CASTING

PROCESS

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Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of the
products.

Steps: - Making mould cavity - Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable
furnace. - Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity - allowed to solidify - product is
taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape We should concentrate on the
following for successful casting operation:
1. Preparation of moulds of patterns
2. Melting and pouring of the liquefied metal
3. Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
4. Defects and inspection

Advantages
1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made
by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and
welding, can be minimized.
2. Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As
a result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
4. There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can only
be processed this way. Turbine blades: Fully casting + last machining.
5. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting
processes are a limitation to this technique.
2. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration
the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are
die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed moulding process,
and shell moulding process.
3. Metal casting is a labour-intensive process

Typical sand mould

Important casting terms
Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mould is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is referred to by
various names such as drag – lower moulding flask, cope – upper moulding flask, cheek –
intermediate moulding flask used in three-piece moulding.

Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with the
help of pattern.

Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
mould.

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Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases.
It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

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Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface
of the mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.

Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

Mould Section and casting nomenclature, (a) top view, (b) front view

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Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the
mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity. Chaplets:

Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.

Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.

Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air

The basic steps in making sand castings are,

1. Pattern making,
2. Core making,
3. Moulding,
4. Melting and pouring,
5. Cleaning

Pattern making
Pattern: Replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare the mould cavity. It is the
physical model of the casting used to make the mould. Made of either wood or metal.
- The mould is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as
moulding sand, surrounding the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint
provides the mould cavity. This cavity is filled with metal to become the casting.
- If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‘cores’, are used to form these
cavities.

Core making Cores are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior surfaces of
castings. Thus, the void space is filled with molten metal and eventually becomes the
casting.

Moulding is nothing but the mould preparation activities for receiving molten metal.
Moulding usually involves:
1. Preparing the consolidated sand mould around a pattern held within a supporting
metal frame,
2. Removing the pattern to leave the mould cavity with cores. Mould cavity is the primary
cavity.
The mould cavity contains the liquid metal and it acts as a negative of the desired product.

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The mould also contains secondary cavities for pouring and channelling the liquid material
in to the primary cavity and will act a reservoir, if required.

Melting and Pouring The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as
melting. The molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the moulds are filled.

Cleaning involves removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting. Burned-on
sand and scale are removed to improve the surface appearance of the casting. Excess
metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the
casting for defects and general quality is performed.

Making a simple sand mould

1. The drag flask is placed on the board
2. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board
3. Drag half of the pattern is located on the mould board. Dry facing sand will provide a
non-sticky layer.
4. Moulding sand is then poured in to cover the pattern with the fingers and then the drag
is filled completely
5. Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. Peen hammers
(used first close to drag pattern) and butt hammers (used for surface ramming) are
used.
6. The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft. Too soft ramming
will generate weak mould and imprint of the pattern will not be good. Too hard
ramming will not allow gases/air to escape and hence bubbles are created in casting
resulting in defects called ‘blows’. Moreover, the making of runners and gates will be
difficult.

7. After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is levelled/removed with a straight bar
known as strike rod.
8. Vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern
to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and solidification. Done by vent rod.
9. The finished drag flask is now made upside down exposing the pattern.

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10. Cope half of the pattern is then placed on the drag pattern using locating pins. The
cope flask is also located with the help of pins. The dry parting sand is sprinkled all
over the drag surface and on the pattern.
11. A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at some distance from the pattern
edge. Riser pin is placed at an appropriate place.
12. Filling, ramming and venting of the cope is done in the same manner.
13. The sprue and riser are removed, and a pouring basin is made at the top to pour the
liquid metal.
14. Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.
15. Runners and gates are made by cutting the parting surface with a gate cutter. A gate
cutter is a piece of sheet metal bent to the desired radius.
16. The core for making a central hole is now placed into the mould cavity in the drag.
Rests in core prints.
17. Mould is now assembled and ready for pouring.

Pattern
The pattern and the part to be made are not same. They differ in the following aspects.
1. A pattern is always made larger than the final part to be made. The excess dimension
is known as Pattern allowance. Pattern allowance => shrinkage allowance, machining
allowance.
2. Shrinkage allowance: will take care of contractions of a casting which occurs as the
metal cools to room temperature. Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume when the
metal changes from liquid state to solid state. Riser which feed the liquid metal to the
casting is provided in the mould to compensate for this. Solid Shrinkage: Reduction
in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state. Shrinkage allowance is
provided on the patterns to account for this. Shrink rule is used to compensate solid
shrinkage depending on the material contraction rate
The shrinkage allowance depends on the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
material (α). A simple relation indicates that higher the value of α, more is the
shrinkage allowance.
3. For a dimension ‘l’, shrinkage allowance is αl (θf –θ0). Here θf is the freezing
temperature and θ0 is the room temperature.

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4. Machining allowance: will take care of the extra material that will be removed to obtain
a finished product. In this the rough surface in the cast product will be removed. The
machining allowance depends on the size of the casting, material properties, material
distortion, finishing accuracy and machining method.
5. Draft allowance: All the surfaces parallel to the direction in which the pattern will be
removed are tapered slightly inward to facilitate safe removal of the pattern. This is
called ‘draft allowance’.

