Gemma Lavender Quantum Physics in Minutes Quercus 2017 PDF

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QUANTUM PHYSICS
· IN MINUTES
The inner workings of our universe
explained in an instant
~~~~~~~~~~~.....
Gemma Lavender
QUANTUM
PHYSICS
IN MINUTES
GEMMA LAVENDER
QUANTUM
PHYSICS
IN MINUTES
GEMMA LAVENDER
Quercus
CONTENTS
Introduction 6
The birth of quantum physics 8
Energy levels and spectral lines 56
Particle physics 88
The wave function 142
The language of quantum physics 184
Quantum physics and the Universe 212
The theory of everything 252
Multiverses 286
The spooky Universe 304
Quantum applications 326
Quantum biology 356
Quantum computing 370
The future of quantum physics 390
Glossary 408
Index 412
Acknowledgements 416
Introduction
T he world of quantum physics is an amazing place, where

subatomic particles can do seemingly miraculous things.
They can disappear from one location and spontaneously
appear in another, or communicate with each other instantly
despite being on opposite sides of the Universe. Real particles
can mix with virtual ones that 'borrow' energy from the
Universe, and these interactions govern the fundamental forces
that bind atoms and molecu les together, creating the structure
of matter itself To the uninitiated, it seems like magic.
Quantum physics pushes us to the boundary of what we know

about physics, and scientists differ in their interpretations of
what it all means. The one th ing everyone seems to agree on is
that on the smal lest scales, nature is probabilistic - God rea lly
does play dice. For example, probabi lity determines a partic le's
most likely location, or its most likely energy, momentum, or
numerous other fundamental qua lities. For some scientists,
this is the extent of the meaning behind quantum physics. For
6 INTRODUCTION
others, it implies a multiverse of parallel realities where every
possibility is played out. There's no direct evid ence yet that this
'many-worlds' inte rpretation is correct, but the mathemati cs
cert ainly suggests it is possible.
The true meaning of quantum physics may be still up for debate,

but its myriad appl ications are far more co ncrete. All of the
electron ics in our comp uters, phones, televisions and tablets
operate thanks t o quantum principles. Lasers cou ld not exist
without t he quantized energy leve ls in atoms. MRI medical sca ns
utilise quantum mechanisms in action wit hin yo ur own body,
and co mputers bui lt around the principles of quantum physics
might soo n be so lving problems much faster than any computer
currently in existence. Quantum physics is also a step towards
the ultimate theory of everything. It casts light on the origin
of the Big Bang and the large- sca le structure of the Universe,
and some sc ienti sts controvers ially sugg est that even human
consciousness is quantum mechanical in nature
Quantum physics is science, not magic. Yet what it can do

is indeed mag ica l and, by seeking to understand it, we f1nd
ourselves delving into t he very fabric of nat ure and reality.
INTRODUCTION 7
What is quantum physics?
uantum physics describes the science of the very smal l,

Q th1ngs tinier than billionths of a metre, on the scale of
atoms, subatomic particles and the wave length of light. It also
shows how many properties are 'quantized' on these tiny scales,
subd ivided in discrete units rather than being continuously
varying quantities. In our everyday world, it's hard to imagine the
properties found in this microscop ic world. For example, there
are particles like electrons that have no physical dimensions, and
others with no mass. Strangest of all, however, is the notion that
particles can act like waves and waves can act like particles. This
simple yet confounding fact lies at the heart of quantum physics
and everything that sub sequently flows from it.
It took scientists a long time to accept this bizarre idea, and

the revolution that followed had a profound effect on modern
science. Yet the discovery of quantum theory had its roots in a
much old er debate- the centuries-long argument over whether
light is made from particles or waves.
8 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Is light a wave?
uantum theory has its roots in a f1erce and long-running

Q debate over the nature of light. The question as to whether
light is made from particles or waves dominated science in the
late 17th century In 1678, Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens
popularized the hypothesis that light propagated in the form of
a wave [based on earli er ideas by philosopher Rene Descartes).
