructures of cast Irons

THEORY:
Cast iron is the alloy of iron and carbon in which range of carbon percentage is
2 % to 6.67 %. In the commercial cast iron this range varies from 2 % to 3.75 % with
other elements such as silicon, phosphorous, Sulphur, and Manganese etc. in the
sufficient amount. Because of their poor ductility & malleability, they cannot be rolled,
forged, or formed in to desired shape. But are formed by melting and casting with or
without machining to the required final shape and size and hence the name ‘cast irons’.

FACTORS INFLUENCING MICROSTRUCTURES:

Properties and microstructures of cast irons are influenced by the following

factors.

I) Amount of Carbon:
With increasing carbon content, the tendency of graphitization i.e. formation of graphite
by decomposition of cementite becomes more and hence leads to the formation of gray
cast iron.
Fe3C ------------ 3Fe + C
The rate of graphitization reaction is dependent upon rate cooling. For slow cooling more
carbon get free from cementite and gives graphite flakes as free carbon called gray cast
iron while fast cooling does not allow free carbon and it remain in cementite form known
as white cast iron.

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II) Amount of Silicon:

Silicon is the strong graphitiser and promotes graphitization i.e. decomposition of
cementite in to iron and graphite. Hence its amount is controlled to control the amount of
graphitization. The amount of silicon varies from 0.5 to 3.0 % in various commercial cast
irons.
III) Amount of Phosphorous:
Phosphorous is also strong graphitiser and its content varies from 0.1 to 0.3 %.
Phosphorous combines with iron and forms iron-phosphide (Fe3P). This iron phosphide is
brittle and therefore it reduces toughness of cast iron. So the amount of phosphorous must
be controlled carefully to obtain optimum mechanical properties. However the advantage
of the phosphorous is that it increases the fluidity of cast iron and makes it easy to cast in
to the complex shapes.

IV) Amount of Sulphur:

Sulphur combines with iron to form iron sulphide which is hard and brittle. Due to its low
melting point it appears at the inter-dendritic regions in the solidified castings and
increases the brittleness of the casting. Addition of manganese reduces the detrimental
effect of Sulphur. Sulphur has greater affinity towards the manganese than the iron, and
hence in presence of Mn, manganese sulphide is formed instead of iron sulphide. MnS
appears as small and widely distributed inclusions of rounded shape. The range of
sulphur content in any cast iron is 0.06 to 0.12 %.

V) Amount of Manganese:
The most important effect of manganese is to reduce the brittleness introduced due to the
formation of iron sulphide. Any excess amount of manganese present after combining
with sulphur serves as a useful alloying element. Thus usual amount of manganese in the
C.I. is 5 to 8 times (0.5 to 1.0 %) of amount of sulphur.

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Graphite
flakes

Pearlite

Ferrite

Figure 3.1 Gray Cast Iron

Average Composition- 3.5% C, 3%Si
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- A microstructure shows dark graphite flakes in the matrix of ferrite and
pearlite is dark phase. Ferrite appears white as pearlite shows laminar structure.

Cementite

Pearlite

Figure 3.2 White Cast Iron

Average Composition- 2.8% C, 1%Si
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- A two phase Dendrite structure is observed. Cementite is bright phase while
pearlite is dark phase.

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Types of Cast Iron –

1) GREY CAST IRON:

Carbon is in not combined form, but it is free in the form of flakes. Percentage of carbon
varies from 3.2 to 3.7 %. Because of free carbon, structure is gray, and hence the name is
given ‘Gray cast iron’. Free carbon is due to the decomposition of the cementite. They
have excellent damping capacity due to more internal discontinuities which favors fast
description of vibrational energy. Also it is having excellent machinability, good
compressive strength and corrosion resistance. Graphite produced due to the
graphitization may have different sizes, shapes and distribution depending upon the
cooling conditions, composition and presence of certain element. This leads to different
mechanical properties.
Applications: These are widely used in machine beds, engine frames, and drainage pipes,
pump housings, fly wheels, piston of I.C. engine.
The typical microstructure of gray cast iron is as shown in figure 3.1.

2) WHITE CAST IRON:

In this cast iron, all the carbon is present in the form of combined carbon i.e. cementite
and there is no free carbon i.e. graphite. The appearance of the surface is white because
of absence of the graphite. Hence the name ‘white cast iron’. The graphitization is
suppressed by controlling the chemical composition and cooling rate. Lower silicon
content, lower carbon content and rapid cooling results in the prevention of
decomposition of cementite.
Applications: Road roller surface, pump liners, mill liners, grinding balls, dies and
extrusion nozzles. Not suitable for structural parts because of its excessive brittleness.
The typical structure of white cast iron is as shown in figure 3.2.

