Chapter 5 Corrected

Waste Water Engineering Disposal of Sewage and Sludge Management
CHAPTER 5
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE AND SLUDGE
MANAGEMENT
5.1 STANDARDS FOR DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE
In India, the standards adopted for disposal of sewage were

same as those followed in Britain quite for some time. The British
government made it mandatory for the sewage to be discharged
directly in to water bodies if it was diluted 500 times;
If it was diluted 300 to 500 times so that suspended solids

were about 150 parts per million, preliminary treatment was
necessary; If it was diluted 150-300 times so that suspended solids
were about 60 parts per million, chemical precipitation was necessary
or if dilution was below 150 times so that suspended solids were about
30 parts per million, complete treatment was necessary.
With the enactment of:
IS: 2490[Part I] 1974-effluents discharged into Inland Waters
IS: 3307/1977-effluents discharged on land used for irrigation

purpose
India follows its own regulations in matters of sewage disposal.
5.2 Self Purification of Surface Water Bodies
Self purification of running streams is a regular process

taking place naturally. The different methods by which the process
takes place are:
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DILUTION
The putrescible organic matter contained in sewage when let

into flowing waters, the degree of harmfulness is reduced or overcome
when other streams are joining together to have a rapid dispersion.
SEDIMENTATION
If the sewage is detained for a period in a sedimentation tank,

the settleable solids separate themselves.
OXIDATION
The sewage contains suspended organic matter and the

sewage has some oxygen latent in it. The atmospheric air, the oxygen
dissolved in water sources and the microscopic organism thriving in
sewage all strive for oxidation and the sewage becomes purified.
REDUCTION
The chemical or biological transformation resulting out of

anaerobic organism brings about gases and stench. This process of
splitting in the structure of organic matter is called reduction.
SUNLIGHT
Sunlight also imparts self-purification to sewage by way of

photosynthesis when CO2 is swallowed and O2 is librated. This helps
microorganisms to turn in to new beings and their dreadfulness is lost.
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Table 5.1 Limits of Tolerance for Industrial Discharge
TO TO
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
SL. IN TO ON TO
CHARACTERISTICS
NO INLAND LAND FOR
SURFACE IRRIGATION
WATER mg/l mg/l
1 pH units 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0
2 Total suspended solids 100 -
3 Temperature ˚C 40 -
4 Oil and gases 10 10
5 Phenolic compounds 1.0 -
Chemical Oxygen
6 250 -
Demand[COD]
7 Cyanides[CN] 0.2 -
Biochemical Oxygen
8 Demand 5 days at 30 500
20˚C [BOD]
9 Sulphides[S] 2.0 -
10 Fluorides[F[ 2.0 -
11 Insecticides Nil -
12 Arsenic[As] 0.2 -
13 Cadmium[Cd] 2.0 -
Hexavalent
14 0.1 -
Chromium[Cr]
15 Copper[Cu] 3.0 -
16 Lead[Pb] 0.1 -
17 Mercury[Hg] 0.01 -
18 Nickel[Ni] 3.0 -
19 Selenium[Se] 0.05 -
20 Zinc[Zn] 5.0 -
21 Chlorides[Cl] - 600
22 Sulphates[SO4] - 1000
Total dissolved
23 - 2100
solids[Inorganic]
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24 Boron[B] - 2
25 Percent Sodium - 60
26 Alpha emitters,uc/ml 10*-7 -
27 Beta emitters, uc/ml 10*-6 -
ILLUSTRATION
A township with 100000 population and sewage flow of 120-liter per

capita daily is built on the banks of a stream course. The flow rate of
stream is 0.60 cubic meter per second. Biological Oxygen Demand
of Sewage is 180 mg/liter. Dissolved oxygen is 7.00 and Biological
Oxygen Demand is at 0.9 above the outfall. Find the availability of
oxygen above the outfall in kg and estimate the total biological
oxygen demand per day below the outfall stream.
Sewage flow per day = 100000 X 120
= 12 million liters
Biological Oxygen Demand

of raw sewage = 180 X 12 = 2160 kg
Daily discharge into stream = 0.6 X 1000 X 60 X 60 X 24
= 51.84 million liters
Dissolved oxygen above the outfall = 7.0 X 51.84 = 362.88 kg
Biological Oxygen Demand

in the stream = 0.9 X 51.84 = 46.66 kg
Total Biological Oxygen Demand per day below the outfall:
2160 + 46.66 = 2206.66 kg
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The stream experiences a total flow of = 12 + 51.84
= 63.84 million liters
Assuming no oxidation was present, the net Biological Oxygen

Demand present in the stream
2206.66
=
63.84
= 34.57 mg/l
5.3 Wastewater Disposal and Reuse
Treatment of sewage does not get it 100 % pure. This sewage

when let into a water body which is rich in oxygen content causes
decomposition by its microorganism. This makes the water body lose
its oxygen due to biodegradation. However, care must be taken to
assess the critical concentration of oxygen. The dissolved of oxygen
content is to be around 2 mg/liter and that is necessary for the survival
of aquatic life. Dissolved oxygen at 4 mg/liter is essential for certain
sensitive microorganisms.
Wastewater contains a number of microorganisms; some are

pathogens and others are instrumental on the degradation of organic
matter. Bacteria, protozoa and other microorganisms have a great part
in the conversion of biodegradable organic matter into simple
derivatives. The water bodies by nature repack it lost oxygen content
with absorption of atmospheric air and algal photosynthesis.
Dissolved oxygen model was proposed by STREETER AND
PHELPS as early as 1925.
He expressed the changes in dissolved oxygen deficit as a

function of BOD exertion and stream reaeration. If we plot a graph of
Log number of bacteria [Y-axis] versus Time [X-axis], we can see the
different phases like, Lag phase, Exponential phase, Stationary phase
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and Death phase. The phases are vital in deciding the BOD content in
a water body. A number of treatment processes are centered on the
Lag phase and Death phase.
This is evidenced by Biological reactors operated as

continuous flow stirred tank reactors as this relates to very slow
substrate or BOD concentrations in the reactor and effluent. All cells
need an energy source and a carbon source to perform cell synthesis.
The foremost aim of waste water treatment is to gather microbial cells
utilizing the carbon and energy from the wastewater. Then by filtering
or settling, the microbial cells in the water can be removed.
5.3.1 Organic Matter
The net measurement of organic matter comprises of

assessing Biological oxygen demand, Chemical oxygen demand and
total organic concentration. Microorganisms grow more active with
higher temperature.
HOFF-ARRHENIUS Formula: Kt = K20 [ø}*(t-20)

where ø is Arrhenius constant = 1.047 for 20˚C
K= BOD rate concentration rate of the reaction and is temperature

dependent.
ILLUSTRATION
The biological demand of oxygen at 5 days BOD5 is 200 mg/liter in

