Theorem 7.2.

2 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus) Suppose that f(x)f(x) is continuous on the

G(x)=∫xaf(t)dt.G(x)=∫axf(t)dt.
Then G′(x)=f(x)G′(x)=f(x).

We have not really proved the Fundamental Theorem. In a nutshell, we gave the following
argument to justify it: Suppose we want to know the value of

∫baf(t)dt=limn→∞∑i=0n−1f(ti)Δt.∫abf(t)dt=limn→∞∑i=0n−1f(ti)Δt.
We can interpret the right hand side as the distance traveled by an object whose speed is given
by f(t)f(t). We know another way to compute the answer to such a problem: find the position of
the object by finding an antiderivative of f(t)f(t), then substitute t=at=a and t=bt=b and subtract
to find the distance traveled. This must be the answer to the original problem as well, even
if f(t)f(t) does not represent a speed.

What's wrong with this? In some sense, nothing. As a practical matter it is a very convincing
argument, because our understanding of the relationship between speed and distance seems to be
quite solid. From the point of view of mathematics, however, it is unsatisfactory to justify a
purely mathematical relationship by appealing to our understanding of the physical universe,
which could, however unlikely it is in this case, be wrong.

A complete proof is a bit too involved to include here, but we will indicate how it goes. First, if
we can prove the second version of the Fundamental Theorem, theorem 7.2.2, then we can prove
the first version from that:

Proof of Theorem 7.2.1.

G(x)=∫xaf(t)dtG(x)=∫axf(t)dt
is an antiderivative of f(x)f(x), and therefore any antiderivative F(x)F(x) of f(x)f(x) is of the
form F(x)=G(x)+kF(x)=G(x)+k. Then
F(b)−F(a)=G(b)+k−(G(a)+k)=G(b)−G(a)=∫baf(t)dt−∫aaf(t)dt.F(b)−F(a)=G(b)+k−(G(a)+k)=G
(b)−G(a)=∫abf(t)dt−∫aaf(t)dt.
It is not hard to see that ∫aaf(t)dt=0∫aaf(t)dt=0, so this means that
F(b)−F(a)=∫baf(t)dt,F(b)−F(a)=∫abf(t)dt,
which is exactly what theorem 7.2.1 says.
□◻

So the real job is to prove theorem 7.2.2. We will sketch the proof, using some facts that we do
not prove. First, the following identity is true of integrals:

∫baf(t)dt=∫caf(t)dt+∫bcf(t)dt.∫abf(t)dt=∫acf(t)dt+∫cbf(t)dt.
This can be proved directly from the definition of the integral, that is, using the limits of sums. It
is quite easy to see that it must be true by thinking of either of the two applications of integrals
that we have seen. It turns out that the identity is true no matter what cc is, but it is easiest to
think about the meaning when a≤c≤ba≤c≤b.

First, if f(t)f(t) represents a speed, then we know that the three integrals represent the distance
traveled between time aa and time bb; the distance traveled between time aa and time cc; and the
distance traveled between time cc and time bb. Clearly the sum of the latter two is equal to the
first of these.

Second, if f(t)f(t) represents the height of a curve, the three integrals represent the area under the
curve between aa and bb; the area under the curve between aa and cc; and the area under the
curve between cc and bb. Again it is clear from the geometry that the first is equal to the sum of
the second and third.

Proof sketch for Theorem 7.2.2.

G′(x)=limΔx→0G(x+Δx)−G(x)Δx=limΔx→01Δx(∫x+Δxaf(t)dt−∫xaf(t)dt)=limΔx→01Δx(∫xaf(t)dt+∫x
+Δxxf(t)dt−∫xaf(t)dt)=limΔx→01Δx∫x+Δxxf(t)dt.G′(x)=limΔx→0G(x+Δx)−G(x)Δx=limΔx→01Δx
(∫ax+Δxf(t)dt−∫axf(t)dt)=limΔx→01Δx(∫axf(t)dt+∫xx+Δxf(t)dt−∫axf(t)dt)=limΔx→01Δx∫xx+Δxf(
t)dt.
Now we need to know something about
∫x+Δxxf(t)dt∫xx+Δxf(t)dt
when ΔxΔx is small; in fact, it is very close to Δxf(x)Δxf(x), but we will not prove this. Once
again, it is easy to believe this is true by thinking of our two applications: The integral
∫x+Δxxf(t)dt∫xx+Δxf(t)dt
can be interpreted as the distance traveled by an object over a very short interval of time. Over a
sufficiently short period of time, the speed of the object will not change very much, so the
distance traveled will be approximately the length of time multiplied by the speed at the
beginning of the interval, namely, Δxf(x)Δxf(x). Alternately, the integral may be interpreted as
the area under the curve between xx and x+Δxx+Δx. When ΔxΔx is very small, this will be very
close to the area of the rectangle with base ΔxΔx and height f(x)f(x); again this is Δxf(x)Δxf(x).
If we accept this, we may proceed:
limΔx→01Δx∫x+Δxxf(t)dt=limΔx→0Δxf(x)Δx=f(x),limΔx→01Δx∫xx+Δxf(t)dt=limΔx→0Δxf(x)Δx
=f(x),
which is what we wanted to show.
□◻

It is still true that we are depending on an interpretation of the integral to justify the argument,
but we have isolated this part of the argument into two facts that are not too hard to prove. Once
the last reference to interpretation has been removed from the proofs of these facts, we will have
a real proof of the Fundamental Theorem.

Now we know that to solve certain kinds of problems, those that lead to a sum of a certain form,
we "merely'' find an antiderivative and substitute two values and subtract. Unfortunately, finding
antiderivatives can be quite difficult. While there are a small number of rules that allow us to
compute the derivative of any common function, there are no such rules for antiderivatives.
There are some techniques that frequently prove useful, but we will never be able to reduce the
problem to a completely mechanical process.

Because of the close relationship between an integral and an antiderivative, the integral sign is
also used to mean "antiderivative''. You can tell which is intended by whether the limits of
integration are included:

∫21x2dx∫12x2dx
is an ordinary integral, also called a definite integral, because it has a definite value, namely
∫21x2dx=233−133=73.∫12x2dx=233−133=73.
We use
∫x2dx∫x2dx
to denote the antiderivative of x2x2, also called an indefinite integral. So this is evaluated as
∫x2dx=x33+C.∫x2dx=x33+C.
It is customary to include the constant CC to indicate that there are really an infinite number of
antiderivatives. We do not need this CC to compute definite integrals, but in other circumstances
we will need to remember that the CC is there, so it is best to get into the habit of writing the CC.
When we compute a definite integral, we first find an antiderivative and then substitute. It is
convenient to first display the antiderivative and then do the substitution; we need a notation
indicating that the substitution is yet to be done. A typical solution would look like this:
∫21x2dx=x33∣∣∣21=233−133=73.∫12x2dx=x33|12=233−133=73.
The vertical line with subscript and superscript is used to indicate the operation "substitute and
subtract'' that is needed to finish the evaluation.

Exercises 7.2
Find the antiderivatives of the functions:

Ex 7.2.1 8x−−√8x (answer)

Ex 7.2.2 3t2+13t2+1 (answer)

Ex 7.2.3 4/x−−√4/x (answer)

Ex 7.2.4 2/z22/z2 (answer)

Ex 7.2.6 (5x+1)2(5x+1)2 (answer)

Ex 7.2.7 (x−6)2(x−6)2 (answer)

Ex 7.2.8 x3/2x3/2 (answer)

Ex 7.2.9 2xx−−√2xx (answer)

Ex 7.2.10 |2t−4||2t−4| (answer)

Compute the values of the integrals: