Introductory Engineering Geology

6. STRATIGRAPHY
6.1 Introduction
Stratigraphy is that branch of geology that deals with formation, composition,
sequence, and
correlation of stratified rocks. Stratigraphy can also be defined as the geological
study of
strata and their succession. It is the description, organization and classification
of stratified
rocks, particularly the sedimentary rocks. It is subdivided into lithostrtigraphy
and
biostratigraphy.
Lithostratigraphy is the study of stratified sequence purely on the basis of
lithological
characteristics.
Biostratigraphy encompasses the various phases of biology and palaentology
applicable to
stratigraphy study. It is the use of fossils in stratigraphy.
Stratigraphy seeks to interpret past events are record in rocks. It therefore aims
to reconstruct
the past geography, the pale climate and the paleo environment, if the planet earth
from
records of rocks and their enclosed fossils.

6.2 Geologic Time

Geologic time refers to long periods of time measured in millions to billions of
years in the
rock record. However, geologic time can also record events that might be only a few
hours or
minutes in duration, like a catastrophe.
Paleontologists have made a detailed record of the evolution of life through
Earth’s history.
This record is the basis for the geologic time scale and is referred to as relative
time. The
geologic time scale subdivides the 4.5 billion year history of the Earth into
shorter time
periods, based on changes in fossils.
The broadest division of geologic time is the Eon. There are two Eons, the Pre-
Phanerozoic
(or Precambrian) and Phanerozoic.
The Precambrian stretches from the formation of the Earth 4.5 billion years ago
until the
start of the Phanerozoic Eon, about 560 million years ago. There are many fossils
in
PrePhanerozoic rocks, but they are almost all microscopic.
Phanerozoic means “visible life.” The rocks of the Phanerozoic Eon, which covers
about the
last 560 million years of Earth history, are characterized by abundant visible
fossils. Eon can
be subdivided into Era.
The phanerozoic is subdivided into three eras;

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(i) The Paleozoic (Ancient life)
(ii) The Mesozoic (Intermediate life) and
(iii) The Cenozoic (New life)
Most of the phanerozoic has been divided upon the basis of fossils found in rocks.
Although
some plants and animals did exist before that time, they were generally very
primitive, and
did not leave many “hard parts” to become fossilized. Only after the precambrian
did shelly
marine animals begin to flourish and diversify. Eras consist of several periods
which in turn
may be subdivided into lower, middle and upper parts. Figure 6.1 shows geologic
time scale.

Figure 6.1: Geologic Time Scale

6.3 Principles of stratigraphy
Principles of stratigraphy: In stratigraphy study more commonly evoked principles
are: (i)
the law of original horizontality; (ii) the principle of superposition; (iii) the
uniformitarian
principle and (iv) the principle of faunal succession.

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The law of original horizontality (Steno, 1669): This states that water laid
sediments are
deposited in the beds that are not far from horizontal and parallel or nearly
parallel to the
surface in which they are accumulated.
The principle of superposition: This states that the order of deposition of
sediments is from
the bottom upwards. Each layer of sedimentary rock (sediment) in a tectonically
undisturbed
sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it (See
Figure 6.2)

Figure 6.2: Layers of sedimentary rocks

The principle of uniformitarian (Hutton, 1700s): This states that the “present is
the key to
the past.” This means that rocks formed long ago at the earth’s surface may be
understood
and interpreted in terms of the physical processes operating today. The processes
that shaped
Earth throughout geologic time were the same as those observable today. Sometimes
there
are environments/conditions that do not have good modern analogues
The principle of fauna succession (William Smith, late 1700's): This principle
states that
the oldest fossils in a series of sedimentary rock layers will be found in the
lowest layer.
Progressively younger fossils occur in higher layers. This is the same concept as
superposition, but it helped geologists realize that you can look at the age of
these layers and
assign relative dates. This parallels evolution. Younger organisms replace older
organisms as
the older ones become extinct.
6.4 Stratigraphy sequence
The first step in stratigraphy study is to identify and group stratas into
lithological units like
sandstone, shale, limestone, etc. The next is to establish sequence of the
lithological unit in
time. For this the principle of superposition is regarded as the basis of all
stratigraphic
undertaking. This generalization has been applied worldwide to establish the
correct sequence
of strata in stratigraphic columns.