Of course, waves [ranging from tidal waves in water to sound

waves in air) need a medium through which to propagate. It
was c lear that light waves were not using air as a medium
-space was known to be airless, and yet we can still see the
light of the Sun, stars and planets. To get around this, Huygens
hypothesized a medium that he ca lled the 'luminiferous aether'.
He neglected to explain exactly what this aether was, beyond
it being we ight less, invisible and apparently everywhere.
Unsurprisingly, many sc ientists, key among them Isaac Newton,
were unconvinced by Huygens' wave theory. In stead, they
argued that light must be made from particles.

Studying the motion of water waves
reveals aspects of wave behaviour, such as
diffraction, that are also shared by light.
Diffraction after parallel waves Interference pattern between

pass through a narrow slit. two diffracted waves.
Is light a particle?
nfluential English physicist Isaac Newton proposed a model

I of light as discrete particles (so-called 'corpuscles'). It was
based not only on objections to the wave theory of Huygens,
but also upon observation. Newton pointed to the way in
wh ich light is reflected from a mirror: waves do not travel in
the straight lines needed to create a reflection, but particles
do. Furthermore, Newton explained refraction (the bending
of lig ht in certain materials, such as water) as the effect of
a medium attracting particles of light and speeding them up.
Finally, step outside on a su nny day and you w ill see that there
are sha r p edges to yo ur sha dow, whereas if sunlight were
made of waves, yo ur shadow wou ld sure ly be fuzzy.
Newton's model became the leading theory of light, but it

wasn't well received by everybody, and his rival Robert Hooke
was one influential vo ice who still favoured the wave theory.
Then, in 1801, long after Newton's death, the double-slit
experiment seemed to disprove corpuscles once and for al l.

The double-slit
experiment
espite the success of Isaac Newton's corpuscu la r theory
D of l1ght, the rival wave theory retained some proponents
and, at the beginning of the 19th century, En glishman Thomas
Young appea red to disprove Newton with an experime nt t hat is
replicated by high-school stud ents to this day.
You ng's experiment invo lves shinin g su nl ig ht through a barrier

conta ining two thin slits and onto a screen. Once through the
sl its, the light creates two spread ing diffraction patterns,
whi ch begin to overlap and interfe re with one another. Where a
trough in one wave co inc ides with the peak of another, it causes
them to cance l out, so that when the li ght f1 nally reaches
the scree n, the ca nce ll ed waves leave dark bands known as
'interference fringes'. Si nce only waves ca n interfere in this
fashion, Young conclud ed that light must be made from waves.
By studying how the different co lours within sun li ght formed
different fringe patterns, he was eve n able to estimate the
wavelengths of the variou s co lours.

Young's double-slit
Destructive
experiment interference where
Interference pattern waves hit screen out
forms on screen of step
Constructive
interference where
peaks and troughs
arrive 'in step'
Barrier with two Diffracted waves

narrow slits spread out and overlap
The Michelson-
Morley experiment
T homas Young's proof that li ght is a wave implied that the
light-carry1ng medium or aether proposed by Huyge ns
[see page 10) must be rea l too, yet 19th- century sc ientists
strug gled to detect it. In 1887, American phys ic ists Albert
Miche lso n and Edwa rd Morley set out t o settle the question
using an ingeniou s and highly se nsitive experim ent.
Th eory held t hat the aether was stationary in space, so Earth's

mot io n would res ult in t he speed of light appearing faster in
the direction of motio n compared to a perpen dic ular direction
Michelson and Morley bui lt a device called an interferomet er t o
send bea ms of light from a single source along perpe ndi cular
paths before reflecting and recombining them . If t he speed
of light va r ied bet ween the paths, th en the retur ning waves
would slip 'out of phase' with one another, cr eat ing a patte r n of
interference fringes that sh ifted ove r time But t r y as they mig ht,
Michelson and Morley found the speed of light was the same in all
directions. The aether did not exist, so how could ligh t be a wave?