6. Core and core print:

• Cores are used to make holes, recesses etc. in castings
• Where coring is required, provision should be made to support the core inside the
mould cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added
projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mould on which the sand core
rests during pouring of the mould.
• The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight
of the core during the casting operation.
7. Distortion allowance (camber)
• Vertical edges will be curved or distorted
• This is prevented by shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting
after distortion will have its sides vertical
• The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses
are caused on account of unequal cooling of different sections of the casting and
hindered contraction. Prevention:
• providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect
• Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance
(inverse reflection).
8. The tapped hole and slot will not be sand cast. They will be made by machining
operations.
9. The pattern shown is made in two halves which are located by dowel pins. This is called
‘split pattern’.
10. Pattern material: wood => light, easily workable, minimum tendency for checking and
warping

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 Pattern materials
• Patterns for sand castings are subjected to considerable wear and tear due to
ramming action that is required and the abrasive action of the sand
• Should be impervious to moisture because of changing surroundings
• Made of: wood, metal, plastics, plaster and synthetic materials
• Woods => white pine, sugar pine; The wood should be straight grain, light, easy to
work, little tendency to develop crack and warp.
• More durable: Mahogany
• For large castings: metal such as cast iron or aluminium
• When metal pattern is cast from the wooden master pattern, double shrinkage must be
provided on the wooden master pattern

Different ways for making a casting mold

Flat back pattern can be used for this. In this after completing, the mold cavity is either in
the drag side or in cope side or in both. The hole is formed by the molding sand. The
outside edge around the flat back is the parting line and it is the starting place for draft.
This is the simplest and easiest method. cope Using a dry sand core to obtain the core
and this is split pattern. The axis of the hole (and core print) is vertical in first case. The
second case is same as first, except that the hole axis is horizontal.

Consider a solid cylindrical pattern as shown above. The pattern is placed on the molding
board, rammed and rolled over. In order to withdraw the pattern from the sand, some of
the sand is removed and smoothened as shown. This creates a new parting surface. Thus
a parting line is made which joins parting line around the pattern. The operation of
removing the sand and making a new parting surface is called ‘Coping down’. The mold is
completed by ramming up the cope in a usual manner.

Bedding-in method
The solid cylindrical pattern can also be molded using ‘bedding-in method’.
• In this method, first the drag is partially filled with molding sand and rammed.
• After sufficient ramming, the pattern is pressed into the sand. In this, to have proper
ramming of sand, the sand close to the pattern is tucked and rammed tightly.

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 ▪ Sometimes, the pattern is removed, and the
sand is surface tested for soft spots. In case of
soft spots, ramming is continued with
additional sand till the sand is packed tightly.
• The pattern is again pressed downwards to
have a properly rammed mold cavity.
▪ Bedding-in is done so that the parting line is
about level with the surrounding flat sand
surface.
▪ Whenever a pattern is bedded-in, the drag
need not be rolled over.
▪ Bedding-in can be employed for making larger
molds using pit molding

False cope (sometimes called ‘odd side)

False cope technique is another method of molding the solid cylindrical pattern. This is
similar to bedding-in method, except that it is not required to ram the sand tightly under the
pattern, or the pattern shape is such that it is not possible to ram the sand tightly. The
pattern is first bedded into the cope without giving importance to the ramming of sand
beneath the pattern and a smooth parting surface is made.

The cope and pattern is then dusted with parting sand and drag part of flask is placed on
top of the cope. Ramming is then completed in a usual manner. The entire assembly is
clamped and rolled over on a sand bed. The clamps are removed and the cope, cope
bottom board are removed and destroyed.

The empty cope is then placed on the drag and usual ramming is performed. It should be
observed that the cope, first used, is a dummy block for creating the drag correctly. This is
called ‘FALSE COPE’

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 Green sand match
The main reason for making a green sand match is that the coping down operations can
be reduced to a greater extent, reducing the costs and time. Take an example like a
pattern with a parting line not lying in one plane (shown in first figure). This pattern should
be supported on a moldboard at the elevated end by a wood piece.

Once the ramming, rolling over and coping down are completed, the drag will look like as
shown in second figure. On top of this drag, a green sand match may be rammed up extra
hard without sprue and riser pins.

The completed green sand match with pattern in place is shown in last figure. The sand
match is now retained with the uneven parting surface to support pattern and for further
making of rammed drags. Also called hard sand match, POP match, cement match.

Gated pattern
In this, the gate is made part of the
pattern. In general, a gated pattern
consists of many small patterns
fastened together through gating.

Since gates, runners are part of the

pattern, time and cost are not spent in
making them separately. A number of
patterns are rapped and drawn from
the mold at the same time, saving
additional time.

Patterns requiring two or more parting surfaces

• First method of making a sheave wheel mold is through three-part flask, having a
middle flask region called ‘cheek’.
• another way is by using special green sand core.

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 Sheave wheel to be Three-part mold for sheave Using green sand core for
molded wheel casting making sheave casting
.
Cores for exterior casting surfaces
• Dry sand cores can be used for making the grooves
• Usage of core box is required for making core which makes this method not suitable
below certain quantity
• For large quantity, this method is preferred

Pattern for making a sheave wheel casting Mold with dry sand cores for making a
using a dry sand core for groove making sheave wheel casting

Cores for exterior casting surfaces

Using a dry core sand: - The over-hanging bosses are made using core prints, dry sand
core in place
- The dry sand core part is held in mold by using a nail to keep the core from floating
upward. Chaplets can also be used (described later).
Using a loose piece:
- A loose piece is held by using a bent pin
- Ramming is done properly around the loose piece. Later pattern and pin are withdrawn
carefully as shown.
Disadvantage:
- shifting of loose piece while ramming
- Loose pieces are used in core boxes for making cores with backdraft (horizontal
depression or projection)

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 Using a loose piece

Using Drawback
Drawback is employed for patterns with backdrafts (horizontal depression or projection). A
drawback consists of mold that can be drawn back in order to remove the pattern. As
shown in figure, a drawback is rammed around a rigid support called ‘arbor’ that is used to
move it.

Drawback is like a green sand core rammed up against the mold instead of making it in
core box. Once the pattern is removed, the drawback is located in the original place. It is
backed up with additional sand so that it will not displace during fluid filling. It is also used
for large molds for certain castings.