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Gray cast iron

White cast iron

Figure 3.3 Mottled Cast Iron

Average Composition- 3% C, 1%Si
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- A two type of structure is observed. Dark region is gray cast iron which
shows graphite flakes while bright region is white cast iron in dendrite from.

Nodular graphite

Ferrite

Pearlite

Figure 3.4 Nodular Cast Iron

Average Composition- 3.5% C, 3%Si
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Nital
Description- Three phase distinct structure of ferrite pearlite and graphite is observed.
Dark nodules of graphite is surrounded by ferrite and then by pearlite.

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3) MOTTLED CAST IRON:

This cast iron shows cementite as well as free graphite in the form of flakes in the
microstructure. Such microstructure is obtained due to intermediate cooling rate.
Generally outside surface shows white cast iron and core region shows gray cast iron as
outer surface cools fast as compare to core region. Due to this it has limited application in
engineering.
Applications: These are used in fire plugs, lamp post etc.
The typical microstructure of mottled cast iron is as shown in figure 3.3.

4) NODULAR CAST IRON:

In this cast iron, the graphite is present in spherical or nodular form. Such shapes are
prepared or formed due to addition of nedulizing element like Mg, Ca, Zr, Li etc. into the
gray cast iron. This increase the tensile strength, ductility and toughness.
Applications: Power transmission equipment, valves fittings, hydraulic cylinders, heads
of I.C. engine and compressors etc.
The typical structure of white cast iron is as shown in figure 3.4.

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EXPERIMENT NO-4

STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

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Figure 4.1 Equilibrium diagram of Cu-Zn alloy

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EXPERIMENT NO-4

STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

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Objective: To understand the details of microstructures of Nonferrous

alloys

Theory-
Non-ferrous materials are those which have some element other than iron as a principal
constituent. Non-ferrous alloys are having important properties which are helpful in our
day to day life. Some of the important nonferrous materials are copper & copper alloys,
Al and Al alloys and Tin and tin alloys etc. Due to the important properties of the copper
and copper alloys, they are widely used in the industrial as well as domestic application.
It has properties like good ductility and malleability because of FCC structure, high
electrical and thermal conductivity, and good corrosion resistance to general atmospheric
conditions and ability to getting alloyed with many other metals which helps in
improving its properties. Copper containing 0.6 % aluminum is called free cutting copper
because of its excellent machinability and is used for bolts, studs, welding tips and
electrical equipment.
Some of the copper alloys are studied with their microstructure are as given below.

1) Brasses:
Brasses are the alloys of copper and zinc. The equilibrium solubility of Zn in Cu is
around 38 % and influenced by the cooling rate. After 30 % zinc, the second phase β
(beta) is formed. Beta is the intermediate phase exhibits order-disorder transformation.
Below 4700C temperature, the structure of β is ordered (indicated as β’) and above this, it
is disordered. With more than 50 % Zn another phase γ is formed. The equilibrium
diagram is as shown is figure 4.1.

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Figure 4.2 Cartridge brass

Average Composition- 70% Cu, 30%Zn
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Ferric Chloride
Description- A single phase structure is observed. Grains are equiaxed. Grains shows
different contrast because of the different orientation.

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The mechanical property of brasses depends on the amount of zinc in the alloy. The
tensile strength and ductility of the brasses increase with increasing amount of zinc up to
about 30 % i.e. the solubility limit. With the appearance of the beta phase, the tensile
strength continues to increase but the ductility begins to decrease. Beta and Gama phases
are not as ductile as alpha solid solution. Therefore, majority of the commercial brasses
content zinc becomes quite brittle and finds almost no engineering application except for
brazing purpose.
Brasses are classified on the basis of the structure that is α –brasses or α-β brasses α –
brasses contain zinc less than 30 % and α-β brasses contain zinc between 30 to 44 %.