Semi-silvered mirror
splits light beams along
perpendicular paths and Recombining
then recombines them light beams form
interference pattern
Sandstone block
isolated in a pool
of mercury to
reduce vibration
If the a ether existed, then changes to the speed of

light in different directions would cause interference
patterns viewed in the microscope to shift over time.
Electromagnetism
f light really is a wave, then it seems reasonable to ask: what

Iexactly is doing the waving? The properties of an apparently
unrelated phenomenon, electromagnetism, ultimately proved to
hold the answer
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of induction,

in which moving electrical currents 'induce' moving magnetic
fields, and vice versa. Faraday's experiments (which still form
the basis of electricity generation) showed a clear link between
electricity and magnetism, but it was not until1865 that James
Clerk Maxwell set out a theoretical model for how inducti on
and related effects took place Maxwell's theory showed how
oscillating, intertwined electric and magnetic field s can move
through space as electromagnetic (em) waves. Crucially, he found
that em waves moved free ly through a vacu um, and propagate
at a ve locity of 300,000 kilometres per second (186,000 mps).
exactly the same speed as light. If the aether didn't exist, then
perhaps light was an electromagnetic wave?

t
!
'Conventional' current
- - flow from positive to - -
negative
Induced
Lines of Lmes of
magnetic field
magnetic flux magnetic flux
around wire +
The flow of electric current (a stream of negatively charged electron

particles) through a wire induces a magnetic field around the conductor.
Reversing the current reverses the direction of the magnetic field .
Maxwell's equations
T o exp lain electro mag netism f ully, James Clerk Maxwe ll

appropriated a number of equations from other scientists
and assembled them into a cohes ive theory. His fwst equation
describes how t he strength of an electric f 1eld decreases with
the square of distance. In other words, at twice the distance
from the source, the f1e ld is four times weaker. The second
equation describes t he strength of magnetic f 1elds and how
they always fo ll ow closed loops between magnetic po les.
Maxwell's th ird equation describes how interactions between

osc illating electric and magnetic f1elds can create 'electromotive
force', which manifests as a voltage Fina lly, the fourth equation
desc r ibes how an osc illating electrica l current ca n induce a
magnetic f1eld with a strength proportional to the size of the
electrical current. Together, these eq uations describe how
electromagnetic waves behave, wh ile pr oviding a theoretical
exp lanatio n f or exactly what a light wave is, how it propagates in
a vacuum and how it interacts with electric and magnetic f1elds.

p
l. v. ~ - £0 = permittivity
of free space
f-Lo= permeability
of free space
a. v. B = o
Rate of change of
magnetic flux
3. v X E
as / Rate of change
at of electric flux
4. V x B = ~ 0 (J + £ 0
aE )
In Maxwell's equations, E represents the flux of the
at
electric f1eld, 8 the magnetic flux, p the charge within a
volume of space, and J the current flowing in a conductor.
Thermodynamics
and entropy
A longside the discovery of electromagnetism, the study of
M. energy in the form of heat led to another 19th-century
scientific revolution. What became known as the laws of
thermodynamics introduced severa l concepts that wou ld prove
critica l to quantum theory.
The f1rst law of thermodynamics explains how energy is

conserved when heat is added to a closed system: the total
energy of the system is equal to the heat supplied, less any
work done [physical changes to the surroundings) as a result.
The second law, meanwhile, essentia lly describes how heat wi ll

always flow from hotter to colder systems In fact, this law
describes entropy, a measure of the amount of disorder in a
system [illustrated opposite). Th e third law then exp lain s how
entropy approaches zero as the temperature with in a system
nears absolute zero. These notions of conservation of energy
and entropy are discussed further on pages 82 and 320 .

Black bodies
T he study of the ways in whi ch objects emit electromag netic

waves led, in the mid-19th century, to the idea lized concept
of a 'black body' rad iator. Thi s is an object that is both a
perfect absorber and a perfect emitter of rad iation. Germa n
physicist Max Plan ck found that the hotter the surface of a
black body, the higher the energy of the li ght em itted. Hence,
room-temperature objects glow mostly in infrared, whil e
objects heated to thousands of degrees emit mostly visibl e
wave lengths, and the hottest objects of all produce li ght in
ultravio let or even shorter wave lengths, suc h as X-rays.
A star is often co nsidered the closest thing in nature to a

perfect black body. Stars show the temperature-energy
relationship in action: coo ler stars em it more red light and
infrared wave lengths, wh il e hotter stars tend towards the
blue and ultraviolet. Atte mpts to study what happens to black
bodies at the highest temperatures were pivota l to the birth
of quantum theory (see page 26).

Light emission from black bodies of different temperatures
QQQQ 10,000°C
Infrared Red Violet Ultraviolet

Visible light
The ultraviolet
catastrophe
n the late 19th century, physicists studying the behaviour of
I 'b lack bodies' at high temperatures found themselves faced
with a problem: their mode ls of the relationship between a
black body's temperature and the distribution of radiation
emitted from its surface fell apart at ultraviolet wavelengths.
Thi s was later nicknamed the 'ultraviolet catastrophe'.
Workin g to resolve the problem, aro und 1900 German

physicist Max Planck found that two separate relationships
described different parts of the energy distribution. An
approximation derived by Wilh elm Wien in 1896 acc urately
described black- body rad iation at high temperatures, whi le
the Rayleigh-Jeans law [de ri ved in 1900) showed that on the
low-temperature end of the spectrum, the energy em itted
by a black body is proportiona l to temperature divided by the
wavele ngth to the power of f our [as shown opposite) Pl anck
now faced the chall enge of reconciling these two apparently
independent re lation sh ip s.

Quanta
onfronted with the prob lem of exp lai ni ng black body

C rad iation at high temperatures, Max Pla nck eventually
discovered that he cou ld exp lain the rea l- life distribution of
rad iation if he assumed that energy was not being re leased in
continuous amounts, but was instead em itted in discrete bursts
or packets of energy that he ca ll ed quanta [singular quantum).
Planck realized there was a relatio n between the energy and

frequency of black body radiation, def1ned by the simp le equation
shown opposite. Here, E is the energy, f is the frequency and h is
a constant of proportiona lity now known as Planck's constant
[with a val ue of 6.626 x lQ- 34 j oules per second). Planc k assumed
that the quantization of light was somehow a co nseq uence of the
way in wh ich particles in a black body vibrate. It was not unt il 1905,
however, t hat Albert Einste in adopted t he idea of quantization,
argu ing that rad iat ion was f undamenta lly divided into quantized
packets called photo ns. Together, Planck's and Einste in's
discoveries mark the birt h of quantum physics.

Discovery of electrons
A t around the same time that scientists were homing in

M on the nature of light, the secrets of atomic structure
were also beginning to unravel. The fwst hints of the
existence of smaller particles inside atoms emerged from
studies of a phenomenon known as cathode rays.
A cathode is a heated electrode that generates a beam

of particles (in old television sets and laboratory displays,
these were deflected using magnetic and electric f1elds to
draw glowing images on a phosphorescent screen, as shown
opposite). In 1897, English physicist J.J. Thomson determined
that cathode rays were made of negatively charged particles
with much smaller masses than atoms, being produced
from inside them. The fwst subatomic particles ever to be
discovered, these 'electrons' opened the way for an entirely
new f1eld of particle physics. At the time, scientists had little
idea that their debates on the nature of light would soon
collide with this new world of subatomic particles.