Tins
• Tins are made of sheet metal shapes that are used with patterns to make certain
internal and external shapes, but at the same time patterns can be removed from the
mold cavity

• They are thin hollow sheet metal shells that are attached to pattern before the pattern
in rammed up in sand
• When the pattern is withdrawn, they remain in mold and should fuse into the casting
• For ferrous castings, a tin-plated sheet steel of about 0.012 inch thick is used
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 Core and core print
Where a core does not extend entirely through the casting, it should be fixed/balanced
properly as shown. Too long cores cannot be balanced properly.

A pattern with a hanging core print is shown for making a piston. The core in the mold acts
as a cover for mold cavity and hence cope is not needed.

A method for molding two pistons at a time having one balanced core.

Using chaplets
- Chaplets are used to support a core and are placed between a core and the mold wall.
- As the mold is filled with molten metal, the chaplet prevents the core to float and move
upwards dislocating from its position.
- The part of chaplet in mold will be fused into the casting.
- chaplets not fused properly will create mechanical weakness and mold wall leak.

- They are generally made heavier rather than lighter, such that they seldom unite with the
surrounding metal.
- Tin or copper plated chaplets are used for ferrous castings to avoid rusting.
- Radiator chaplets having a flat square end are fixed in the pattern itself and will provide
good support to core along with rammed sand.
- First few inches of sand over the pattern should be carefully rammed and tightly packed.
- soft spots, packets should be rammed properly
- Large mold of considerable depth should be rammed layer by layer
- Floor rammers that are heavy and measure up to 5 feet long can be used. The moulder
will stand on the rammed sand.
- Nowadays pneumatic rammer is operated by compressed air with a butt shaped end
- Ramming should be done as close to vertical surfaces of pattern

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 Pit molding
Large castings are made in pits in foundry floor. Reinforced concrete is used to make
sides and bottom of pits.
• a bed of charcoal is used at the bottom of a pit to aid the escape of gases.
• bedding-in technique may be used since rolling over of drag is not possible.
• appropriate placing of pattern is done.

• several cores can be used for making delicate

shapes.
• Pit molding may take few days to weeks for
completion, and hence binders are added to the
molding sand which harden when air-dried.
• sometimes, the mold cavity is heated to harden with
time, by placing a stove down into the mold cavity
and covering the entire mold to keep the heat inside
the cavity.
• slow cooling of molten metal is allowed so that the
internal stresses can be minimized.

Low cost patterns for large molding

Meant for large, but few, castings: sweep, segmental pattern, partial pattern, skeleton
pattern

Sweep pattern: A sweep pattern consists of a board having a profile of the desired mold,
which is revolved around a spindle or guide produces the mold. Two are used – one for
sweeping the cope and other for drag.

Segmental pattern: meant for circular ring shaped large sections. Instead of using a full
pattern, part pattern is used. Once molding is done at one place, it is rotated to the
adjacent region and molding is done.

Skeleton pattern:
This consists of frame of wood representing the interior and exterior forms. Strickles (like
strike off bars) are used to remove excess sand which is purposely rammed with extra
thickness than required for desired mold surfaces

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Loam molding: Loam consists of 50% clay as compared to ordinary molding sand. Mixed
consistently to resemble mortar. Loam is applied on the surface of the brick framework.
The molds are dried in ovens before putting into use. This was used for making casting
bells for cathedrals or cannons for war in 13th century.

Ingredients used in sand for making molds/cores

Binders Used in Sand Casting for Molds, Cores

Clays: Wood –product binders: *‡
Fire clay (kaolinite) Natural resin (e.g., rosin, thermoplastic)
Southern bentonite (calcium Sulfite binders (contain lignin, produced in
montmorillonite) the paper pulp process)
Western bentonite (sodium Water-soluble gums, resins, and organic
montmorillonite) chemicals
Secondary mica clays (illite)
Protein binders (containing nitrogen): *
Oils: * Glue
Vegetables (e.g. linseed oil) Casien
Marine animal (e.g., whale oil)
Mineral (used for diluting oils given above) Other binders:
Portland cement†
Synthetic resins, thermosetting: *‡ Pitch (a coal-tar product) *†
Urea formaldehyde Molasses (usually applied in water as a
Phenol Formaldehyde spray)
Cements (e.g., rubber cement) †

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 Cereal binders made from corn: * Sodium silicate (water glass, CO2
Gelatinized starch (made by wet milling, hardening binders) †
contains starch and gluten)
Gelatinized corn flour (made by dry-milling * Harden by baking.
hominy) † Harden at room temperature.
Dextrin (made from starch, a water-soluble ‡ Available as either a liquid or a dry
sugar) powder.

Natural and Synthetic molding sand

Natural molding sand: This is ready for use as it is dug from the ground. Good natural
molding sand are obtained from Albany, New york etc.

The following average compositions are seen in natural molding sand:

65.5% silica grains, 21.7% clay content, 12.8% undesirable impurities.

Too much clay content and other impurities fill up the gaps between the sand grains. This
will hinder the necessary passage of steam and other gases during pouring of the mold.

Synthetic molding sand Synthetic molding sand is made by mixing together specially
selected high-quality clay free silica, with about 5% of clay. They are tailor made to give
most desirable results.

Some of the advantages of Synthetic molding sand are:

1.Refractory grain sizes are more uniform,
2. Higher refractoriness (= 3000oF),
3. less bonding agent is required (about 1/3rd of the clay percentage found in natural
molding sand),
4. More suitable for use with mechanical equipment

Advantages of natural molding sand:

1. moisture content range is wide
2. molds can be repaired easily

Core making
Generally, Cores are used for making interior surfaces of hollow castings and now-a-days
it is used for making exterior surfaces and for other purposes.
Green sand cores contain ordinary molding sand and dry sand core contains hardened or
baked sand.
Core mix contains clay free silica sand. This is suitably mixed with binders, water and
other ingredients to produce a core mix.
Synthetic core binders have some unusual properties like shorter baking times and
excellent collapsibility which reduces the defect castings.
Urea formaldehyde binders burn out faster and collapse at lower temperature as
compared to phenol formaldehyde binders. Thus urea formaldehyde binders are suitable
for use at lower temperature metals like Al, Mg, thin sections of brass, bronze.
Phenol formaldehyde binders are employed for thick sections of CI, steel castings
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 Core characteristics
Good dry sand cores should have the following characteristics:
1.Good dry strength and hardness after baking
2.Sufficient green strength to retain the shape before baking
3.Refractoriness
4.Surface smoothness
5.Permeability
6.Lowest possible amount of gas created during the pouring of casting

Core dryers
Cores must be supported properly in the green state, before they are baked, hardened.
Curved surfaces of the cores will be flattened if placed on the flat core plates
Cores should be prevented from sagging and breaking
Flat surfaces are required for supporting the cores. These are called ‘Core dryers’. They
are designed to support the cores.

Core dryers may be made as metal castings, with thin sections in order to absorb
minimum heat.
They are perforated for easy escape of gases.
For large quantity production, many core dryers are required.

Loose pieces in core boxes

Loose pieces are required for cores having backdraft on vertical sides. Such a loose piece
will form an entire side of the core.
The loose piece remains on the core, which will be removed later by horizontal movement.

Core wires, rods, arbors

Small core have sufficient strength after baking to withstand the molten metal upward
force. For iron castings the lifting force is four times the weight of a core.
Certain cores and slender cores which do not have strength are supported by embedding
wires, rods, arbors into the core sections.
Wires are meant for small cores, where as arbors are CI or steel based skeleton
structures. Removing arbors is an issue here, sometimes arbors are made in parts, bolted

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together to facilitate easy removal. Hooks are provided in the arbors for easy removal.
They sometimes project outside the core prints.

Core venting
Proper core venting is required especially if the cores are surrounded largely by molten
metal. The cores containing binders will produce gases, steam because of the heat
generated due to molten metal.
These gases should be vented out through core prints so that defects like ‘blows’ can be
avoided.
Large cores are sometimes made hollow.

Core blowing machines

• Core blowing machines are mainly suitable for large quantity parts manufacturing.
• The sand reservoir is first moved below the hopper, where it is filled with sand.
• The sand reservoir is then moved to the blowing position. The core box is placed on the
table and pressed up with the blow plate.
• The core box is rapidly filled with sand using a blower at the top with the help of
compressed air at high pressures.
• The air thus got trapped in the core box is vented out by suitable vents provided in the
core box.

• It is generally understood that because of blowing operation, larger grains tend to move
to the interior of the core and finer grains at the surface, creating a smoother surface.
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 Core box equipment for core blowing
• Core box should be complemented with core dryers for proper support, a blow plate to
fasten to the reservoir
• The core box contains blowing holes and the number, locations, size of the blowing holes
are important in proper filling of the core box. This prevents the presence of soft cores and
soft spots.
• vent area to blowing hole area is 5:1
• Sometimes the sand grains may not be conveyed properly due to the presence of
entrapped air channels.
• For continuous operation of the machine, many duplicate core boxes should be used.
Conveyors are also used to handle the operations properly.
• The upper half of the core box is sometimes used as the blow plate that is fastened to the
sand magazine.
• CORE SHOOTING can also be used to prevent some of the difficulties of core blowing.

CORE SHOOTING MACHINE

• Compressed air is admitted into the chamber and the chamber is closed during core
shooting

• large, fast acting valve is opened to admit the air around sand magazine
• this pressurizes the core mix and because of which sand gets filled in the core box

Core baking
• After cores are made and placed on the core dryer, they are taken to ovens for baking
• Baking removes moisture and hardens core binders
• Generally, core sand is a poor conductor of heat and hence heat penetrates slowly into
the interior sections of the cores
• In a core having thin and thick sections, the thin sections will be over baked, while thick
sections will be optimally baked
• Over baking of cores will result in destroying the binders and hence core will be just a
heap of sand
• Large core will be baked differently on the surface and in interiors, especially if the oven
is too hot
• cores that are not baked fully will create an excess of gas and cause blows in castings
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 Core ovens
Continuous ovens:
- Are those through which the core moves slowly on the conveyor.
- Continuous loading and unloading is followed and hence the baking time is controlled by
the rate of travel of the conveyor.
- Generally same sized cores are used in this.

Batch type ovens:

- No movement of cores occur
- Electricity, gas, oil are used for heating and temperature is maintained uniformly and
closely controlled by suitable instruments.
- Temperature is of the order of 450oF and this depends upon the binder.
- heating elements are properly spaced to have uniform/same temperature distribution
throughout the container.
- replacing new air from outside is done through blowers so that moisture can be
controlled.

Dielectric core baking

Rapid baking is possible by dielectric heating.

• Induction heating: used for heating materials which are conductors of electricity, like
metals, and is done in continuously varying magnetic field.
• Dielectric heating is done for non-conductors of electricity. In this alternating electric field
is established between two parallel plates which act as an electric condenser.
• The material to be heated is placed in between these parallel electrodes
• With a high frequency electric current (15 million times/sec) in ON condition, heat is
generated into the molecules.
• IN this case, the interior of the cores are heated rapidly as outer surfaces.
• Thermosetting synthetic resin binders, which cure app. at 250°F and which do not require
oxidation are well suited for dielectric heating.
• Small sized samples can be baked within 30 secs, while large sections need few minutes
• less chance of over baking or under baking.

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 Core coatings
• A fine refractory coating or facing is generally applied on the core surface by spraying or
by dipping the core into a tank containing facing liquid
• this is done to have a smoother cast surface by preventing the penetration of molten
metal into spaces between sand grains.
• Facing materials: finely ground graphite, silica, zircon flour
• after coating, the layer is dried, usually by torches, burners

Green sand cores

• Yield considerable cost savings.
• Handling them and keeping them in mold is tricky.
• Method 1: A green sand core can be rammed up on the dry sand core base.
• Method 2: Ram the green sand core around an arbor, by which it can be lifted.