i) α –brasses:
They are soft, ductile, malleable and fairly good corrosion resistance in annealed
condition. All α –brasses are suitable for cold rolling, wire drawing, press work, and such
other operations. Some of the important brasses from this group are as below:
a) Cap copper: They contains zinc between 2 to 5 %. Zinc is strong deoxidizer; cap
copper is used in manufacturing caps of detonators in ammunition factory
b) Gilding metals: They contains zinc from 5 to 15 % and have different shades of
colour from reddish to yellowish according to zinc content. They are used for bullet
envelops, drawn containers, condenser tubes, coins, needles, and dress jewelry because of
colour like gold.
c) Cartridge brass: It contains about 30 % zinc and has maximum ductility and
malleability among all the brasses, and is used for forming by deep drawing, stretching,
trimming, spinning and press work operations. It is also called as 70-30 brass. It is used
for cartridge cases, radiator fins, rivets, and springs. In the as cast condition, it shows
heavily cored Dendritic structure. Coring can be removed by a suitable homogenization
or annealing heat treatment. Cold working and subsequent annealing replaces dendritic
structure by an equiaxised structure and removes coring. A typical microstructure of 70-
30 brass is as shown in figure 4.2.

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Alpha

Beta

Figure 4.3 Muntz Metal

Average Composition- 60% Cu, 40%Zn
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Ferric Chloride
Description- A two phase structure is observed. Bright phase is Alpha present at dark
matrix of beta phase.

Alpha

Sigma

Figure 4.4 Tin Bronze

Average Composition- 90% Cu, 10%Sn
Magnification- 200X, Etchant-Ferric Chloride
Description- A two phase structure is observed. Alpha phase is in dendrite form and
sigma phase is present at inter dendritic region.

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ii) α-β brasses:

Commercial α-β brasses contains zinc between 30 to 40 %. They are hard and
strong as compared to alpha brasses and are fabricated by hot working processes. These
two phase alloys become single phase beta (disordered) alloys at higher temperature.
Disordered beta has more ductility and malleability as compared to ordered beta (i.e. β’)
and therefore α-β brasses are hot worked at a temperature of above 6000C. Since zinc is
cheaper than copper, α-β brasses are cheap as compared to α brasses. They are also
suitable for casting purpose. However there corrosion resistance is poor as compared to
α-brasses. Some of the important brasses from this group are given below.

Muntz metal:
It contains about 40% zinc with balance copper. This is also called as 60-40 brass. The
alloy becomes single phase at about 7000C. However, it can be readily hot worked,
extruded or rolled in the temperature range of 600 to 8000C. Hot worked 60 -40 brass that
is Muntz metal shows a tensile strength of 35 t0 40 kg/mm2 and hardness of 100 to 120
VPN. It is used for utensils, shafts, nuts and bolts, pump parts, condenser tubes and
similar application where corrosion is not too severe.
There are number of other α-β brasses such as naval brass (1% tin is added in 60-40
brass), leaded brass (1-3 % Pb is added to improve the machinability), brazing brass (50-
50 brass) are used in respective applications. A typical microstructure is as shown in
figure 4.3.

2) Bronzes:
Alloys of any other elements with copper other than zinc are called as bronzes. Originally
the name bronze is given to the copper-tin alloys. Some of the commercial important
bronzes are aluminum bronze, tin bronze, beryllium bronze and silicon bronze.
a) Tin bronze:
Tin bronzes are the alloys of copper and tin. The copper rich portion is shown in figure
4.4. The solubility of tin in copper 13.5% at 7980C, increases to 15.8 % at 5860C and
remains constant up to 5200C, decreases to 11 % at 3500C, and to about 1 % at room

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temperature. A Peritectic reaction occurs at 7980C in alloys containing 13.5 to 25 % tin

resulting in formation of β phase undergoes in eutectoid reaction and forms a mixture of
α + γ phase. At 5200C the γ phase undergoes another reaction and forms a mixture of α +
δ. The δ phases decompose and give a mixture of α + ε phase by a third eutectoid reaction
at 3500C. However, this reaction is so sluggish that the ε phase is never seen in the
microstructure of alloys cooled under industrial conditions i.e. for sand cast and air
cooled alloys. The solubility limits are also affected by the cooling rate and the alloys up
to 8% tin usually shows single phase solid solution at room temperature, even though the
equilibrium solubility limit at room temperature is 1 %. Due wide separation of liquid
and solidus curves, coring is usually observed in all the as cast alloys. Cast alloys
containing more than 8 % tin show cored dendrites of α and α + δ eutectoid.

The microstructure of tin bronze is as shown in figure 4.4.

b) Aluminum bronzes:
These are the alloys of copper and aluminum and copper is base metal. The maximum
solubility of Al in Cu is 9.4 % at 5650C and eutectoid transformation occurs at 11.8 % Al.
The beta phase (analogous to γ in steels) transforms to α + γ phases (analogous to pearlite
in steels) on slow cooling. On quenching, the β phase transforms martensitically to β’
phase without change in composition. Phase β’ can be tempered and shows the changes
in properties in a manner very much similar to the tempering of steel. Commercial
aluminium bronzes contain 4 to 11 % aluminium. Other elements such as Fe, Ni, Mn and
Si may be added to these bronzes for improvement of certain properties. In general, these
bronzes are characterized by good strength, ductility and toughness with good bearing
properties and good corrosion resistance and good fatigue resistance. These alloys are
lustrous and their colour is finest of all the copper alloys and hence they are frequently
called as imitation gold.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 5

STUDY OF MACROEXAMINATION OF SPARK TEST.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 5

STUDY OF MACROEXAMINATION OF SPARK TEST.

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Objective: To know the steel family by spark observation

THEORY:
When a piece of metal or alloy is held against a revolving grinding wheel,
abrasive grains tear off small particles from the metal piece. This accelerating slowing
particles produce a visible beam of sparks. With studying this beam of spark, it is
possible to find approximate percentage of carbon and to identify the type of steel. So this
test is called as spark test.
i) Spark test consists of holding the piece of metal against a revolving grinding
wheel
ii) Various grades of steels gives spark produced with typical patterns which
serves as merit of identification. Even small quantity of some elements added
for special purpose such as Al and Ti can be detected.
iii) With care of practice spark testing developed into particularly developed and
inexpensive method of rapid identification and it is one of the most used
method for identifying metals.
iv) In spark test by studying colour, shape & average length of the beam the
material to be tested can be identified. The colour of the spark coming from
the grinding wheel usually will be red, white, orange, yellow etc.
v) Plain carbon steels are characterized by forked rays which are yellow with
white sparks at the end. The carbon content of the carbon steel can be
estimated by the no. of white sparks given off.
vi) Pure iron will show only forked rays with yellow colour.
vii) When Fe is alloyed with tungsten sparks will be bright red.
viii) If steel is alloyed with Ni ,spark will range according to alloy content from an
intense white to orange

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ix) The initial rays coming of white cast iron will have red stream slowly turns to
a stream yellow
x) Malleable cast iron gives out yellow spark shorter than mild steel and finer
and more feathers.
xi) High carbon steel sparks less bright sparking grinding wheel and more
feathery with secondary branching.
xii) High speed steel shows spark faint red, end streak ending in fork.
xiii) Cast iron shows faint red spark ending in bushy yellow spark.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 6

Study and Demonstration of Heat Treatment Processes such as Annealing,

Normalizing, Hardening

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 Heat treatment Record for Annealing:

Sr. No. Particular Time

1 Furnace start
2 Furnace start temperature
3 Temperature Achieved
4 Soaking Start
5 Soaking End
6 Cooling Start
7 Cooling End

 Rate of Heating: - It is the ratio of change in temperature during heating to the

time required to reach at that temperature.

T
Rh 
t
 Rate of Cooling: - It is the ratio of change in temperature during cooling to the
time required to reach at that temperature.

T
Rc 
t

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EXPERIMENT NO: 6

Study and Demonstration of Heat Treatment Processes such as Annealing,

Normalizing, Hardening
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Objective: To know the different heat treatment process of steel.

Theory:
Heat treatment is the process of heating of components to the predetermined temperature,
soaking it there for sufficient time and then cooling it with various cooling rates so as to
get desired mechanical properties. The basic important heat treatment processes are
Annealing, Normalizing and Hardening.
1. Annealing:
Annealing consist of heating of the steel to the predetermined temperature, soaking it
there for sufficient time and then cooling it with very slow cooling rate. Full annealing
process involves heating above A1 temperature (for Hypo eutectoid steel) and above A3
temperature (for Hyper eutectoid steel).
Objectives of the Annealing:-
a) To refine the grain structure and to improve the structure.
b) To relieve the internal stresses.
c) To reduce the hardness.
d) To restore the ductility during cold working.
Procedure:-
a. Take the EN 8 bar of 10 mm diameter & 10 mm length with ends flat and load in
the furnace.
b. Heat the sample up to predetermined temperature and soak for 45 min.
c. Allow the sample to cool in the furnace after switching off.
Conclusion: -
The specimen shows reduced hardness to much extent than original due to softening.