The cathode-ray tube Electron beam illuminates
an area of the screen
screen
Coils produce changing

electric field that changes
direction of beam
Positively charged anode

generates electric fields
that accelerate and focus
electron beam
Negatively charged cathode

emits stream of electrons
The photoelectric effect
T he phot oelectric ef fect was cruc ial to both t he co nception and

proof of Einstein's theory of photo ns [see page 34]. Discover ed
by En glis h enginee r Willoug hby Smith in 1873, t he phot oelectric
eff ect invo lves t he f low of electr icity f r om so me meta ls when
th ey are il lumi nated under cert ain wave lengths of lig ht By the
late 19th century, physicists knew enough to interpret this as the
liberation of electrons fro m the su r face of t he ill um inated met al,
but the puzz ling f act re mained that, whi le high-freque ncy blue and
ultr aviolet light were eff icient at knocking out electrons, even th e
most intense beams of red light could not ca use electricity to flow
Einst ei n rea lized that t he ph ot oe lectri c eff ect co uld be

explai ned by interpreti ng li ght not as a co ntinuous wave, but as
di scr et e quantized pac ket s similar t o th ose used by Planck to
escape t he ultraviolet cat astrophe [see page 26) Publi shed in
1905, his t he or y predict ed a r elatio nship betwee n the frequ ency
of light and the ene r gy of libe rated electrons t hat was
event ual ly proved in 1916 by Ame ri ca n physicist Rober t Millikan.

Short-wavelength, Electrons dislodged
high-energy light only by high-energy
light
Photoelectric material (e.g.

sodium, potassium, lithium)
//
Long-wavelength,
low-energy light
Metals susceptible to the
photoelectric effect have a loosely
bound electron in their outermost
electron shell (see page 60)
Einstein's photon theory
A Ibert Ei nstein's study of the photoelectric effect led him to

M. some dramatic conclusions. Max Planck had shown that
radiation fro m blac k bodi es seemed to be released in small chunks
whose energy content was related to frequency Einstein now
embraced the idea that this was an inherent aspect of lig ht itse lf,
rather than something enti r ely t o do with the emission mechan ism.
According to him, light always came in quantized packets or photons,
particle- like objects with energy proportional to th eir frequency.
Th is opened up a complete ly new approach to t he photoelectric

effect: atomic nucle i are surro unded by electrons in quantized
ene r gy leve ls, and it is th ese t hat interact with incoming photons. In
order for an electron to escape f r om an atom, it must ga in enough
energy to leap the gap betwee n energy leve ls. Einstein real ized that
individual photons either carry enough energy to bridge t he ga p, or
they don't (unsuitable photons are deflected away] The deciding
fa ctor, then, is not the number of incom in g photons (the intensity
of th e light] but their frequency (see page 28]

Electric
field
.... ...... .... ....

.... ....
..;- .... ....
Wavelength ........
.... .... ... Perpendicular
(90°) angle
between
waves
A single photon consists of a short burst of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields moving through space and
reinforcing each other by electromagnetic induction.
Compton scattering
n 1923, American physicist Arthur Compton demonstrated

I another effect that highlights the particle-like nature of
electromagnetic radiation. Compton fwed X- rays at carbon
atoms and watched how individual photons rebounded or
'scattered' off electrons within them. X-ray photons have far
more energy than is required to liberate an electron from an
atom, so they have only to give up a little bit of energy to release
an electron, retaining any remaining energy as they scatter away.
Owing to this loss of energy, however, each photon now has a
slightly lower frequency.
Compton related the process to billiard balls one ball hits

another, transferring some of its energy and momentum Both
balls recoil away, but the f1rst ball moves more slowly than it did
before the collision. This reflects the fact that momentum has to
be conserved across an entire system during such colli sions: if
light behaves as though it has a momentum of its own, this adds
to the evidence that it must be a particle, not a wave.

Electron gains kinetic
energy and is deflected
""'1-)
Stationary
electron
~'e
\ - Scattering
\ _ angle
Incoming photon
Scattered photon with

less energy and longer
wavelength
Wave-particle duality
B y the early 1920s, the evidence that light had properties

of both wave and partic le was widely accepted, but the
question of why light alone displayed this spl it persona lity
remained a mystery In 1924, French sc ientist Louis-Victor de
Brog lie suggested an explanation of sorts, namely that particles
such as electrons a/so show dual aspects He proposed that the
'wave length' of a particle can be calcu lated by dividing the Planck
constant (see page 28) by the particle's momentum (a property
now known as the de Broglie wavelength, shown opposite)
Indeed, it turns out that a// matter has an associated wavelength,

and the shape of its wave (called the wave function) acts as a
probability curve, with peaks in the wave at locations where the
particle is most likely to be found. The higher the momentum, the
shorter the de Broglie wavelength, so the wave aspect is only
noticeable on atomic and subatomic scales. In contrast, the de
Broglie wave length of an Olymp ian running the 100-metre sprint
is an undetectable lQ- 37 metres.

