3 Main causes of false differential current in transformer
Differential current
Certain phenomena can cause a substantial differential current to flow,
when there is no fault, and these differential currents are generally sufficient
to cause a percentage differential relay to trip. However, in these situations,
the differential protection should not disconnect the system because it is not
a transformer internal fault.
Differential power transformer protection scheme
Such phenomena can be due to the non-linearity’s in the transformer core.
Some of these situations are considered below..
1. Inrush Current
2. Over Excitation Conditions
3. Current Transformer Saturations
1. Inrush currents
Magnetizing inrush current in transformers results from any abrupt
change of the magnetizing voltage. Although usually considered as a result
of energizing a transformer, the magnetizing inrush may be also caused by..
Occurrence of an external fault
Voltage recovery after clearing an external fault
Change of the character of a fault (for example when a phase-to-
ground fault evolves into a phase-to-phase-to-ground fault)
Out-of-phase synchronizing of a connected generator
An example of inrush current following a reclose operation measured at
the distribution substation breaker
Example inrush current measured at a substation
(many distribution transformers together)
Since the magnetizing branch representing the core appears as a shunt
element in the transformer equivalent circuit, the magnetizing current
upsets the balance between the currents at the transformer terminals, and is
therefore experienced by the differential relay as a “false” differential
current.
The relay, however, must remain stable during inrush conditions. In
addition, from the standpoint of the transformer life-time, tripping-out
during inrush conditions is a very undesirable situation! Breaking a current
of a pure inductive nature generates high overvoltage that may jeopardize
the insulation of a transformer and be an indirect cause of an internal fault).
The following summarizes the main characteristics of inrush currents //
Generally contain DC offset, and even harmonics.
Typically composed of unipolar or bipolar pulses, separated by
intervals of very low current values.
Peak values of unipolar inrush current pulses decrease very slowly.
Time constant is typically much greater than that of the exponentially
decaying dc offset of fault currents.
Second-harmonic content starts with a low value and increases as the
inrush current decreases.
Practical Considerations Of Transformer Inrush Current
Inrush current phenomenon
When a transformer is initially connected to a source of AC voltage, there
may be a substantial surge of current through the primary winding
called inrush current. This is analogous to the inrush current exhibited by
an electric motor that is started up by sudden connection to a power source,
although transformer inrush is caused by a different phenomenon.
We know that the rate of change of instantaneous flux in a transformer core
is proportional to the instantaneous voltage drop across the primary
winding. Or, the voltage waveform is the derivative of the flux waveform,
and the flux waveform is the integral of the voltage waveform.
In a continuously-operating transformer, these two waveforms are phase-
shifted by 90º (see Figure 1 below).
Since flux (Φ) is proportional to the magnetomotive force (mmf) in the core,
and the mmf is proportional to winding current, the current waveform will
be in-phase with the flux waveform, and both will be lagging the voltage
waveform by 90º:
Continuous steady-state operation: Magnetic flux, like current, lags applied
voltage by 90°
Let us suppose that the primary winding of a transformer is suddenly
connected to an AC voltage source at the exact moment in time when the
instantaneous voltage is at its positive peak value. In order for the
transformer to create an opposing voltage drop to balance against this
applied source voltage, a magnetic flux of rapidly increasing value must be
generated.
The result is that winding current increases rapidly, but actually no more
rapidly than under normal conditions. Both core flux and coil current start
from zero and build up to the same peak values experienced during
continuous operation. Thus, there is no “surge” or “inrush” or current in
this scenario.
Connecting transformer to line at AC volt peak -Flux increases rapidly from
zero, same as steady-state operation
Alternatively, let us consider what happens if the transformer’s connection to
the AC voltage source occurs at the exact moment in time when the
instantaneous voltage is at zero. During continuous operation (when the
transformer has been powered for quite some time), this is the point in time
where both flux and winding current are at their negative peaks,
experiencing zero rate-of-change (dΦ/dt = 0 and di/dt = 0).
As the voltage builds to its positive peak, the flux and current waveforms
build to their maximum positive rates-of-change, and on upward to their
positive peaks as the voltage descends to a level of zero:
A significant difference exists, however, between continuous-mode operation
and the sudden starting condition assumed in this scenario: during
continuous operation, the flux and current levels were at their negative
peaks when voltage was at its zero point; in a transformer that has been
sitting idle, however, both magnetic flux and winding current should start at
zero.
When the magnetic flux increases in response to a rising voltage, it will
increase from zero upward, not from a previously negative (magnetized)
condition as we would normallyhave in a transformer that’s been powered
for awhile.