Sand testing
Criteria used for sand testing: Moisture content, green and dry sand permeabilities,
compression, tension, transverse and shear strengths, deformation during compression
tests, green and dry hardness, clay content, grain-size distribution, combustible content,
pressure, volume of gases evolved, flowability, sintering point, resistance to spalling etc.

Moulding sand preparation and moisture content determination: The moisture content
controls practically all other properties of the sand. It is a varying property since water
content constantly evaporates during mold preparation. Purpose: adding sufficient water to
bring the moisture content to within desired limits, uniform distribution of water, adequate
coating of colloidal clay to each sand grain.

Moisture content determination:

• The simplest method is to dry a sample thoroughly at a few degrees above 212oF and to
consider its loss in weight as moisture.
• Drying can be done in a thermostatically controlled oven or in a instrument designed for
this purpose
• There is one MOISTURE TELLER which blows air through a 50 gm sample of sand that
is placed in a plate.

Testing rammed sand:

• Green permeability, green compression and few other properties are tested when the
sand is in rammed condition.
• The rammed densities should be within some range which is actually encountered in the
sand molds
• A predetermined weight of sand is placed into the hardened steel tube, which is closed at
the bottom by a pedestal
• Actually, the tube filled with sand and the pedestal are weighed
• The entire set up is placed into the sand rammer and the rammer is dropped few times
depending on particular standards, like three times etc.

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• the weight used will be a standard one. Depending on the ramming times, a standard
density is obtained.
• once the ramming is completed, the height of the rammed sand is evaluated and this
should be equal to 2 inches in length. If it is equal to this height, required density is
expected to be in the rammed sand.
• If the sand height is outside the range, the entire procedure will be repeated.

Green compression strength

The sand specimen is compressed between two plates connected to the ram of the
universal testing machine. The load at which the sand sample breaks will give the
compression strength. The same tests can be performed at high temperatures in furnaces
to find the compression strength at elevated temperatures.

Deformation and green hardness

During compression tests, the deformation of the sample can be recorded. The toughness
can be obtained from its ultimate strength times its corresponding deformation. Green
hardness is the hardness of the rammed sand that is measured by hardness tester like
Brinell hardness tester. A ½ inch diameter, spring loaded ball indenter is forced into the
rammed sand surface. The resistance to penetration will give the hardness of the sand
surface.
Heating the metal
Furnaces are used to heat (and melt) the metal to a molten temperature sufficient for
casting. The total heat energy required is the sum of
(1) the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point,
(2) the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid, and
(3) the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring
This is expressed as:

H: total heat required to increase the temperature of the metal to the pouring temp (in J)
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ρ: density (in g/cm3)
V: Volume of metal used for heating (in cm3)
Cs: Specific heat for the solid (in J/gC)
Tm : Melting temperature of the metal (in C)
Ta: Ambient temperature (or starting) (in C)
Hf : Heat of fusion (in J/g)
Cl: specific heat of the liquid metal (in J/gC)
Tp: Temperature of the pouring liquid (in C)

Assumptions valid for the above eqn. are,

1.Specific heat and other thermal properties of a solid metal are constant and not
dependent on temperature, but not really true especially if the metal undergoes a phase
change during heating.
2.Sometimes specific heat of metal in solid and liquid states are assumed same, but not
really true
3.Single melting point which is not valid for alloys as there is a temperature range between
solidus and liquidus temperature. Thus, the heat of fusion cannot be applied so simply as
indicated above.
4. There are no heat losses to the environment during heating, but not really true

Melting of metals
Gases in metals: The gases in metal is important in deciding the defect free castings. In
metal castings, gases may be mechanically trapped, generated due to variation in their
solubility at different temperatures and phases, generated because of chemical reaction.

Gases generally present are: hydrogen, nitrogen Hydrogen: Based on the solubility of
hydrogen, metals are divided as Endothermic (metals like Al, Mg, Cu, Fe, Ni), Exothermic
(like Ti, Zr) The solubility of hydrogen in various metals are shown in figure. Here solubility
S is the volume of H2 gas absorbed by 100 g. of metal. The solubility of hydrogen in solid
and liquid phases (pressure = 1 atmospheric) at solidus temperature is given in table.
ES : heat of solution of one molecule of hydrogen; sign determines endothermic or
exothermic.

Hydrogen removal:
For non-ferrous metals, chlorine, nitrogen, helium or argon is used. For ferrous metals and
Ni based alloys, nitrogen cannot be used. They form nitrides that affects the grain size. In
this case, carbon monoxide is used.

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Nitrogen removal: carbon monoxide can be used. A marked decrease in solubility of
nitrogen in ferrous metal leads to porosity in casting.

Vacuum melting is used nowadays for preventing the solution of gases in metals

Pouring, Gating design

A good gating design should ensure proper distribution of molten metal without excessive
temperature loss, turbulence, gas entrapping and slags. If the molten metal is poured very
slowly, since time taken to fill the mould cavity will become longer, solidification will start
even before the mould is completely filled. This can be restricted by using super heated
metal, but in this case solubility will be a problem. If the molten metal is poured very faster,
it can erode the mould cavity. So gating design is important and it depends on the metal
and molten metal composition. For example, aluminium can get oxidized easily.

Gating design is classified mainly into two (modified: three) types:

Vertical gating, bottom gating, horizontal gating

Vertical gating: the liquid metal is poured vertically, directly to fill the mould with
atmospheric pressure at the base end.

Bottom gating: molten metal is poured from top but filled from bottom to top. This
minimizes oxidation and splashing while pouring.
Horizontal gating is a modification of bottom gating, in which some horizontal portions are
added for good distribution of molten metal and to avoid turbulence

Aspiration effect
Aspiration effect: entering of gases from baking of organic compounds present in the
mould into the molten metal stream. This will produce porous castings.