Electron diffraction
irect proof of de Broglie's ideas about wave-particle

D dual1ty was prov1ded by Clinton Davisson and Lester
Germer in 1929. Their experiment involved fwing beams of
electrons at a crystal of pure nickel. Because the de Broglie
wavelength of electrons is much smaller than the wavelength
of visible light, the narrow gaps between the crystal's atomic
planes can act as a diffraction grating. Davisson and Germer
measured interference fringes, similar to those created by
light diffraction, in the intensity of electrons arriving on the
other side of the crystal. The result was soon independently
corroborated in a similar experiment by British scientist
George Thomson.
The fact that electrons undergo diffraction not only showed

conclusively that they have wave like properties, but wou ld also
prove to have immense practical significance. The tiny wave length
of electrons allows us to use them to probe the structure of
matter at much deeper levels than light microscopy

Rutherford's
atomic structure
W ave-par ticle duality shows that quantum theory applies not
on ly to light, but also to atoms and subatomic particles. So
how did our understanding of these particles develop? Following
his discovery of the electron (see page 30), J.J. Thomson proposed
a simple model of the atom with negatively charged electrons
embedded in a positively charged space, like plums in a pudding.
However, in 1908, Ernest Rutherford, Hans Ge iger and Ernest

Marsden discovered a more comp lex story. In a famous
experiment, they fwed rad ioactive alpha particles through a t hinly
beaten sheet of go ld foi l towards a phosphorescent screen that
ill um inated when struck by a particle. Most of the particles passed
stra ight throug h the go ld foil, but some had the ir paths deflected
slightly, and others bounced stra ight back. Such be haviour was
inexp licable in the 'plum - pudding' mode l, so Rutherford's team
rea lized t hat most of the matter in an atom is compresse d into a
t iny centra l nucleus, now known to be composed of even smaller
subatomic part icles cal led protons and neutrons.

Rutherford, Geiger Alpha
particle
and Marsden's gold
source
foil experiment
A few particles
strike gold nuclei
head-on and are
reflected back
Phosphorescent
detector screen
Some particles
are deflected by
close encounters
with nuclei
Most particles pass

undeflected between nuclei
Bohr's atomic structure
T he atom suggested by Rutherford's go ld-foil experiment

is inherently unstab le. In his model, electrons should lose
energy, spiral in and collide with the positively charged nucleus,
emitting light across a continuous range of wavelengths as
they do so. Yet, in reality, atoms remain stable and light is
emitted by electrons only in discrete quanta.
It was Danish phys icist Niels Bohr who began to make sense of
this by applying the nascent quantum theory to it. He depicted
electrons as orbiting on ly in stab le orbits, each with a specific
energy level. For an electron to drop into a lower orb it, it must
give up some energy, releasing a photon with an energy equal
to the difference between the two orbits. Similarly, in order to
jump to a higher orbit an electron must absorb a photon with
sufficient energy. This is the basic theory behind the science
of spectroscopy (see page 56), and the difference between
energy levels is given by an equation cal led the Planck relation
[shown on page 29)

Different orbits
Electron orbits at correspond to
different energy
/levels
The quantum
mechanical atom
espite the best efforts of Rutherford and Bohr, certain
D aspects of atom1c structure remained a puzzle, and 1t
wasn't until1925 that the f1nal pieces of the jigsaw slotted
into place.