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 Heat treatment Record for Normalizing:

Sr. No. Particular Time

1 Furnace start
2 Furnace start temperature
3 Temperature Achieved
4 Soaking Start
5 Soaking End
6 Cooling Start
7 Cooling End

 Rate of Heating: - It is the ratio of change in temperature during heating to the

time required to reach at that temperature.

T
Rh 
t
 Rate of Cooling: - It is the ratio of change in temperature during cooling to the
time required to reach at that temperature.

T
Rc 
t

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2. Normalizing:-
Normalizing consists of heating of the steel to the predetermined temperature, soaking it
there for sufficient time and then cooling it in still air. Normalizing process involves
heating above A1 temperature (for Hypo eutectoid steel) and above Acm temperature (for
Hyper eutectoid steel).

Objectives of the Normalizing:-

a. To dissolve the cementite network in case of hypereutectoid steel.
b. To improve the machinability of low carbon steel.
c. To refine the grain structure of cast dendrites.
d. General refinement prior to hardening

Procedure:-
a. Take the EN 8 bar of 10 mm diameter & 10 mm length with ends flat and load in
the furnace.
b. Heat the sample up to predetermined temperature and soak for 45 min.
c. Remove the samples from the furnace and allow it to cool in the still air.

Conclusion:-
The specimen shows small reduction in the hardness with improved grain structure.

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 Heat treatment Record for Hardening:

Sr. No. Particular Time

1 Furnace start
2 Furnace start temperature
3 Temperature Achieved
4 Soaking Start
5 Soaking End
6 Cooling Start
7 Cooling End

 Rate of Heating: - It is the ratio of change in temperature during heating to the

time required to reach at that temperature.

T
Rh 
t
 Rate of Cooling: - It is the ratio of change in temperature during cooling to the
time required to reach at that temperature.

T
Rc 
t

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3. Hardening:-
Hardening consists of heating of the steel to the predetermined temperature, soaking it
there for sufficient time and then cooling it very fast near to critical cooling rate.

Objectives of the Hardening:-

a. To increase the strength hardness of the steel.
b. To increase the wear resistance of the steel.
c. To increase the toughness after tempering.
Procedure:-
a. Take the EN 8 bar of 10 mm diameter & 10 mm length with ends flat and load in
the furnace.
b. Heat the sample up to predetermined temperature and soak for 45 min.
c. Remove the samples from the furnace and quench it in the cold water or oil.

Conclusion:-
The specimen shows considerable increase in the hardness due to conversion of the
pearlite in to Martensite.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 07

STUDY OF DISTRACTIVE TESTING

A. Study of Hardness Testing

B. Study of the Tensile Test on Various Specimens.

C. Study of Impact Test on Various Metals

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Figure 7.1 Brinell Indentation

Brinell hardness no. is calculated as follows

Where,
D = diameter of indenter.
d = diameter of projected circular impression.
h = depth of penetration.
P = applied load in kg.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 07 (A)

Study of Hardness Testing

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Objective: To know the Hardness Testing process of steel.

Introduction:
Hardness of a metal or an alloy is defined as resistance offered by the metal for
indentation. It mainly depends upon the some important properties such as grain size;
yield strength, tensile strength, & ductility. It is to be observed that, hardness increases
with increase in the percentage of carbon. So low carbon steels are softer than the high
carbon steels. Hardness also depends upon some alloying elements, because they forms
alloy carbides, which are harder than the other phases.

There are different methods used for hardness measurement. Some of them are explained
as follows.
I] Brinell hardness test:
Theory:
1) Standard Brinell hardness test is mainly conducted for testing of various grades of
the steels and also for some non-ferrous metals.
2) For the standard test, a load of 3000 kg is applied at least for10 sec for the steels and
for nonferrous metals and alloys; it is 500 kg for 30 sec.
3) Load is applied by hydraulic mechanism gradually.
4) Thickness of the specimen must be 10 times more than the depth of impression.
5) Using small size indenters and lower load can also carry out the test.
6) The ball indenters are generally used for indentation, which are available in various
sizes such as 2.5 mm and 5 mm.
7) They are generally made up of tungsten carbide or high carbon steel.
8) The loads are also available in the sizes of 187.5 & 250 kg.