Thus, in a transformer that’s just “starting,” the flux will reach
approximately twice its normal peak magnitude as it “integrates” the area
under the voltage waveform’s first half-cycle:
Figure 3 – Starting at e=0 V is not the same as running continuously in
Figure 1. These expected waveforms are incorrect– Φ and i should start at
zero
Figure 4 – Starting at e=0 V, Φ starts at initial condition Φ=0, increasing to
twice the normal value, assuming it doesn’t saturate the core
In an ideal transformer, the magnetizing current would rise to approximately
twice its normal peak value as well, generating the necessary mmf to create
this higher-than-normal flux.
However, most transformers aren’t designed with enough of a margin
between normal flux peaks and the saturation limits to avoid saturating in a
condition like this, and so the core will almost certainly saturate during this
first half-cycle of voltage.
During saturation, disproportionate amounts of mmf are needed to generate
magnetic flux. This means that winding current, which creates the mmf to
cause flux in the core, will disproportionately rise to a value easily exceeding
twice its normal peak (Figure 5).
Figure 5 – Starting at e=0 V, Current also increases to twice the normal
value for an unsaturated core, or considerably higher in the (designed for)
case of saturation.
This is the mechanism causing inrush current in a transformer’s primary
winding when connected to an AC voltage source. As you can see, the
magnitude of the inrush current strongly depends on the exact time that
electrical connection to the source is made.
If the transformer happens to have some residual magnetism in its core at
the moment of connection to the source, the inrush could be even more
severe. Because of this, transformer overcurrent protection devices are
usually of the “slow-acting” variety, so as to tolerate current surges such as
this without opening the circuit.
2. Overexcitation conditions
Overexcitation of a transformer could cause unnecessary operation of
transformer differential relays. This situation may occur in generating
plants when a unit-connected generator is separated while exporting VARs.
The resulting sudden voltage rise impressed on the unit transformer
windings from the loss of VAR load can cause a higher than nominal volts
per hertz condition and, therefore, an overexcitation event.
This could also occur in transmission systems where large reactive load is
tripped from a transformer with the primary winding remaining
energized.
When the primary winding of a transformer is overexcited and driven into
saturation, more power appears to be flowing into the primary of the
transformer than is flowing out of the secondary. A differential relay, with its
inputs supplied by properly selected CTs to accommodate ratio and phase
shift, will perceive this as a current differential between the primary and
secondary windings and, therefore, will operate.
This would be an undesirable operation, as no internal fault would exist, with
the current imbalance being created from the overexcitation condition.
Since overexcitation manifests itself with the production of odd harmonics,
and since the third harmonic (and other triples) may be effectively cancelled
in Δ transformer windings, then, the fifth harmonic can be used as a
restraining or a blocking quantity in the differential relay in order to
discriminate between the over-excitation and the faulty state.
SIPROTEC 4 7UT6 Differential Protection Relay for Transformers –
Connection of transformer differential protection with high impedance REF
(I7) and neutral current measurement at I8
3. Current transformer saturation
The effect of CT saturation on transformer differential protection is double-
edged. Although, the percentage restraint reduce the effect of the
unbalanced differential current, in the case of an external faults, the
resulting differential current which may be of very high magnitude can
lead to a relay male-operation!
For internal faults, the harmonics resulting from CT saturation could delay
the operation of differential relay having harmonic restraint.
Applications and Characteristics Of Differential Relays (ANSI 87)
Applications and Characteristics Of Differential Relays – ANSI 87 (on photo:
VAMP 265 Generator, transformer and motor diferential protection relay)
Differential relays categories
Differential relays generally fall within one of two broad categories:
1. Current-differential relays
Current-differential relays are typically used to protect large transformers,
generators, and motors. For these devices detection of low-level
winding-to-ground faults is essential to avoid equipment damage.
Current differential relays typically are equipped with restraint windings to
which the CT inputs are to be connected.
For electromechanical 87 current differential relays, the current through the
restraint windings for each phase is summed and the sum is directed
through an operating winding. The current through the operating winding
must be above a certain percentage (typically 15%-50%) of the current
through the restraint windings for the relay to operate.
For solid-state electronic or microprocessor-based 87 relays the
operating windings exist in logic only rather than as physical windings.
A typical application of current-differential relays for protection of a
transformer is shown in figure 1 below. In figure 1, the restraint
windings are labeled as “R” and theoperating windings are labeled
as “O.” Because the delta-wye transformer connection produces a phase
shift, the secondary CT’s are connected in delta to counteract this phase
shift for the connections to the relays.
Under normal conditions the operating windings will carry no current.
For a large external fault on the load side of the transformer, differences in
CT performance in the primary vs. the secondary (it is impossible to match
the primary and secondary CT’s due to different current levels) are taken
into account by the proper percentage differential setting.
Because the CT ratios in the primary vs. secondary will not always be able to
match the current magnitudes in the relay operating windings during normal
conditions, the relays are equipped with taps to internally adjust the current
levels for comparison.