certain Corporation waste water. The sample after 5 days showed an
organic material of 151.93 mg/L of oxygen. Find out the BOD8 at
30˚C of the sample. Adopt ø=1.047 as the Arrhenius constant for BOD
rate concentration;
BOD5 @ 20˚C = 200 mg/L
157
L5 = 151.93 mg/L
BOD5 = L0 – L5
200 = L0 – 151.93
BOD ultimate = 200 + 151.93 = 351.93 mg/L
Take t =5 days and K = K20
BOD5 = BOD ult (1 - [e]*- K5)
200 = 351.93 (1 - [e]*- K5)
K = K20 = 0.168 d*[-1]
K30 = 0.168 (1.047) * [30 – 20]
= 0.266 d*[-1]
t = 8d K = K30
BOd8 = BOD ult (1-[e]*- K8)
= 351.93 (1-[e]*[-0.266[8])
= 310.02 mg/L
5.4 Zones in a Polluted Water Body
When sewage is let into a water body, bacteria and other

organisms gather and use all the oxygen in the water to digest the
organic material present in the sewage. Bacterial decomposition is
called bacterial respiration. Aerobic means oxygen using organisms.
Anaerobic means toxic chemicals like hydrogen sulphide and
methane. Scientists have identified different zones.
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Decompose zone is one where the organic material has

spiked and it is where oxygen is lower. Septic zone is one where the
organic material level decreases but oxygen still remains low.
Recovery zone indicates the organic material in a stable state while
oxygen increases. Clean zone is one where the organic materials
become stable and dissolved oxygen level of water is regained.
5.4.1 Reactions Encountered
The reaction of oxygen and glucose produces energy and

carbon dioxide. Carbohydrates and water are other byproducts. The
oxygen is used by plants, animals and algae. This process is called
cellular respiration. In this process oxygen is used to decompose
glucose into energy. Sponges continually pump water through the
ostea into internal system of canals and expel it from the osculam
trapping food and removing oxygen.
5.5 Oxygen Sag Curve
On entry of sewage into a water body, the dissolved oxygen

in the water is consumed by the organic matter in the sewage. This
process is called Deoxygenation or Bio Oxygen Demand. Nature has
endowed reaeration to the water body. That means the lost oxygen is
made good by atmospheric air.
Deoxygenation and reaeration are simultaneous processes.

The reaeration is more for shallow and running water compared to
quiet water with depth.
The oxygen deficit is replenished until the saturation limit or

to the original status of oxygen in the water body. The oxygen sag
curve depicts all these effects on a plot of Dissolved oxygen versus
Time
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Figure 5.1 Oxygen Sag Curve
STREETER PHELP’S EQUATION:
The rate of deoxygenation = rD

The rate of reaeration = rR rR= k2D1
D1 is the oxygen deficit at time t in mg/L
k2 is reaeration rate constant per day
Lt is concentration of organic matter at time t in mg/L
k1 is deoxygenation rate constant per day
The reaeration and deoxygenation can be expressed:
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𝑑𝐷𝑡
= k1 .L .1 - k2. Dt ----------5 (a)
𝑑𝑡
Dt is the rate of oxygen deficit at time t
L1 is the organic matter concentration after the sewage discharge at

time t
L is the total concentration of organic matter at the time of sewage

discharge.
Lt = L (e)* - k1 .t ---------- 5 (b)
Substituting 5(b) in 5(a), we get:
𝑑𝐷𝑡
= k1 [L (e)*-k1 .t] – k2 .Dt,
𝑑𝑡
on integration
𝑘1 𝐿
Dt = (e*-k1 .t – e* .k2 .t) +
𝑘2−𝑘1
Do. e* - k2 .t -------------5(c)
Do is the initial oxygen deficit at the time of waste discharge in mg/L
Since e*- kt = 10*-k’t where k’= 0.434k
5(c) can be
𝑘1 𝐿
D = (10*- k’1 .t - 10*- k’2 .t)
𝑘2−𝑘1
+ Do10* -k’2t --------5(d)
This equation 5(d) is Streeter-Phelp’s equation. The proportionality

factors
161
k1 and k2 are temperature functions. Incidentally k2 is also

a function of turbulence of stream. k1 can be determined by field test
or laboratory.
But k2 can be determined by knowing the stream

characteristics and adopting an empirical formula. CONNOR has
given a formula for reaeration coefficient
of a normal river.
(DLU) X 1/2
k2’ =
H X 3/2
where k2 = reaeration constant with base e and 1/d
DL = diffusivity of oxygen in water, m/hour

U = velocity of flow m/hour
H = depth of flow in m
Temperature effect on the reaeration constant:
k2t = k2 – 20 (1.047) X t – 20
k2t = reaeration constant at temperature t

k2 – 20 = reaeration constant at 20˚C
The value of k2 =0.2-0.1 /day; the higher value represents

shallow streams with steep slopes while lower values are for deep
slow-moving streams.
The oxygen sag curve indicates the critical point of dissolved

oxygen or the minimum oxygen value. This critical point occurs at a
point in a stream where rate of change of deficit is zero and the
demand rate equals the reaeration rate.
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(i.e.) k2Dc = k1 .Lc = k1 .L10*- k1 .tc
Working for critical time tc
Tc = 1 ÷ k2-k1 [logk2/k1(1 –Do[k2 -k1/k1L)]
These equations are based on the assumptions that there is

only one pollution source and only oxygen demand is BOD.
The oxygen sag curve analysis helps one to precisely
estimate the oxygen content of a stream course at any point where the
sewage is to be discharged.
Further, the oxygen content determined in the stream gives

an idea as to what extent the sewage has to be treated before discharge
into the stream.
ILLUSTRATION
A township releases into a stream its wastewater at 12mL per day at

24˚C. The stream discharge is 1.20 cum per second at 22˚C. The day
5 wastewater BOD at 20˚C is 140 mg/L and k1= 0.10*-1 If the value
of k2 is 0.20 day*-1, estimate critical oxygen deficit and time of
occurrence. The stream has 90% saturation before the entry of
sewage. Take solubility of oxygen at 23˚C as 8.0 mg/L
Estimation of wastewater flow:
12x106
Qw =
1000x24x60x60
= 0.139 m3/sec
Dissolved oxygen in the stream
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8.0x0.9 = 7.2 mg/L
Dissolved oxygen in wastewater is zero.
Dissolved oxygen after entry of sewage
Qstr (Dostr) + Qww (Doww) 1.2 x 7.2 + 0.139 x 0

=
Qstr + Qww 1.2 + 0.139
= 6.453mg/L
Determination of temperature of mixture of stream and wastewater
Qstr (tstr) + Qww (tww)

Tm =
Qstr + Qww
1.2 X 22 + 0.139 X 24
=
1.2 + 0.139
26.4 + 3.336
= 22.21˚C
1.339
Initial oxygen deficit at the point of dilution:
Do =7.2 - 6.453 = 0.747 mg/L
Determination of k1 and k2 at temperature of mixture:
k1 – t = k1 – 20 (1.047) X t - 20
k1 - 22.2 = 0.1 (1.047) X 22.2 – 20 = 0.11/day
Calculation of initial BOD of the mixture of stream and wastewater:
1.2 (0) + 0.139 (140)

L =
1.2 + 0.139
19.46
= = 14.53mg/L
1.339
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Calculation of critical time tc
tc = 1/k2 - k1 ÷ log (k2/k1) (1 - Do [k2 - k1 ÷ k1 L)
= 1 ÷ (0.22 - 0.11) log (0.22/0.11) (1-0.75[0.22 –
0.11] ÷ 0.11 X 14.53) = 2.53
Calculation of critical oxygen deficit:
Dc = k1 L/k2 (10) * - t1. Tc
= 0.11 X 12.0 ÷ 0.22 (10) * - 0.11 X 2.53
= 6 (10) * - 0.278 = 3.163 mg/L
5.6 Land Disposal
The sewage disposal on land is preferred where there are

restrictions for discharge into inland waters. This method of throwing
effluents on lands is suited where lands are available. The effluents let
out on such lands either percolate to join an underground stream
course or meet the water table to raise its level. The soil particles in
the sewage get trapped in the soil voids leaving the fluid to penetrate.
The soil particles entrapped in voids get oxidized by aerobic

process. The sludge is not oxidized in soils like clay where only
clogging is caused. This results in anaerobic action evolving foul
gases and promoting mosquito breeding. Therefore, if land disposal is
the decision, then the sewage has to be treated prior to disposal on
land.
5.7 Sewage Decomposition
In sludge digestion process, the organic matter in sewage

sludge is decomposed anaerobically. The decomposition under
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controlled process breaks down the sewage effluent into [i] digested
sludge which is stable humus. The humus has reduced water content.
[ii] Supernatant liquor that contains liquefied and finely divided solid
and [iii] gases emanating as a result of decomposition like methane,
hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. The broken-down components of
sewage sludge are differently utilized; the digested sludge is dried up
by dewatering and supplied as manure to agricultural fields.
The supernatant liquor is once again treated with fresh

sewage and the gas part of it is put to driving of gas engines. Raw
sludge and secondary sludge are the resultant of treatment of sewage.
The raw sludge sports 95% of water content next only to secondary
sludge that stores 99% of water.
The secondary sludge is bulky though it has tolerable smell

where as the raw sludge is both bulky and odorous to objectionable
limits. Raw sludge or secondary sludge, there is volatile matter up to
70% though the sludge portion varies from 6 to 8%
Given the volume of sewage, the percentage of sludge can be

estimated:
Volume of sludge in cum is given by:
𝑊
V =
𝑆 𝑋 1000
𝑊
=
100 − 𝑤
Where
V = volume of sludge in cum,
W = dry solids in kg,
S = solid content in percent and
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W = moisture content in percent.
ILLUSTRATION
Find out the quantum of secondary sludge obtained from a secondary

settling tank where output of sewage is 4.0 million liters per day. It is
reported that the efficiency of solid removal from sludge is 92% and
solid content is 5%; the strength of solids in the sludge is 250 mg/liter.
Sewage content = 4.0 X 250 = 1000 kg/day
Weight of solids in the sludge = 1000 X 0.92 = 920 kg/day
920
Volume of sludge = =18.40 m³/day.
{5/100}[1000]
5.8 Sludge Digestion
Sludge digestion gives rise to acidification, liquefaction and

gasification. Acidification is the result of anaerobic decomposition of
the fresh sewage sludge. Here the bacterial attack on carbohydrates
such as cellulose, starch and sugar and soluble nitrogen compounds
results in acid carbonates, organic acids and production of gases such
as methane and hydrogen sulphide.
Since the products are acidic, the pH value of treated sludge

lowers below 6. Liquefaction indicates that large solids are liquefied
or dissolved. Actually the acid carbonates and ammonia compounds
are the resultant of fermentation and the process is accompanied by
emanation of gases like methane and hydrogen sulphide. These gases
get trapped in the sludge and foaming takes place.
The foam rises to the surface to transform into scum. This

phase is known as acid regression and the stench of gases is
obnoxious. The gasification and alkaline fermentation are the result
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of breaking down of protein and organic acids in the confrontation to

stall the decomposition and finally settle as solids. Consequently,
more of methane and smaller carbon dioxide are librated.
5.9 Controlling Factors of Sludge Digestion
Temperature helps sludge digestion which means higher the

temperature, more is the digestion.
Two zones are special in the process of sludge digestion:
(i) Thermophilic digestion that favours certain micro organisms to

settle down at 30˚ to 50˚C range.
(ii) Mesophilic digestion is confined to 35˚c though it occurs in the

range of 20˚ to 40˚C where common organisms settle down.
This range is advisable as the period of digestion is spanned

over 28 days. Any temperature below 20˚C brought about breakage of
bacterial action. This is generally not resorted to and the temperature
is not lowered below 35˚C. Any adverse performance in the restricted
temperature range brings about nuisance of obnoxious gases.
Alkaline range pH is = 7.2 to 7.4
This limit is ideal for daily admittance of raw sewage lest

acidity will ruin the digestion. It follows that there shall be no over
dosing of raw sewage or no over withdrawal of digested sludge. The
sudden influx of industrial sewage into the digester will also shoot up
the acidity to spoil the process of digestion.
In case of such an event, hydrated lime at the rate of about

4.5 kg per 1000 persons is mixed in the digester. Similarly, the daily
inflow of raw sewage is to be limited to about 5% of the weight of
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digested sludge. Seeding is the process of admitting fresh sludge into

the digester where already digested sludge is there.
Under proper temperature control, the decomposed sludge at

bottom goes up and joins the fresh influx of sludge to sustain the
decomposition with liberation of gases. The seeding favours the
digestion and it is affected through recirculation or agitation by the
escaping gases. The stirring of the contents of the digester also helps
spread temperature to all the parts of the digester and it is essential for
the cold regions.
5.10 Bio-Gas Recovery
Anaerobic fermentation of organic matter such as the one in

sludge gives rise to bio-gas. Organic substances fit for bio-gas
production are cow-dung, night soil, animal urine, waste from kitchen
or garden and any possible goods containing protein or starch. Gobar
gas stands for gas produced using cow-dung. Bio-gas has a calorific
value of 4500-6000 per cum of organic substances.
Bio-gas is a mixture of two thirds methane and one third

carbon dioxide. Though carbon dioxide is non -combustible, methane
has a high combustion value.
Table 5.2 Some fuels and their calorific values are listed:
Fuel Quantity Combustion value
Bio-gas 1.0 cum 6000 calorie
Alcohol 1.1 liter 6000 calorie
Petrol 0.8 liter 6000 calorie
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Charcoal 1.4 kg 6000 calorie
Electrical energy 2.2 Kwh 6000 calorie
Cooking gas 1.5 cum 6000 calorie
Crude oil 0.6 lit 6000 calorie
Bio-gas burns with a non-luminous flame suitable for

cooking. It can be used for lightening and driving of gas engines.
The slurry obtained from gas plants can be turned into compost with
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potash intact.
Cow-dung breeds mosquitoes and burning of dried cow-