Wave- particle duality tells us that an electron can act as both

a particle and a wave. If we imagine the orbits of electrons
as concentric circles around the nucleus (analogous to the
orbits of the planets around the Sun). then we should know
where each electron is at any one time. However, if we then
superimpose the probability wave of the de Broglie wavelength
onto the electron orbits, we fmd that an electron could exist
at any point along that wave: for want of a better word, its
position becomes 'fuzzy'. German physicists Werner Heisenberg
and Erwin Schri:idinger, who fwst realized this, suggested that
the electron orbits might better be considered as an electron
'cloud' or 'swarm'. Today, however, they tend to be referred to
as 'orbitals'.

In the quantum model of the atom, electrons
occupy diffuse orbitals rather than fixed orbits
(see page 70 for an explanation of annotation]
Nucleus
2s orbital
(spherical)
2p orbitals 3s orbital
(lobes] (spherical]
Relativity
T he early 20th century saw huge advances in physics.

Alongs id e explorations of the subatom ic and quantum
rea lm, perhaps the biggest revo lut ion of all came at the other
end of the size sca le, wit h Ei nste in's theories of spec ial and
general relativity (published in 1905 and 1915, respectively).
In f act, both theories wou ld prove t o have important

im plications for quantum phys ics. Development of the special
theory (which expla ins the physics of objects moving at close
to the speed of light but ignores situatio ns of acceleratio n)
led Einstein to the idea that mass and energy are eq uivalent,
a keystone of quantum and particle physics (see page 50).
The ge neral t heory, meanwhil e, wh ich co nsiders acce lerating
'reference frames', showed how gravity can distort space
and make itse lf felt across vast cosm ic distances. Ein stein,
however, wa nted a more comp lete theory that cou ld explain
how gravity acts on very sma ll scales, as we ll as at the very
large, unifying relativity with the quantum world (see page 262).

Mass-energy equivalence
he most famous equation in all of physics tells us that mass

T and energy are equivalent. Einstein made this remarkable
discovery while investigating how objects with mass [m) would
behave when moving near the speed of light (c; the ultimate
cosmic speed limit, reachable only by massless photons of light).
The equation's huge scaling factor [the enormous speed of light
multiplied by itself) reveals just how much energy is locked up in
even a relatively small mass. For instance, a 1-kilogram [2.2-lb)
bag of sugar locks up 3 million billion joules of energy. The more
massive an object, the more energy it contains (and when an
object moves, it carries even more energy- see page 82).
This mass-energy equivalence also holds for atoms and particles

that operate under quantum rules. When physicists discuss
particles, they don't talk about their mass in kilograms. Instead,
they refer to their energies, measured in tiny units called
electronvolts [eV). For example, the rest mass energy of an
electron [the energy it has when it isn't moving) is 0.511 million eV

2
The Solvay Conference
he f1rst steps towards unifying the disparate strands

T of quantum physics into a complete theory came at the
1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, where 29 of the world 's
leading scientists assembled to wrestle with the subject.
Among them were 17 Nobel Prize winners and giants in
the world of quantum physics, including Niels Bohr, Arthur
Compton, Marie Curie, Louis de Broglie, Paul Dirac, Albert
Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Max Planck and
Erwin Schrbdinger.
There were (friendly) divides between these heroes and

heroines of science. For example, Heisenberg considered the
question of quantum physics settled, while Einstein was still
groping for an explanation of why quantum mechanics worked
at all. It was at this conference that he uttered his famous
phrase, 'God does not play dice with the Universe; in response
to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (see page 172). For
Einstein, nothing should be left to chance.

Attendees at the 1927 Solvay Conference
The Copenhagen
interpretation
M uch of the theoretical groundwork laid for quantum physics

in the 1920s was led by Niels Bohr (opposite) at the Univers ity
of Copenhagen. Scientists inc luding Pa ul Dirac, Erwin Sc hrbdinger
and Werner He isenberg all came to De nmar k to work with Bohr,
and the ir collective efforts gave rise to the so - called 'Copenhagen
interpretation'. Th is approach to quantum physics is a sort of
ideo logy, claimi ng that everything we can definite ly know about the
behaviour of a quantum system emerges in the act of measuring
it, and t hat without measurement, we are li mited to describ ing a
'wave functio n' that predicts the probabi lity of certain results.