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Stratigraphic Columns: A stratigraphic column is a succession of sedimentary rocks
in an
area. This is subdivided and differentiated into significant and useful units. This
is achieved
based on the physical and biological characteristics of various horizons or levels
that
constitute the column. The biological characteristics are represented by the
numbers and type
of fossils present in the sequence. The lithology and unconformity represent the
physical
events. The basic unit into which the geological column is subdivided is the
formation. A
formation is characterized by the following:
(a) A distinctive lithological composition or a distinctive interbedded or
intergraded
succession of lithological types
(b) Observable lithological separation from adjacent units above and below, and
(c) Traceability from exposure to exposure in the field or from well in the
subsurface.

6.5 Transgression and Regression

The geologic history and the successive build up of rocks of many regions are
influenced by
natural phenomena such as worldwide Orogenesis and Epirogeny. The former is the
process
of mountain building while the latter is the depression of the levels. These
phenomena result
in abrupt uplifts and depression of portions of the earth’s crust, withdrawal of
sea from land
surfaces known as Regression and invasion of land surface by the sea known as
Transgression as well as the climate changes and biological changes as were
recorded in
fossils that occur in rocks. The changes leave their tell-tales of unconformities.
The two types transgression (depositional and erosional) result in a stratigraphic
sequence in
which deeper water facies overflow shallow marine deposits i.e. the sequence get
finer
upwards at any point (e.g. marine sediments over terrestial sediments)
Regression can also be viewed in another light. Where the volume of sediments
supplied to
an area requires more energy for its removal than is available, baselevel uses and
the surplus
sediments accumulate, with the extension of land the facies prograde. The first
concept
results in erosional depression while the latter derived concept leads to
depositional
regression. Deltas are good examples of depositional regression.
6.5.1 Unconformities
Sedimentary rocks accumulate in successive layers of deposition, which are not only
horizontal but parallel. The beds are said to lie conformably one on the other,
causing
stratification. When beds are deposited on a tilted, folded or eroded surface of an
older series,

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so that an obvious demarcation boundary occurs, such a junction between the older
and
newer series is known as an Unconformity. Unconformity results from reversals of
the local
process of erosion and sedimentation in an area. There is nearly always an angular
difference
between the beds comprised in each series. When there is angular discordance
between strata
above and below (Angular Unconformity), but should the beds above and below such a
junction be parallel, that is no angular discordance, but with the erosion surface
showing
significant relief, it is called Disconformity. When there is no relief on erosion
surface, no
angular discordance, it is referred to as Paracomformities.
The term Non-Conformity refers to a type of unconformity in which sedimentary rocks
are
deposited in layers over a stratum over a layer of igneous rocks.

Figure 6.3: Unconformities

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6.6 Significance of stratigraphy

The established succession or sequence of sedimentary rock implies relative ages
and this has
some engineering significance. Site investigation for sensitive structures like
dam, nuclear
power plants, bridges, high rise buildings aim to establish the soil rock interface
as boring
depths for the structures are usually taken as far down on the bedrock. In other
civil
engineering structures, the boring depths are taken as far down as to all beds
whose physical
behaviour is likely to have a bearing on the stability of the proposed
superstructure.
Knowledge of local stratigraphy is also very important in mineral resource
exploration and
exploitation, particularly petroleum hydrocarbons. Carbonate reefs remain the only
type of
stratigraphy feature that has been particularly discovered and mapped successfully
by
reflection seismic technique.
The knowledge of depositional stratigraphy of an area is of vital importance in
predicting the
most favourable area for oil accumulators.

6.7 Fossils
Fossils are recognizable organic structures or impression of such structures,
preserved mainly
in sedimentary rocks. The term implies enormous age as it is used only for remains
of
organisms. They occur only in strata of 600 million years and younger. However,
precambian
limstones in Zimbabwe bear records of plant life- calcareous algae. This occurrence
takes the
record of life back in time to 2600 million years – the age of the limestone.
Fossils are most
abundant in rocks laid down in relative shallow seas. They are relatively sparse or
lacking in
rocks of continental origin.

6.7.1 Significance of fossils

The study of fossils has contributed much to the broader fields of economic geology
and
historical geology. Of far more significance in the former fields is the role of
fossils in
petroleum exploration and oil field development. Distribution of hydrocarbons in
the field
often depends on underground geologic structure and especially on how the deeply
buried
strata are flexed, filled and folded.
Correlation of beds from wells to wells using species of forminifera affect in
part, some
insight on how to determine the sub-surface structure. Worldwide correlation of
beds of

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several kilometers apart is affected in part on the basic fossil content. In
general, resolution in
fossil correlation is claimed to be better than that provided by radiometric
methods or by
physical stratigraphy.
In interpreting the past as records in rocks and the fossils content recourse is
made to the
uniformitarian principle. In projecting of the present to the past, insight can be
gained into the
past ecology, the past climate, the past geography and environment of deposition of
strata
bearing fossils.