Pressure anywhere in the liquid stream should not become negative.

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 Ideal and actual profiles of sprue

Approximating tapered spure

using choke mechanism
(a)Choke core,
(b) Runner choke
In many high production casting
systems, tapered sprue will not
be provided. Instead it is
compensated by having chokes
at the end of sprue or runner.

Preventing impurities and turbulence in casting

The items provided in the gating system to
avoid impurities and turbulence are:

Pouring basin: This reduces the eroding

force of the liquid metal poured from
furnace. This also maintains a constant
pouring head. Experience shows that
pouring basin depth of 2.5 times the sprue
entrance diameter is enough for smooth
metal flow. Radius of 25R (mm) is good for
smooth entrance of sprue.

Delay screen/Strainer core: A delay screen is a small piece of perforated screen placed
on top of the sprue. This screen actually melts because of the heat from the metal and this
delays the entrance of metal into the sprue, maintaining the pouring basin head. This also
removes dross in the molten metal. Strainer core is a ceramic coated screen with many
small holes and used for same purpose.

Splash core: provided at the end of the sprue length which reduces the eroding force of
the liquid metal

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Skim bob: this traps lighter and heavier impurities in the horizontal flow

Gating ratios
Gating ratio: sprue area: runner area: gate area Non-pressurized: has choke at the
bottom of the sprue base, has total runner area and gate areas higher than the sprue area.
No pressure is present in the system and hence no turbulence. But chances of air
aspiration is possible.
Suitable for Al and Mg alloys.
In this, Gating ratio = 1:4:4

Pressurized: Here gate area is smallest, thus maintaining the back pressure throughout
the gating system. This backpressure generates turbulence and thereby minimizes the air
aspiration even when straight sprue is used.
Not good for light alloys, but good for ferrous castings.
In this, Gating ratio = 1:2:1

Cooling and Solidification of pure metals

- Change of molten metal to solid state
- Solidification of pure metals and alloys are different
- The cooling curve of pure metals is shown in figure. Here solidification occurs at constant
temperature equal to its freezing point.

-The solidification occurs at prescribed time duration.

- Local solidification time: time between freezing start and freezing completion. In this time,
the molten metal heat of fusion is delivered into mould.
- Total solidification time: time between pouring and final solidification
- First liquid cooling occurs till freezing starts. Then solidification occurs for a time duration,
till freezing completes. Even after solidification is over, solid cooling occurs at a particular
rate as shown in the figure.

The grain structure in pure metals depends on the heat transfer into the mold and thermal
properties of the metal. The mold wall acts as a chiller and hence solidification starts first
in the molten metal closer to the mold wall. A thin skin of solid metal is first formed near
the mold wall. The solidification continues inwards towards the mold center. The initial skin
formed near the mold wall has gone through fast removal of heat and hence fine, equiaxed

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and randomly oriented grains are formed. When the solidification continues inwardly, heat
is removed through the mold wall and thin solid skin. Here the grains grow as needles with
preferred orientation. As these needles enlarge, side branches develop, and as these
branches grow, further branches form at right angles to the first branches.

This type of grain growth is referred to as dendritic growth. It occurs at the freezing of
pure metals and in alloys.

Solidification of alloys

- In alloys, solidification will not occur at a

particular temperature. It happens at a
temperature range. This range depends on the
alloy composition.

- Referring above figure, solidification occurs

between liquidus line and solidus line. Freezing
starts at liquidus temperature and ends at solidus
temperature. A skin layer is formed at the mold
end and the dendrites grow in a similar fashion
normal to the mold wall.

- However, because of the temperature difference between the liquidus and solidus line,
the nature of the dendritic growth is such that an advancing zone is formed in which both
liquid and solid metal exist together. The solid portions are the dendrite structures that
have formed sufficiently to hold small regions of liquid metal in the matrix. This solid–liquid
region has a soft consistency and hence called the mushy zone. Depending on the
conditions of solidification, the mushy zone can be a narrow zone, or it can exist
throughout the casting.

- Slowly the liquid islands solidify as the temperature of the casting goes down to the
solidus.
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Another complexity is the segregation of elements. As solidification continues and the
dendrites grow, an imbalance in composition between the solidified metal and the
remaining molten metal will develop. This composition imbalance will finally result in the
segregation of the elements.

- Segregation of elements can be microscopic and macroscopic. At microscopic level,

chemical composition varies with each grain. This is due to out of balancing of composition
between the first solidified region and the last solidified region. Thus, the variation in
chemical composition within single grains of the casting is generated.

- At macroscopic level, the chemical composition varies throughout the entire casting.
Since the regions of the casting that freeze first (say near the mold walls) are richer in one
component than the other, the remaining molten metal has got reduction in that
component by the time freezing occurs at the mold center. This creates difference in
composition at different cross sections of the casting. This is called ingot segregation.

Eutectic alloys: In these alloys, solidification occurs at a constant temperature rather than
over a temperature range. For these alloys, the solidus and liquidus are at the same
temperature.

Example: (i) 61.9% tin and 38.1% lead has a melting point of 183°C. This composition is
the eutectic composition of the Pb-Sn alloy system. The temperature 183°C is its eutectic
temperature. (ii) Aluminum–silicon (11.6% Si) and cast iron (4.3% C).

Solidification shrinkage
Major three stages in shrinkage:
(i) Contraction of liquid before solidification during cooling
(ii) Contraction during liquid to solid phase change
(iii) Contraction of solid metal during cooling to RT

Stage 1: The level of poured molten metal is shown in a mold container.

Stage 2: Solidification front has started at the mold wall. The level of liquid metal has
reduced at the open surface due to liquid contraction. The amount of liquid contraction is
app. 0.5%.

Stage 3: Two effects are seen in this stage.

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- First effect – contraction causes further reduction in the height of the casting.
- Second effect – top centre portion is the last to get frozen. The amount of liquid metal
present to feed the top centre portion of the casting becomes restricted. Absence of metal
in this region creates a void in the casting. This will be converted into ‘shrinkage cavity’.