dung cakes gives out pungent odour and smoke causing irritation of
eyes besides atmospheric pollution. Both Government of India and
State governments offer subsidy in costs up to 25% for installation of
Bio-gas plants. Individual house installation requires gas around 3 to
7cum per day and community living demands up to 140 cum per day.
5.11 Bio-Gas Plants
Two types or bio-gas plants are predominant in India. One

design is as per Khadi and Village industries Commission [KVIC],
Mumbai and other is by Etawah Research Station, Uther Pradesh. The
second design is named Janatha model.
KVIC Plant
This model has parts such as Inlet tank, Outlet tank, gas
holder and a digester. The influx into the digester is waste and water
in 4 to 5 ratio. The mixture is retained in the digester for about 20 days
when anaerobic fermentation sets in and bio-gas starts filling up the
digester whose walls are either concrete or brick masonry.
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The digester pit has a central partition wall. The inlet and
outlet are equipped with Hume pipes that reach the bottom of the
digester on both sides of the partition wall. Once the mixture fills up
the digester, decomposition starts. The digested slurry over the
retention period rises to simultaneously entertain the fresh sewage
charge into the digester.
The gas holder, a mild steel drum rests on ledges provided

inside the top of digester. The gas collects in the gas holder to a
volume equal to the gas holder is about 15 cm of water column; this
pressure is found to be able to push the gas leading to the kitchen stove
or gas lamp. The gas collector drum movement is secured by guides
fixed to the masonry wall of the digester.
Figure 5.2 KVIC Bio-Gas Plant
Janatha Plant
This is patented after the Chinese version of the bio-gas

plant. The parts are similar to those of the KVIC plant. The only
171
difference is the gas holder. Bio-gas collects in the dome at the top of
the digester. The gas, on formation pushes down the slurry and hurls
it towards the inlet and outlet chambers. In this sequence, the gas
bubbles spring up and force their entry towards the inlet and outlet
chambers. When gas is tapped at the user end, the pressure drops and
at the same time sludge starts flowing back into the digester from both
inlet and outlet chambers. The JANATHA version is cheaper than the
KVIC model. The KVIC model has almost half the cost spent on gas
holder steel drum. However, the JANATHA model has set backs in
the form of leakage at the junction of dome with digester and pressure
drops in line with usage. Further, the dome design demands talented
approach.
Figure 5.3 Janatha Bio-Gas Plant
5.12 Bio-Gas Plant Installation
Points to be taken care of in setting up of a Bio-gas plant:

Minimum 15 kg of cow-dung per day is set for the plant to
handle.
It is based on the fact that we obtain about 50 liters of gas out

of one kg of cow-dung. The retention period or the fermentation
process lasts for 50 days for twice the capacity and 30 days for a single
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capacity of the plant. Towards allowance for consumption, the gas

holder is to be half of its capacity at any time.
The ratio of height to diameter is to be kept at 0.3 to 1.0 for

the gas holder.
Some applications and their demand of bio-gas:
Cooking : 225 liters per day
Lighting : 125 liters per lamp 100 candle power
Traction : 420 liters per horse power per hour.
5.13 Sludge Conditioning and Dewatering
In the gas plants, the sewage effluent is reduced to a finely

divided form rich in nitrogen [2%] and humus. Drying bed is chief
among dewatering of sludge. About 0.1 m² of land is required for a
rate of one kg of cow-dung handled by the gas plant. Sludge is a store
house of slurry which when dispatched from gas plants are piped into
a number of trenches or pits near the gas plant.
The trenches are lined with alternate layers of vegetable

refuse and slurry in accordance with a practice followed Bangaluru in
Karnatakka. Bacterial reaction with nutrient substances like protein
and starch in the slurry, drying is fast to end up in composts, the rotted
up natural fertilizer.
The order is like this- when the second pit is fed, the first one
is ready with the compost. The dried-up sludge that sports slurry with
2% of nitrogen is applied on agricultural fields along with water to
make the fields fertile.
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5.14 Advances in Sludge Treatment and Disposal
EUROPEAN LIME ASSOCIATION has come up with an

advanced treatment which sanitises the sewage sludge by reducing
the number of micro organisms to a negligible level. Conditioning
sludge with lime, reaching a homogenous mixture at a of pH 12 or
more at a temperature of at least 55˚C for 75 minutes provides a safe
and environmentally friendly material suitable for land spreading as a
valuable pf Ac [OH] fertilizer and soil conditioner.
After advanced treatment, limed sludge may be applied as an

exogenous organic material with minimal restrictions. In a
homogenous mixture, quick lime reacts with the moisture present in
the sludge. In doing so, CaO combines with 32 % of its own weight
of water thus causing a significant drying effect and an increase in
temperature.
Here there are two principles involved:

Temperature:
The exothermic reaction during lime slaking:
Quick lime + water --------hydrated lime + heat

CaO +H2O---------Ca [OH] 2 + 1.140 KJ per kg of CaO
pH:
The alkalinity of [OH]*-1 present in hydrated lime [ie] one

kg of CaO generates 0.607 kg of OH Typical quick lime addition for
advanced treatment – addition of 50 to 90 % of CaO per unit dry solids
gives a treated sludge at temperature greater than 55˚C and pH greater
than 12 for 75 minutes. Addition of 20 to 40 % of CaO or equivalent
quantity of Ca [OH] per unit of dry solids at pH 7 gives a treated
sludge at pH greater than 12 for three months.
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Advantage of lime treatment
Achieves up to 6 Log reductions of pathogens; Stabilizes

sludge with no risk of pathogen regrowth. Eliminates odour and
reduces vector attraction. Low investment costs and area required for
plant. Simple to run, easily automated and available as mobile plant.
Converts sewage into bio-solid product. Increases dry solid content,
improves structure and handling properties and spread ability. Adds
calcium hydroxide [pH] and organic matter to improve the soil
structure and enhances growth environment in the soil and
Maintains nutrients bio availability.
5.15 Ozonation and Phosphorous Recovery
An advance sewage treatment process has been developed in

which excess sludge reduction by ozonation and phosphorous
recovery by crystallization process is incorporated to a conventional
anaerobic/oxic [A/O] phosphorous removal process.
The mathematical model was developed to describe the mass

balance principle at a steady state of this process. Sludge ozonation
experiments were carried out to investigate solubilization
characteristics of sludge and change in microbial activity by using
sludge cultured with feed of synthetic sewage under A/O process.
Phosphorous was solubilized by ozonation as well as

organics, and acid hydrolysable phosphorous [AHP] was the most part
of solubilized phosphorous for phosphorous accumulating organisms
[PAOs]containing sludge. A solubilization of 30 %, around 70 % of
sludge was inactivated by ozonation. The results based on these
studies indicated that the proposed process configuration has potential
to reduce the excess sludge production as well as to recover
phosphorous in usable forms.
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The system performance results show that this system is

practical, in which 30 % of solubilization degree was achieved by
ozonation. In this study, 30 % of solubilization was achieved at 30 mg
O3/g SS of ozone consumption.
5.16 Ultrasonic Treatment of Waste Activated Sludge
Characteristics of organic, nitrogen and phosphorous species