The specific connections in this example apply to a delta primary/wye
secondary transformer or transformer bank only. The connections for other
winding arrangement will vary, in order to properly cancel the phase shift.
Figure 1 – Typical application of current-differential relays for delta-wye
transformer protection
For many solid-state electronic and microprocessor-based relays, the phase
shift is made internally in the relay and the CT’s may be connected the same
on the primary and secondary sides of the transformer regardless of the
transformer winding connections.
The manufacturer’s literature for a given relay make and model must be
consulted when planning the CT connections.
Percentage-differential characteristics are available as fixed-percentage or
variable percentage. The difference is that a fixed-percentage relay exhibits
a constant percentage restraint, and for a variable-percentage relay
the percentage restraint increases as the restraint current increases.
For an electromechanical relay, the percentage characteristic must be
specified for each relay; for solid-state electronic or microprocessor-based
relays these characteristics are adjustable. For transformers relays with an
additional harmonic restraint are available. Harmonic restraint restrains the
relay when certain harmonics, normally the 2nd and 5th, are present.
These harmonics are characteristic of transformer inrush and without
harmonic restraint the transformer inrush may cause the relay to operate.
An important concept in the application of differential relays is that the relay
typically trips fault interrupting devices on both sides of the
transformer. This is due to the fact that motors and generators on the
secondary side of the protected device will contribute to the fault current
produced due to an internal fault in the device.
An example one-line diagram representation of the transformer differential
protection from 1 is given in figure 2 below:
Figure 2 – Transformer differential relay application from figure 1 in one-line
diagram format
Note that the secondary protective device is shown as a low voltage power
circuit breaker. It is important that the protective devices on both sides of
the transformer be capable of fault-interrupting duty and suitable for
relay tripping.
In figure 2 a lockout relay is used to trip both the primary and secondary
overcurrent devices. The lockout relay is designated 86T since it is used for
transformer tripping, and the differential relay is denoted 87T since it
is protecting the transformer. The wye and delta CT connections are also
noted.
An important concept in protective relaying is the zone of protection. A zone
of protection is the area that a given protective relay and/or over current
devices are to protect.
While the zone of protection concept applies to any type of protection (note
the term zone selective interlockingas described earlier in this section), it is
especially important in the application of differential relays because the zone
of protection is strictly defined by the CT locations.
In figure 2 the zone of protection for the 87T relay is shown by the dashed-
line box around the transformer. For faults within the zone of protection, the
currents in the CT’s will not sum to zero at the relay operating windings and
the relays will operate.
Outside the zone of protection the operating winding currents should sum to
zero (or be low enough that the percentage restraint is not exceeded), and
therefore the relays will not operate.
High-impedance differential relays
The other major category of differential relays, high-impedance
differential relays, use a different principle for operation. A high-
impedance differential relay has a high-impedance operating element, across
which the voltage is measured.
CT’s are connected such that during normal load or external fault
conditions the current through the impedance is essentially zero. But, for a
fault inside the differential zone of protection, the current through the high-
impedance input is non-zero and causes a rapid rise in the voltage across
the input, resulting in relay operation.
A simplified schematic of a high-impedance differential relay is shown
in figure 3 to illustrate the concept. Note that the relay only has one set of
input terminals, without restraint windings. This means that any number of
CT’s may be connected to the relay as needed to extend zone of protection,
so long as the CT currents sum to zero during normal conditions.
Also note that a voltage-limiting MOV connected across the high-
impedance input is shown. This is to keep the voltage across the input
during a fault from damaging the input.
Figure 3 – High-impedance differential relay concept
High-impedance differential relays are typically used for bus protection.
Bus protection is an application that demands many sets of CT’s be
connected to the relays. It is also an application that demands that that
relay be able to operate with unequal CT performance, since external fault
magnitudes can be quite large. The highimpedance differential relay meets
both requirements.
Figure 4 shows the application of bus differential relays to a primary-
selective system.
Note that in figure 4 the zones of protection for Bus #1 and Bus #2 overlap.
Here the 86 relay is extremely useful due to the large number of circuit
breakers to be tripped. Note that all circuit breakers attached to the
protected busses are equipped with differential CT’s and are tripped by that
busses’ respective 86 relay.
The 87 relays are denoted 87B since they are protecting busses. The same
applies for the 86B relays. Note also that the protective zones overlap; this
is typical practice to insure that all parts of the bus work are protected.
The high-impedance differential relay is typically set in terms of voltage
across the input.
The voltage setting is typically set so that if one CT is fully saturated and the
others are not the relay will not operate. By its nature, the high-impedance
differential relay is less sensitive than the current-differential relay, but since
it is typically applied to protect bussing, where fault magnitudes are typically
high, the additional sensitivity is not required.
Figure 4 – High-impedance differential relaying applied to a primary-
selective system