Stage 4: Once solidified, both height and diameter contracts resulting in shrinkage cavity
at the top centre. This will be seen as a ‘Pipe’, in case casting is done in a tube like
container which does not have mold wall at the bottom.

Solidification shrinkage occurs almost in all metals because the solid phase has a higher
density than the liquid phase. The phase transformation that occurs during solidification
causes a reduction in the volume per unit weight of metal. But cast iron containing high
carbon content is an exception, whose solidification during the final stages is complicated
by graphitization, which results in expansion. This will tend to oppose the decrease in cast
volume associated with the phase change.

Compensation for shrinkage cavity: by providing riser, by following shrink rule to have
shrinkage allowances.

Directional solidification
There are few methods by which damages due to shrinkage can be minimized. They are
directional solidification methods.

Method 1: Providing risers: It is desirable for the regions of the casting far away from the
liquid metal supply to freeze first and for solidification to progress from these remote
regions toward the location of riser. In this way, molten metal will continually be available
from the risers to prevent shrinkage voids during freezing.

For example, the regions of the cast with lower V/A ratios should be placed far away
from the riser location. Solidification will start from these locations and it will
progress towards the riser location where bulkier sections of the cast are present.
Hence the bulkier sections will continually received molten metal from the risers till
freezing.

Method 2: Providing chills: Chills can be provided at appropriate locations in order to

have rapid solidification at those points. Internal and external chills can be provided.

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Internal chills: small metal parts are placed inside the mould cavity before pouring so that
the molten metal will solidify first around these parts. The internal chill should have a
chemical composition similar to the metal being poured, so that it can be made out of
same cast metal.

External chills: They are metal inserts kept in mould walls that can extract heat from the
molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in order to promote localized
solidification. They are mainly used in sections of the casting that are difficult to supply
with molten metal.

Rate of solidification
In order to place the riser properly and it
does not solidify before the casting, we
should know about the
(i) time taken by the casting to solidify,
and (ii) distance to which solidification is
completed from the mold surface.

We know that the heat rejected by the

molten metal is dissipated through the
mould wall. The heat thus released
passes through FIVE different layers.
The temperature distribution in these
layers is shown in figure.

Riser design
The riser can be designed as per Chvorinov’s rule mentioned earlier. The following
example will illustrate the same.

A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mold. The casting itself is a steel
rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm x12.5 cm x 2.0 cm. Previous observations have
indicated that the solidification time for this casting is 1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will
have a diameter-to-height ratio as 1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so that its
solidification time is 2.0 min.

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 Sand Casting
We have already seen sand casting processes. The steps involved in this process is
shown here briefly.

Other casting: Two types –

(I) Expendable moulding,
(II) Permanent moulding

Expendable moulding processes

Shell moulding. The shell moulding is a casting process in which the mould is a thin shell
of 9 mm thick. This is made of sand held together by thermosetting resin binder.

A metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting
resin

The dump box is inverted so that sand and resin mixture fall on the hot pattern, causing a
layer of the mixture to partially cure on the pattern surface to form a hard shell.

The box is positioned to the previous stage, so that loose, uncured particles drop away.

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Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing The shell mold is
removed from the pattern and two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by
sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is completed The part made by this method is
shown in the lower last figure.

Advantages of shell moulding process

• The surface of the shell mould is smoother than conventional green sand mould. This
permits easier flow of molten metal during pouring and better surface finish on the final
casting.
• Surface finish of the order of 2.5 μm can be obtained. Good dimensional tolerances of
the order of ± 0.25 mm can be reached in a small to medium sized parts.
• Machining operations are reduced because of good surface finish.
•can be mechanized for mass production and will be economical too.

Disadvantages
• expensive metal pattern is required, and hence not suitable for small quantities.
Examples of parts made using shell molding include gears, valve bodies, bushings, and
camshafts.

Vacuum moulding
In this process, a sand mold is held together by vacuum pressure and not by a chemical
binder. The term vacuum in this process refers to the making of the mold, rather than the
casting operation. Casting operation is same as any other process.

Advantages:
• No binders are used and hence sand is readily recovered in vacuum molding
• Mechanical ramming is not required
• Since no water is mixed with the sand, moisture related defects are absent from the
product

Disadvantages:
• relatively slow and not readily adaptable to mechanization

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 EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE PROCESS

In this process, a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern is used. This
pattern will vaporize when the molten metal is poured into the mold.
• The refractory compound will provide a smoother surface on the pattern and to improve
its high temperature resistance.
• Molding sands usually include bonding agents.
• Also called as lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam process.
• The foam pattern includes risers, sprue, gating system, internal core.
• Parting lines and draft considerations are reduced.

Investment casting
In this casting process, a pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make
the mold surface, after which the wax is melted away while pouring the molten metal.
“Investment” means “to cover completely” which refers to the coating of the refractory

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material around the wax pattern. This is a precision casting process. Using this we can
make castings of high accuracy with intricate details.

• Wax patterns are first made

• several patterns can be attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree, if required
• the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material and later covered with
thick coating to make the rigid full mold
• Heating of mold in inverted position to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity
• the mold is preheated to a high temperature so that contaminants are eliminated from the
mold
• the molten metal is poured and it solidifies
• the mold is removed from the finished casting

Refractory coating:
• Slurry of very fine grained silica or other refractory, in powder form, mixed with plaster to
bond the mold into shape. The small grain size of the refractory material delivers smooth
surface and captures the intricate depths of the wax pattern.
• Mold is allowed to dry in air for about 8 hours to harden the binder.

Advantages:
(1) Complex and intricate parts can be cast
(2) tolerances of 0.075 mm are possible

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(3) good surface finish is possible
(4) In general, additional machining is not required – near net shaped part

Applications: - Steels, stainless steels, high temperature alloys can be cast - Examples of
parts: machine parts, blades, components for turbine engines, jewellery, dental fixtures.

Plaster mold and ceramic mold casting

Plaster mold:
•similar to sand casting, except mold is made of POP and not sand
•To minimize contraction, curing time, reduce cracking, additives like talc and silica flour
are mixed with the plaster.
•Curing time: 20 mts, baking time: several hours
•Permeability is low. This problem is solved by using a special mold composition and
treatment known as the Antioch process. IN this operation, about 50% of sand is mixed
with the plaster, heating the mold in an autoclave, and then drying is done. Good
permeability is attained by this treatment.
•Used only for Al, Mg, Cu based alloys

Ceramic mold:
•mold is made of refractory ceramic materials which can withstand high temp. than plaster.
•Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, CI, and other high temp. alloys.

Permanent mold process Disadvantage of expendable molding processes is that for every
casting a new mold is required.

Permanent mold processes:

• using only metal mold for casting
• Molds are generally made of steel, CI
• materials that can be cast: Al, Mg, Cu based alloys, CI (affect the mold life, hence not
used)
• cores are also made of metal, but if sand is used then called semi permanent-mold
casting
• Advantages: good surface finish, dimension tolerance, rapid solidification causes fine
grains to form giving stronger products
• limitations: restricted to simple part geometries, low melting point metals, mold cost is
high. Best suitable for small, large number of parts

Steps in permanent mold process

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Preheating facilitates metal flow through the gating system and into the cavity.
The coatings aid heat dissipation and lubricate the mold surfaces for easier separation of
the cast product

Variations of permanent mold casting

Low pressure casting:
• In the earlier casting process, metal flow in mold cavity is by gravity pull, but in low
pressure casting, liquid metal is forced into the cavity under low pressure, app. 0.1 MPa,
from beneath the surface so that metal flow is upward.
• advantage: molten metal is not exposed to air; gas porosity and oxidation defects are
minimized

Vacuum permanent mold casting: variation of low pressure casting, but in this vacuum is
used to draw the molten metal into the mold cavity.

Die casting
In this process, high pressure of app. 7 to 350 MPa is used to pressurize the molten metal
into die cavity. The pressure is maintained during solidification. Category: hot chamber
machines, cold chamber machines Die casting hot chamber machines: - Molten metal is
melted in a container attached to the machine, and a piston is used to pressurize metal
under high pressure into the die. Typical injection pressures are between 7 and 35 MPa. -
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Production rate of 500 parts/hour are common. - Injection system is submerged into the
molten metal and hence pose problem of chemical attack on the machine components.
Suitable for zinc, tin, lead, Mg.

cold chamber machines:

- Molten metal is poured from an external unheated container into the mold cavity and
piston is used to inject the molten metal into the die cavity.
- Injection pressure: 14 to 140 MPa.
- Though it is a high production operation, it is not as fast as hot chamber machines.

Die casting molds are made of tool steel, mold steel, maraging steels. Tungsten and
molybdenum with good refractory qualities are also used for die cast steel, CI.

Advantages of die casting: - high production rates and economical

- Close tolerances possible of the order of ±0.076 mm
- thin section with 0.5 mm can be made
- small grain size and good strength casting can be made because of rapid cooling

Centrifugal casting
- In this method, the mold is rotated at high speed so that the molten metal is distributed by
the centrifugal force to the outer regions of the die cavity.
- includes: true centrifugal casting, semi centrifugal casting.

- Molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a tubular part (pipes, tubes,
bushings, and rings)
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- Molten metal is poured into a horizontal rotating mold at one end. The high-speed
rotation results in centrifugal forces that cause the metal to take the shape of the mold
cavity. The outside shape of the casting can be non-round, but inside shape of the casting
is perfectly round, due to the radial symmetry w.r.t. forces.
- Orientation of the mold can be horizontal or vertical

Semi centrifugal casting

In this process, centrifugal force is used to produce non-tubular parts (solid), and not
tubular parts. GF will be around 15 by controlling the rotation speed. Molds are provided
with riser at the center. Generally the density of metal will be more at the outer sections
and not at the center of rotation. So parts in which the center region (less denser region)
can be removed by machining (like wheels, pulleys) are usually produced with this
method.
Defects in sand castings

Sand blow and Pinholes: defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity or gas cavities
caused by release of mold gases during pouring. It is present just below the casting top
surface. Low permeability, bad gas venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold
are the usual causes. Sand wash: surface dip that results from erosion of the sand mold
during pouring. This contour is formed in the surface of the final cast part. Scab: It is
caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and gets embedded
in the casting surface.

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Penetration: surface defect that occurs when the liquid penetrates into the sand mold as
the fluidity of liquid metal is high, After solidifying, the casting surface consists of a mixture
of sand and metal. Harder ramming of sand mold minimize this defect.

Mold shift: defect caused by displacement of the mold cope in sideward direction relative
to the drag. This results in a step in the cast product at the parting line.

Core shift: displacement of core vertically. Core shift and mold shift are caused by
buoyancy of the molten metal.

Mold crack: ‘fin’ like defect in cast part that occurs when mold strength is very less, and a
crack develops, through which liquid metal can seep.

Common defects in casting

Misruns: castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity. This occurs
because of (1) low fluidity of the molten metal, (2) low pouring temperature, (3) slow
pouring, (4) thinner cross-section of the mold cavity.

Cold Shuts: This defect occurs when two portions of the metal flow together but no fusion
occurs between them due to premature freezing.

Cold shots: forming of solid globules of metal that are entrapped in the casting. Proper
pouring procedures and gating system designs can prevent this defect.

Shrinkage cavity: cavity in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal present in the last region
to freeze. It is sometimes called as ‘pipe’. Proper riser design can solve this problem.

Micro-porosity: network of small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by

localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal.

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