released from ultrasonic treatment of waste activated sludge. Batch
ultrasonic treatments [sonication] were performed on two waste
activated sludge [WAS] samples. BNR-WAS from the biological,
nitrogen and phosphorous removal unit of two Shanghai municipal
WWTPs to determine the effects on sonification time and intensity of
the amount and distribution of the organic N&P species released from
the samples.
The concentration profiles of COD, TOC fractions in

different molecular weight [MW] ranges {<2 kDa, 2-100 kDa and >
100 kDa] TN, organic N, NH3-N, TP and PO4-P were monitored
during the treatment at these sonication intensity levels [0.167, 0.330
and 0.500 W/mL] species releases increased with sonication time and
/or intensity. The relative rates were accelerating when the sonication
intensity was above a critical level between 0.330 and 0.500 W/mL.
After one hour of treatment, 37.9 %, 37.5 % and 50.8 % of

organic content [measured COD] of BNR-WAS were 40.9 % 40.9 %,
55.3 % and 56.9 %. It also resulted in the release of 40.9 %, 38.7 %
and 52.1 % of total nitrogen from BNR-WAS, relating to 46.2 %, 61.6
% and 70.4 % of the same from BNR-WAS; most released nitrogen
oxide were organisms-N [ 65 % and 84.9 %] followed by NH3-N
[34.7 % and 14.9 %] and trace amounts of nitrate and nitrite. More
total phase of higher orthophosphate content was released from
176
BNPR-WAS [>60 % release after one hour of sonification, 80 % was

PO4-P] than from BNR-WAS [>50 % release, 40 % was PO4-P]
The differences in the releases as well as the molecular

weight distribution pattern of the soluble TOC species were due to the
difference structure and composition of sludge samples. Sonification
is a viable sludge treatment process when it is combined with a
phosphate recovery process to rear or most of the released PO4-P so
that the supernatant may be retrieved from faster biological treatment.
In recent years Micro Wave irradiation has gained widespread
popularity as an effective thermal method of sludge treatment, mainly
due to its rapid and selective heating, energy efficient capacity to
enhance the yield and quality of product formation and emissions
[thus rendering the technique environmentally friendly]
The present review aspires to advance understanding of the

versatile uses of the micro wave irradiation technique in sludge
treatment, including sludge pre-treatment in the anaerobic
biodegradability of waste sludge and sludge sanitization resources
[bio-gas, bio-oil, nutrients and heavy metals] recovery and heavy
metals stabilization. It also summarizes future research directions for
the better use of micro wave energy in sludge treatment, product
optimization and developments for industrial scale implementation of
the micro wave technique and safety and health issues.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the features of self purification of surface water

bodies:
2. Write an explanatory note on sludge decomposition:
3. What do you know about sludge digestion?
177
4. Explain the concept of Oxygen-sag curve:
5. What are the zones of pollution?
6. The 5-day 20˚C BOD of waste water is 200 mg/L and its
temperature is 22˚C. The 5-day 20˚C of stream water is 10
mg/L and its temperature is 12˚C. What will be the 5-day
20˚C BOD of the stream below the point of waste discharge
the maximum permissible effluent BOD and the cent percent
purification required in the treatment plant?
7. Explain with sketch the working of a KVIC bio-gas plant:
8. Explain with sketch the working of a Janatha bio-gas plant:
9. What are the points to be considered in installation of bio-

gas plant?
10. What is ‘Sludge conditioning and dewatering?’
11. Explain any two advances in sludge treatment and disposal:
178
FAMILIARIZE WITH RIGHT ANSWERS
1. The liquid waste issuing out of residences and industries is called:

[a] domestic sewage [b] combined sewage
[c] sanitary sewage [d] none of these
2. The sewer which transports the sewage to the point of treatment
is called:
[a] main sewer [b] house sewer
[c] outfall sewer [d] none of these
3. A sewage pipe carrying sewage from a building to the point of its
immediate disposal is called:
[a] intercepting sewer [b] internal sewer
[c] house sewer [d] none of these
4. The water carriage sewage system removes
[a] domestic sewage
[b] industrial sewage
[c] community sewage
[d] storm sewage
[e] all of the above
5. The water carriage sewage system
[a] is cheaper in initial cost than dry conveyance system
[b] requires treatment before disposal
[c] creates hygienic problem
[e] all of the above
6. Sewerage system is designed for
[a] maximum flow only
[b] minimum flow only
[c] average flow only
[d] maximum and minimum flow
7. Merit of water carriage system is
[a] no human agency is involved in this system
[b] no problem of foul smell or hygienic trouble
[c] less area is required
[d] all of the above
8. The sewage system originates from
[a] main sewers [b] branch sewers
[c] lateral sewers [d] house sewers
179
9. A sewer which receives discharge from number of house sewers is

called
[a] house sewers [b] lateral sewers
[c] intercepting sewer [d] sub main sewer
10. A sewer which gets discharge from two or more main sewers is
called
[a] main sewer [b] trunk sewer
[c] combined sewer [d] intercepting sewer
11. Name of the bacteria that require light and free oxygen for their
existence
[a] anaerobic [b] aerobic
[c] facultative [d] prototropic
12. The sullage does not contain waste water from
[a] bath rooms [b] wash basins
[c] toilets [d] all of the above
13. The suitable system of sanitation for an area which receives
rainfall for one season only
[a] separate system [b] combined system
[c] partially combined system [d] all of the above
14. To divert excessive flow from combined sewers, the most
commonly used weir is
[a] cipolitti weir [b] submerged weir
[c] broad crested weir [d] leaping weir
15. Sewer preferred for combined system of sewage is
[a] rectangular sewer [b] circular sewer
[c] egg shaped sewer [d] none of the above
16. Sewage that has received no purification treatment is called
[a] raw sewage [b] crude sewage
[c] fresh sewage [d] untreated sewage
17. Pattern of sanitation most suitable for slopy area is
[a] zone pattern [b] fan pattern
[c] radial pattern [d]perpendicular pattern
18. Sewage system is generally designed for
[a] 5 years [b] 10 years
[c] 25 years [d] 50 years
19. The ratio of maximum to average sewage flow for mains up to one
meter diameter
180
[a] 1.0 [b] 1.2

[c] 1.5 [d] 2.0
20. A sewer which gets its flow from a number of transverse sewers,
is known as
[a] interceptor [b] inter connector
[c] head sewer [d] branch sewer
21. In a single pipe system
[a] only one pipe is provided
[b] main pipe is directly connected to the drainage system
[c] is provided in multi-storied building
22. The important test performed for underground sewer pipe is
[a] smoke test [b] water test
[c] air test [d] all of the above
23. Most modern method of disposal of wastes is
[a] conservancy system
[b] water carriage system
[c] dilution system
24. The suitable system of sanitation for an area having uniformly
distributed mild rains throughout the year like that in England
[a] separate system [b] combined system
[c] partially separate system [d] none of these
25. The length of the main or trunk sewer between the connection of
the lowest branch and the final point of disposal in known as
[a] common sewer [b] outfall sewer
[c] depressed sewer [d] latest sewer
26. The pipe used to carry discharge from sanitary fittings like
bathrooms, Kitchens etc. is called
[a] waste pipe [b] soil pipe
[c] vent pipe [d] antisiphonage pipe
27. In two pipe system of house plumbing the pipes required are
[a] one soil pipe, one waste pipe and one vent pipe
[b] one soil pipe, two waste pipe and one vent pipe
[c] one soil pipe, one waste pipe and two vent pipe
[d] two soil pipe, one waste pipe and one vent pipe
181
28. Laying of sewers is usually done with the help of

[a] theodolite
[b] a compass
[c] a plane table
[d] sight rails and boning rods
29. The ratio of maximum hourly flow to the average flow of sewage
is
[a] 1/3 [b] 1/2
[c] 2/3 [d] 3
30. The assumptions generally made in the design of moderate sized
sewers are
[a] average daily flow= annual average daily flow
[b] minimum daily flow= 2/3 average daily flow
[c] minimum hourly flow= 1/3 average daily flow
[d] maximum daily flow= 2 average daily flow
31. Select the correct statement of the following
[a] sewer pipes carry sewage flow by gravity
[b] sewer pipe material has to withstand wear and tear due to
abrasion
[c] sewer pipes should be designed for self cleansing velocity of
at least 0.45 meter per second at minimum discharge or 0.80
meter per second at full design discharge
32. The minimum and maximum diameter of sewers generally
adopted in designs, may be
[a] 15 cm and 100 cm [b] 15 cm and 300 cm
[c] 25 cm and 450 cm [d] 60 cm and 300 cm
33. The peak flow for the design of sewers, has been connected to the
average flow and population of the city in thousands by an
empirical formula
[a] Q= {[18+√P]÷4+√P}Qav
[b]Q={[4+√P]÷18+√P}Qav
[c] Q= {[18+P] ÷4+√P}Qav
[d] none of the above
34. The rational formula for evaluating peak drainage discharge, can
be safely applied to catchment up to
[a] 25 hectares [b] 500 hectares
182
[c] 2000 hectares [d] up to any limit

35. The diameter of RCC sewer pipe is 300 mm; the gradient required
to generate self cleansing velocity would be of the order of
[a] 1 in 50 [b] 1 in 200
[c] 1 in 500 [d] 1 in 1000
36. The velocity of a sewer does not depend on
[a] its grade [b] its length
[c] its hydraulic mean depth [d] its roughness
37. The sewage consists of water
[a] 80% [b] 90%
[c] 95% [d] 99.9%
38. In a circular sewer of diameter D the depth of flow is 1/4 D, the
wetteperimeter will be equal to
[a] πD/4 [b] πd/2
[c] πD/3 [d] none of these
39. An egg shaped sewer when compared to a circular sewer is
[a] economical [b] more stable
[c] easier to construct
[d] provided with better self-cleansing velocity at low discharges
40. The self cleaning velocity normally adopted for sewers is
[a] less than 1.0 m/sec
[b] 1.0 m/sec to 1.2 m/sec
[c] 1.5 m/sec to 2.0 m/sec
[d] more than 2.0 m/sec
41. With the increase in its duration the intensity of rainfall will
[a] decrease [b] increase
[c] not change [d] uncertain
42. The anaerobic secondary treatment of sewage is essentially a
process of
[a] dehydration [b] reduction
[c] oxidation [d] none of the above
43. Dissolved organic solids in waste water treatment may be removed
by
[a] coagulation [b] hypo chlorination
[c] reverse osmosis [d] none of them
44. The secondary treatment of sewage is caused by
[a] bacteria [b] algae
183
[c] coagulants [d] none of these

45. The sewage treatment units which work on anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter, are
[a] oxidation ponds [b] septic tanks
[c] activated sludge plants [d] both [b] and [c]
46. The BOD5 of the effluents obtained from septic tanks, is of the
order of
[a] 0- 5 mg/l [b] 10-20 mg/l
[c] 100-200 mg/l [d] 500- 2000 mg/l
47. Normal surface loading for primary sewage sedimentation tanks
in cum per m² per day ranges from
[a] 10-15 [b] 25-30
[c] 40-50 [d] none of these
48. The grit chambers of sewage plant normally need cleaning once
in
[a] every hour [b] every day
[c] every fortnight [d] every week
49. Activated sludge treatment plants are normally preferred for
[a] towns and small cities [b] medium sized cities
[c] large sized cities [d] all of these,
50. Surface loading for a rectangular sedimentation tank of length L,
with B and height H is given by:
[a] Q÷BH [b] Q÷BL
[c] BLH÷Q [d] none of these
51. Settling velocity of a spherical body in still water is given by:
[a] Lacy’s formula [b] Darcy’s formula
[c] Stoke’s law [d] Hazen William’s
formula
52. The flowing through velocity in an Imhoff tank should not exceed
[a] 0.1 m/sec [b] 0.3 m/sec
[c] 0.7 m/sec [d] 1.0 m/sec
53. The rate of accumulation in a septic tank is generally of the order
of
[a] 10 lit/person/year [b] 20 lit/person/year
[c] 30 lit/person/year [d] 100 lit/person/year
54. A reactor where the randomly packed solid medium provides the
surface area for biofilm growth, is
184
[a] an oxidation pond [b] bio-lower

[c] a trickling filter [d] anaerobic sewage
lagoon
55. The first stage of natural process of sludge digestion is
[a] acid fermentation [b] acid regression
[c] alkaline fermentation [d] none of these
56. For a grit chamber, if the recommended velocity of flow is 0.20
m/sec and a period of detention of 3 minutes, the length chamber
is:
[a] 36 m [b] 48 m
[c] 60 m [d] 24 m
57. The highest non-scouring velocity in a sewer may be allowed if it
is a
[a] cast iron sewer [b] glazed brick sewer
[c] cement concrete brick sewer [d] Stoneware sewer
58. The first stage of decomposition of organic matter in a sewage is
[a] nitrites [b] nitrates
[c] carbon dioxide [d] ammonia
59. The presence of free ammonia in sewage is detected by:
[a] boiling
[b] adding potassium permanganate
[c] adding sulphuric acid
[d] adding phenol
60. Colours of fresh and septic sewage are
[a] grey and [b] blue and grey
[c] blue and dark green [d] dark green and blue
61. The factor responsible for purification of sewage in river is
[a] hydrology
[b] temperature
[c] turbulence
[d] dissolved oxygen in water
[e] all of these
62. Standard BOD is measured at
[a] 10ºC –one day [b] 20ºC- one day
[c] 20ºC- 3 day [d] 20ºC-5 day
63. The pH value of sewage is determined with the help of
[a] Imhoff cone [b] turbid meter
185
[c] potentio meter [d] all of the these

64. The amount of oxygen consumed by the aerobic bacteria which
caused the aerobic biological decomposition of sewage is called
[a] Biochemical oxygen demand
[b] chemical oxygen demand
[c] dissolved oxygen
[d] none of these
65. Bacteria in sewage are mostly
[a] anaerobic [b] pathogenic
[c] saprophytic [d] parasitic
66. The temperature affects the
[a] viscosity of sewage
[b] solubility of gases in the sewage
[c] biological activity of bacteria in sewage
[d] all of these
67. Water losses in water supply, is assumed to be
[a] 15 % [b] 12.5 %
[c] 10 % [d] 7.5 %
68. The bacterial reproduction is by
[a] binding [b] cell division
[c] sexual reproduction [d] colony formation
69. The cycle of life, death and decay involving organic nitrogenous
matter is Called:
[a] nitrogen cycle [b] life cycle
[c] hydrological cycle and [d] sulphur cycle
70. The relation between theoretical oxygen demand [TOD],
biochemical oxygen demand [BOD] and chemical oxygen
demand [COD]
[a] TOD > BOD > COD [b] TOD > COD > BOD
[c] BOD > TOD > COD [d] BOD > COD >TOD
71. The pH of fresh sewage is usually
[a] less than 7 [b] more than 7
[c] equal to 7 [d] equal to 0
72. Acidity of sewage is indicated by a pH value of
[a] less than 7 [b] more than 7
[c] equal to 7 [d] equal to 14
73. pH 3 when compared to pH 5, will be more acidic by
186
[a] 2 times [b] 20 times

[c] 100 times [d] none of these
74. pH 4 when compared to pH 7, will be more acidic by
[a] 3 times [b] 300 times
[c] 1000 times [d] none of these
75. Soluble organics in domestic waste water include
[a] carbohydrates [b] proteins
[c] lipids [d] all of these
76. The ratio of 5 day BOD to ultimate BOD is about
[a] 1/3 [b] 2/3
[c]3/4 [d] 4/5
77. The minimum dissolved oxygen required in water to save aquatic
life is
[a] 1 ppm [b] 2 ppm
[c] 4 ppm [d] 8 ppm
78. A sewage quantity of 1000 kg is estimated to contain TDS
approximately
[a] 0.5 – 1.0 kg [b] 2 – 5 kg
[c] 5 – 10 kg [d] 10 -20 kg
79. Imhoff cone is used to measure in sewage
[a] total solids [b] total organic solids
[c] total inorganic solids [d] settleable solids
80. The process of killing pathogenic bacteria in sewage is called
[a] sedimentation [b] filtration
[c] coagulation [d] disinfection
81. The treatment or water with bleaching powder is called
[a] pre chlorination [b] de chlorination
[c] super chlorination [d] hypo chlorination
82. Harmful bacteria are
[a] coli form bacteria [b] streptococcus
bacteria
[c] both [a] and [b] [d] none of these
83. Activated carbon is used in water treatment for removal of
[a] colour [b] tastes and odour
[c] turbidity [d] corrosiveness
84. Permanent hardness in water can be removed by
[a] adding alum [b] adding chlorine
187
[c] boiling [d] zeolite process

85. The corrosion in pipes is due to
[a] impurities in the material particularly those having a lower
potential
[b] dissolved oxygen in water
[c] pH value of water
[d] all of these
86. Ultra violet rays are preferred for disinfection of water for
[a] domestic supply [b] fishing pond
[c] swimming pools [d] paper industry
87. Rapid sand filters can remove bacterial impurities up to
[a] 70 % [b] 75 %
[c] 80 % [d] 90 %
88. The advantage of rapid sand filter is
[a] rapid rate of filtration [b] small space required
[c] effective in highly turbid water [d] all of these
89. The disadvantage of rapid sand filter is
[a] costly maintenance [b] skill in handling
[c] cleaning is difficult [d] bacteria removal
efficiency is low
[e] all of these
90. Rapid sand filter can remove turbidity from water to an extent of
[a] 15 – 20 ppm [b] 20 – 25 ppm
[c] 25 – 30 ppm [d] 35 – 40 ppm
91. Minimum DO prescribed for river stream to avoid fish kills is
[a] 2 ppm [b] 4 ppm
[c] 8 ppm [d] 10 ppm
92. Mud balls formed in the rapid gravity filters can be removed by
[a] breaking and washing
[b] washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda
[c] removing, cleaning and replacing damaged sand
[d] all of these
93. Cleaning period for a slow sand filter is taken as
[a] 1 hour to 3 hours [b] 1 day to 3 days
[c] 1 week to 3 weeks [d] 1 month to 3 months
94. The ratio of yield of water from a rapid sand filter to that of a slow
sand filter is
188
[a] 5 [b] 10
[c] 15 [d] 30
95. The backwash arrangement is made only in the case of a
[a] rapid sand filter [b] slow sand filter
[c] sedimentation tank [d] coagulation tank
96. Pressure filters are not used for treating municipal water supplies
as
[a] they are costly
[b] their rate of filtration is high
[c] the overall plant Capacity is small
[d] they remove turbidity and bacteria partly only.
97. ppm is the same as
[a] 5 grams per gallon of water
[b] 5 grams per liter of water
[c] 5 milligrams per liter of water
[d] 5 kg per tonne of water
98. The percentage of chlorine in fresh bleaching powder is about
[a] 10 – 15 % [b] 20- 25 %
[c] 30 – 35 % [d] 50 – 60 %
99. The amount of chlorine used for plain chlorination of water is
[a] 0.1 ppm [b] 0.3 ppm
[c] 0.5 ppm [d] 1 ppm
100. Compounds used in algae control are
[a] ferric sulphate [b] calcium chloride
[c] copper sulphate [d] ferric chloride
101. Chlorine demand of water is equal to
[a] applied chlorine
[b] residual chlorine
[c] sum of applied and residual chlorine
[d] applied chlorine minus residual chlorine
102. Sulphur dioxide in air produces
[a] aggravation of asthma and chronic bronchitis
[b] impairment of pulmonary function
[c] sensory irritation
[d] all of these
103. At lower pH values of water, the contact period required for
chlorination is
189
[a] lower [b] higher

[c] same [d] none of these
104. Double filtration is used
[a] to increase the filtration capacity of slow sand filters
[b] to increase the filtration capacity of rapid sand filters
[c] for isolated colonies of a few houses
[d] for none of these
105. In lime-soda process of water softening
[a] only carbonate hardness is removed
[b] only non- carbonate hardness is removed
[c] lime reduces non-carbonate hardness and soda removes
carbonate hardness
[d] lime reduces carbonate hardness and soda removes non-
carbonate hardness.
106. The main disadvantage of lime-soda process of water softening
is that
[a] it is unsuitable for turbid and acidic waters
[b]zero hardness effluent cannot be obtained
[c] excessive hard water cannot be softened by it
[d] large amount of precipitate is formed, posing disposal
problem
107. De- chlorination of water is done through the use of
[a] sodium thiosulphate [b] sodium sulphate
[c] activated carbon [d] all of these
108. Strongly saline water may be desalted by
[a] electrolysis
[b] evaporation and condensation
[c] freezing, washing And thawing
[d] both [b] or [c]
109. Zeolite is
[a] hydrated alumino-silicate
[b] de-hydrated calcium silicate
[c] hydrated silicate
[d] silicon carbide
110. A chemical often used in reservoirs to check growth of algae is
[a] alum [b] copper sulphate
[c] milk of magnesia [d] bleaching powder
190
111. Disease which is considered not water borne is

[a] small pox [b] typhoid
[c] cholera [d] bacillary dysentery
112. Milky saline water can be desalted economically by
[a] treating with alum [b] filtration
[c] electrolysis [d] neutralization
113. Potassium permanganate is used for
[a] de-chlorination [b] improving colour
[c] reducing acidity [d] reducing hardness
114. Disease that is likely to onset if waste water is not properly
handled
[a] malaria [b]dysentery
[c] typhoid [d] small pox
115. Zeolite process
[a] results in a water of zero hardness
[b] is not suitable for public supply of water
[c] when zeolite becomes inactive it may be reactivated by
flushing with brine solution.
116. Advantage of zeolite process is
[a] water of varying quality can be treated
[b] RMO cost is low
[c] it removes ferrous and manganese from water
[d] all of these
117. The dilution ratio at which the odour is hardly detectable is
generally called threshold odour number. For public supply of
water, it should be restricted to
[a] 8 [b] 6
[c] 4 [d] 3
118. In biological treatment, there is formation of a biological film of
[a] aerobic bacteria [b] anaerobic bacteria
[c] protozoa [d] algae
119. The fluoride content in water is to restricted to, for proper growth
of teeth of children
[a] 10 mg/l [b] 50 mg/l
[c] 100 mg/l [d] 250 mg/l
191
120. Zeolite process is also called

[a] base-exchange process
[b] cation-exchange process
[c] both [a] and [b]
[d] none of these
121. Orthotolidine test for residual chlorine is conducted when
[a] when pH value of water is between 5.5 and 6.5
[b] water does not contain more than 5 % turbidity
[c] iron, manganese and nitrites are not present in water
[d] water contains traces of iodine.
122. Radioactive materials like uranium, thorium, strontium, cesium
etc. present in water can be removed by:
[a] phosphate coagulation method
[b] electrolysis method
[c] addition of metallic dust to water
[d] all of these
123. The radioactivity in water due to strontium can be removed by
[a] aeration [b] alum coagulation
[c] phosphate coagulation [d] lime-soda solution
124. The process of removing excess sodium chloride [common salt]
From water is called
[a] de-salination [b] aeration
[c] coagulation [d] sedimentation
125. Presence of ozone in water can be indicated by
[a] black colour [b] blue colour
[c] light yellow colour [d] pink colour
192
BIBILIOGRAPHY
1. Fundamentals of wastewater treatment and engineering
RUMANA RIFFAT/ CRC Press, Taylor and Francis group,

NY
2. Sewage disposal and air pollution engineering
S.K.Garg, Khanna publishers, New Delhi, 2006
3. Water and wastewater engineering
Dr.Ligy Philip, IIT, Madras, Lecture notes
4. Elements of environmental engineering
K.N.Duggal, S.Chand & Co., New Delhi, 2007
5. Water supply engineering
S.K.Garg, Khanna publishers, New Delhi, 2007
6. Code of practice for building drainage,
Indian Standards Institution, 1742-1972
7. Effluents discharged into Inland Surface Waters,
8. Effluents discharged on land used for irrigation,
193
9. British Lime Association[BLA]part of the Mineral Products

Association
10. National Academies Press: Open Book
11. Inducing Recharge of groundwater by Treated wastewater-

Case study by Ms.Packialakshmi et al, Indian journal of
Science and Technology, 2015
12. Documentation on Characteristics of sewage and overview

of treatment methods- nptel documentation.
13. Relevant excerpts from Media and Internet on waste water

engineering.
14. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board[TNPCB] , The Tamil

Nadu Water[P&CP]Rules,1983
194

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Waste Water Engineering Disposal of Sewage and Sludge Management

5.1 STANDARDS FOR DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE

In India, the standards adopted for disposal of sewage were

If it was diluted 300 to 500 times so that suspended solids

With the enactment of:

IS: 2490[Part I] 1974-effluents discharged into Inland Waters

IS: 3307/1977-effluents discharged on land used for irrigation

India follows its own regulations in matters of sewage disposal.

5.2 Self Purification of Surface Water Bodies

Self purification of running streams is a regular process

The putrescible organic matter contained in sewage when let

If the sewage is detained for a period in a sedimentation tank,

The sewage contains suspended organic matter and the

The chemical or biological transformation resulting out of

Sunlight also imparts self-purification to sewage by way of

Table 5.1 Limits of Tolerance for Industrial Discharge

A township with 100000 population and sewage flow of 120-liter per

Sewage flow per day = 100000 X 120

Biological Oxygen Demand

Daily discharge into stream = 0.6 X 1000 X 60 X 60 X 24

= 51.84 million liters

Dissolved oxygen above the outfall = 7.0 X 51.84 = 362.88 kg

Biological Oxygen Demand

Total Biological Oxygen Demand per day below the outfall:

2160 + 46.66 = 2206.66 kg

The stream experiences a total flow of = 12 + 51.84

= 63.84 million liters

Assuming no oxidation was present, the net Biological Oxygen

5.3 Wastewater Disposal and Reuse

Treatment of sewage does not get it 100 % pure. This sewage

Wastewater contains a number of microorganisms; some are

He expressed the changes in dissolved oxygen deficit as a

This is evidenced by Biological reactors operated as

5.3.1 Organic Matter

The net measurement of organic matter comprises of

HOFF-ARRHENIUS Formula: Kt = K20 [ø}*(t-20)

K= BOD rate concentration rate of the reaction and is temperature

The biological demand of oxygen at 5 days BOD5 is 200 mg/liter in

BOD ultimate = 200 + 151.93 = 351.93 mg/L

Take t =5 days and K = K20

BOD5 = BOD ult (1 - [e]*- K5)

200 = 351.93 (1 - [e]*- K5)

K = K20 = 0.168 d*[-1]

K30 = 0.168 (1.047) * [30 – 20]

BOd8 = BOD ult (1-[e]*- K8)

5.4 Zones in a Polluted Water Body

When sewage is let into a water body, bacteria and other

Decompose zone is one where the organic material has

5.4.1 Reactions Encountered

The reaction of oxygen and glucose produces energy and

5.5 Oxygen Sag Curve

On entry of sewage into a water body, the dissolved oxygen

Deoxygenation and reaeration are simultaneous processes.

The oxygen deficit is replenished until the saturation limit or

Figure 5.1 Oxygen Sag Curve

STREETER PHELP’S EQUATION:

The rate of deoxygenation = rD

D1 is the oxygen deficit at time t in mg/L

k2 is reaeration rate constant per day

Since e- kt = 10-k’t where k’= 0.434k