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Procedure:
 Take the specimen under test and clean it properly before the test.
 This is required to remove all the surface defects, oil etc.
 Select the ball indenter according to the grade of test material by referring the
standard chart.
 Select the proper load as explained above and apply it for the time given in the
theory.
 After full application of the load, release it and remove the specimen from the
platform.
 Measure the diameter of the impression by the special microscope
 Measurement of the diameter is possible with the accuracy of 0.01mm.

II] Rock-Well Hardness Test:

Theory:
1) In this method, hardness of metal is correlated with the depth of indentation. If
depth of indentation is less, more the hardness and vice versa.
2) Hence the hardness is inversely proportional to the depth of indentation. The dial
is calibrated in an inverse fashion so that the hardness number becomes directly
proportional to the hardness of material.
3) In this test two types of indenters are used,
a) Hard steel balls of 1/16”, 1/8”, 1/4” &1/2”.
b) Broad indenter is in the form of the cone with the included angle of 1200.
The tip of the indenter is accurately ground to a radius of 0.2 mm.
4) Load is applied in to two stages. First, minor load of 10 kg is applied and then
major load is applied. Major loads are 60, 100, 150 kg.
5) The various combinations (scale) of the load and indenters are available and can
be indicated by the letters A, B, C etc.

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Procedure:
1) Keep the specimen on the test anvil. The dial pointers are idle, neither minor nor
major load is applied.
2) The anvil along with the specimen is raised so that specimen touches the indenter.
Slowly the minor load of 10 kg is applied by rising the screw. With this, pointer
reaches at the position ‘0’ on the black scale.
3) Now refer the standard chart and apply the major load of 60 or 100 or 150
according to the grade of the specimen.
4) It is applied by the means of handle provided on the right hand side of the
machine.
5) Now release the handle after some time so that only major load is removed. The
pointer will now rotates and becomes idle to some position.
6) The digit directly indicates the hardness value because dial is calibrated in the
reverse manner.
7) Slowly move the anvil to the downward direction and remove the specimen.

Advantages:
i) As it uses both the types of the indenters, diamond as well as ball, it combines the
advantage of both Vickers as well as Brinell hardness test.
ii) Thin materials can also be tested without distortion.
iii) No need of the microscope to measure the indentation.
iv) Hardness number is directly calculated on the scale and hence calculations are not
required.

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Figure 7.2. Tensile testing machine

Observations:
1) Length of the specimen:
2) Diameter of the specimen:
3) Gauge length of the specimen:
4) Final gauge length of the specimen:

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EXPERIMENT NO: 07 (B)

Study of the Tensile Test.

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Objective: To know the Tensile Testing process of steel.

Theory:
This test is widely used to determine strength, ductility, resilience, toughness and several
other material properties. A test specimen of circular, square or rectangular cross section
of suitable size is prepared from the material to be tested. During preparation of the
specimen, care should be taken to avoid sharp changes in the section to reduce stress
concentration. This reduces the chances of failure of specimen at low stress values. The
specimen is held by suitable means between the two heads of a testing machine and
subjected to a progressively increasing tensile load till it fractures. A record of load
acting on the specimen with progressive extension of the specimen obtained. The
common machines used for the tensile testing are Universal testing machine, Hounsfield
tensometer, Instron and material testing machine. The test is carried out on the fixed
lengths called gauge length. Before the test two permanent marks are made on the
specimen at appropriate distance called original gauge length.

Apparatus: Universal testing machine

Procedure:
The specimen is fixed in the grips of testing machine. The range of load is selected
according to the requirement by the knob on R.H.S. of the machine. The elongation is
noted on the screen for the different loads.
Stress and strains are calculated from observation table. Finally the characteristics of the
necking are studied by plotting the graph of stress v/s strain.

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EXPERIMENT NO: 07 (C)

Study of Impact Test.

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Objective: To know the Impact Testing.

Theory:
i) A ductile material when crosses the limit of deformation, it is supposed to be
the failure. In case of brittle materials, failure means breakage.
ii) Under certain situations, a ductile material fails in brittle manner in the service
and a failure is characterized by low absorption of the energy.
iii) The factors, which contribute to the brittle type of failure, are: a tri axial state
of the stress, a low temperature and a high strain rate or rapid rate of cooling.
A brittle failure may be due to the any one of the above or combination of the
above factors in sufficient magnitude.
iv) A tri axial state of the stress, which exists at the tip of the defect in the
component and low service temperatures, are mostly responsible for the brittle
failure. This effect becomes more important at the high rate of the loading.
v) Therefore the susceptibility of the material for the brittle failure under
existence of these factors is determined by the tests which apply fast loads is
called as Impact test.

Charpy test and Izod test:

Charpy test is widely used in the United States and Izod test is in Great Britan for the
impact test.

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Procedure:
i) In each case the certain mass is released from some distance above the impact
point, which strikes the specimen.
ii) The kinetic energy of the head at the moment of impact is mv2/2, which is
equal to the potential energy of the head before its release (mgh).
Where, m = mass of the head
v = tangential velocity of head at the point of impact.
g = gravitational acceleration 9.806 m/s2.
h = height of the drop
From this it is observed that the drop height determines the velocity and drop height and
mass jointly determines the energy.
iii) For different tests and materials, different levels of kinetic energy and
tangential velocity at the point of impact are required and hence this can be
achieved by changing the mass of the head and the position of the pendulum
arm before release.
iv) A typical machine shown in fig. is having head weighing ‘20.932Kg’ with
arm having length ‘0.825m’. Both the Charpy and impact tests can be carried
out.
v) For the Charpy test the pendulum is released from the angle of 1400 (drop
height corresponding to 1.457m) and hence the potential energy is given as,

P.E. = 20.932 x 1.457

= 30.50 Kg-m
= 30.50 x 9.806 = 300 Joules

The impact velocity is V = √ 2 х g х l

= √ 2 x 9.806 x 1.457
= 5.346 m/s

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Figure 7.3. Impact testing machine

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vi) For Izod test, the pendulum of the weight 21.79 kg is released from an angle
of 850,21’ (the drop height corresponds to 0.758 meter) and hence the
potential energy is,

P.E. = 21.79 x 0.758 = 16.517 kg-m

= 16.517 x 9.806 = 162 joules.

The impact velocity is,

√ 2 x 9.806 x 0.758 = 3.856 m/s.

vii) A pointer is provided on a semicircular dial, which indicates the position of

the pendulum. The pendulum on the dial directly records the energy needed to
break the specimen. This value is a measure of the toughness.
viii) The calibration of the dial is according to the following equation.

Initial energy = Energy necessary + swing energy

of pendulum to fracture the specimen of pendulum

Mgh = Toughness + Mgh’

Therefore,
Toughness = Mg (h – h’)

= W (h – h’)
Where,
W = weight of pendulum (kg)
h = original height of the pendulum (m)
h’= swing height of the pendulum (m)

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Figure 7.4. Impact testing specimens

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Standard specimen:
The standard specimen for the Charpy test is the square prism 10 x 10 x 55 mm, V-
notched in center as shown in figure7.5. In many specifications a keyhole or U notch is
also used. The specimen is arranged in simply supported beam with a span of 40 mm and
the notch is on tension side i.e. on the opposite side of the striking edge, as shown in
figure 7.5 (b).
For the Izod test, square prism specimens 10 x 10 x 75 mm, V-notched as illustrated in
figure 7.6 are clamped to act as vertical cantilever with the notch on the tension side that
is on the same side of the striking edge as shown in figure 7.6 (b)..

Effect of variables:
i) Velocity: If the velocity of the striker is greater than the critical velocity, the impact
resistance of the material sharply decreases. Use of such velocities in testing of
material does not give the results. Therefore, the maximum velocity that the machine
can produce is always kept below the critical velocity of the material to be tested.
ii) Specimen size effect: size of the specimen has the following effects,
a) Decrease in either the width or the thickness of the specimen decreases the
volume of the metal undergoing distortion and hence it decreases the energy
absorption.
b) The decrease in size tends to decrease the degree of resistant. Due to this,
tendency to cause brittle fracture decreases and the energy absorbed increases.
iii) Notch effect: As the sharpness of V-notch increases, the energy of rupture decreases.
This is due to the increase in stress concentration.
iv) Temperature: Below certain temperature, failure is brittle and above this, it is ductile.
The mode of fracture changes at some temperature range and this temperature range
is called as Transition temperature range.

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Figure 8.1. Radiography Testing

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EXPERIMENT NO: 08

Demonstration of Non Destructive Testing Methods

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Objective: To understand the Non Destructive Testing Methods.

Theory:
A non-destructive test is an examination of an object in any manner, which will not
impair the future use fullness of the object. Although in most cases N.D.T. do not
provide the direct measurement of mechanical properties. They are very valuable in
locating material defects that could impair the performance of a machine member,
when placed in service. N.D.T. are used to make procedure may reliable, safe and
economical. Different N.D.T. are as follows
1. Radiography
2. Magnetic particle inspection
3. Fluorescent penetration test
4. Ultrasonic inspection
5. Eddy current test

1) Radiography:
Radiography of metal alloy may carry out using x-rays, Gama –rays, short wavelength
electromagnetic rays, able to going through relatively large thickness of metal. Gama
radiation is maximum penetration than that of x- rays. But the intensity is limited.
Radiography is a shadow of a material more or less transparent to a radiation. The x-ray,
which permits penetration, appeared dark on the negative as compared with region of
higher density, which absorbs radiations so hole appears as darker area. Whereas Cu
inclusion Al alloys appears as brighter areas.

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Figure 8.2. Magnetic Particle Testing

Figure 8.3. Liquid Penetrant Testing

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2) Magnetic Particle Inspection (Magna-Flux):

This method of detecting the presence of cracks, laps, tears, inclusions and similar
discontinuities in Ferro-magnetic materials such as Fe and steels. There are several
methods of magnetic particle testing. This can be used for detecting various kinds of
flaws in ferromagnetic component such as welding, casting, & forging of iron and steel.
In dry method of inspection fine ferromagnetic powder is applied on surface by means of
hand shaker so that the powder uniformly distribute on the surface of component. In wet
method of inspection, a liquid containing fine ferromagnetic particles suspended in some
carrier such as kerosene so petroleum oil is applied by some suitable method such as
dipping, spraying, or brushing. Magnetization of component is done by either using an
external magnetic yoke coil or by passing an electric current through it. A magnetic pole
is formed at the crack or flaw, which causes magnetic powder to concentrate this area and
flaws get easily detected. Transverse and lengthwise-detected flaws are as shown in fig.
The detection of subsurface defects will be depend upon the strength of the magnetic
field, the distance from the surface at which defect is located, the ratio of height of the
defect to the thickness of the component and the width of discontinuity.

3) Liquid Penetrant Test:

With the help of this test, porosity, invisible cracks and other defects on the surface of the
component can be easily detected. The important thing is that any material like ferrous,
non-ferrous, plastic, glass or ceramic can be tested.
The procedure is as follows,
a) Grease, oil or any other material such as scale is removed by cleaning the surface
by suitable solution and dry the surface.
b) Apply dye penetrant on clean and dry surface by dipping, brushing or any other
technique. The dye penetrate is allowed to penetrate in the surface flaws. Time
may be few seconds to hours depending upon the type of the crack.
c) Remove excess penetrant by soft and clean cotton.

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Figure 8.4. Ultrasonic Testing

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d) Apply developer on the surface, this pulls out the dye from the flaws and the
flaws are revealed by the colour of the dye. Instead of developer, special fine
developing powder or talk powder can be sprinkled on the surface on the dye so
that powder absorbs the dye from the flaws and they are immediately revealed.

4) Ultrasonic Testing:
This technique is used for the detection of internal and surface defects in sound
conducting materials. The principle is in some respects similar to echo sounding. A short
pulse of ultrasound is generated by means of an electric charge applied to a piezo electric
crystal, which vibrates for a very short period at a frequency related to the thickness of
the crystal. In flaw detection this frequency is usually in the range of one million to six
million times per second (1 MHz to 6 MHz). Vibrations or sound waves at this frequency
have the ability to travel a considerable distance in homogeneous elastic material. The
velocity at which these waves propagate is related to the Young’s Modulus for the
material and is characteristic of that material. Ultrasonic energy is considerably weakened
in air, and a beam propagated through a solid will, on reaching an interface (e.g. a defect,
or intended hole, or the back wall) between that material and air, it reflect a considerable
amount of energy in the direction equal to the angle of incidence. Usually oil, water or
grease, is applied to the surface. The pulse takes a finite time to travel through the
material to the interface and to be reflected back to the probe. The height of the peak
(echo) is roughly proportional to the area of the reflector, though there is on all
instruments a control, which can reduce or increase the size of an indication. Not only is
party of the beam reflected at a material/air interface but also at any junction where there
is a velocity change. Probing all faces of a test piece not only discovers the three-
dimensional defect and measures its depth, but can also determine its size.

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