Despite its popularity, however, this interpretation was not

universal ly accepted. Other approaches have arisen since, from t he
many- worlds theory to the idea that only a conscious observer can
cause a wave f unction to resolve into a sing le outcome (see pages
286 and 392) However, it was via breakthroughs made using the
Copenhagen interpretation that scientists f 1nally fo und t he tools
they needed to work within the bizarre world of quantum physics.

Spectroscopy
T he sc ience of spectroscopy is the analys is of the precise

wave length s at which materials and objects em it, absorb
or reflect radiation. It is a hugely powerful tool, used today in a
whole range of f1 elds aside f rom astronomy, in clud in g medical
research, materials science and che mica l analysis. For example,
alth oug h the eleme nt helium acco unts for nearly a quarter
of al l atoms in the Universe, it was unknown until1868, when
astronomer Norman Lockyer id ent ified a prominent 'gap' in
the Su n's light output at a wave length of 588 nanometres
[billionths of a metre). and realized it was t he signature of a
new element in the Su n's atmosphere absorb ing light.
Spectr oscopy owes its power to the f act that the wave lengths
of light em itted or absorbed by atoms are intimately lin ked to
their interna l structure, and are therefore dictated by quantum
interactions happenin g between electrons at various energy
levels. As such, it's an id ea l provin g ground for discovering and
understanding many aspects of the quantum world.
56 ENERGY LEVELS AND SPECTRAL LINES

Types of spectra
A/. .
D.
Continuum
Prism or spectroscope splits light
mto different wavelengths
~ ,,,'' .... _ ~
Incandescent Broad spectrum of light
light source
Emission
Hot gas Bright lines on dark background
Absorption
~-- Cool gas Absorption lines against

Incandescent continuum spectrum
light source
Atomic structure
T he model of an atom as depicted by Rutherford and Bo hr

(see pages 42 and 44) is fa irly sim ple, with an atom ic
nucleus at the centre, surrounded by electro ns in the ir orbits.
The nucleus is the heart of t he atom. It contai ns most of the

atom's mass, and is made from one or more 'nucleons', which are
either protons or neutrons. Both of these particle types are
themselves composed of three sma ller particles ca ll ed quarks
(see page 92) A proton has a positive charge, wh ile a neutron
is electrically neutral. Because charge is balanced within an
electrical ly neutra l atom, the positive charge on a proton is
cancelled out by the negative charge of an electron orbiting it.
The simpl est element - hydrogen - usually has atoms cons isting
of a single proton orbited by a lone electron. Helium consists
of two protons and usually two neutrons orb ited by two
electrons. At the other extreme, the heaviest known element
has 118 protons, 118 electrons and 176 neutrons.

Simple atomic structures
Hydrogen Deuterium (heavy hydrogen)

1 proton, 1 electron 1 proton, 1 neutron, 1 electron
Helium Carbon-12
2 protons, 2 neutrons, 6 protons, 6 neutrons,
2 electrons 6 electrons
Electron shells
lectrons flit around an atom's nucleus in shared 'shel ls'

E The further away a shell is from the nucleus, the more
electrons it can accommodate. The fwst she ll is known as
the 'K-s hel l' and it f 1ts no more than two electro ns in it. Th e
second shell, ca ll ed the 'L-shell', can include eight electrons;
the third 'M - she ll' up to 18 electrons; the fourth 'N - she ll', 32
electrons; and so on. A handy formula allows you to ca lcu late
the total num ber of electrons an atom can conta in in a given
she ll: 2(n 2 ), where n is the number of t he shell, also known as
the 'principal qua ntum number'. So in all the shel ls lead in g up
to and in cluding the M- shell, there can be 2 x (1 2) + (2 2) + (3 2) =
2 x (1 + 4 + 9) = 28 electrons.
The greater its atomic mass, the more electrons an atom

has, and hence more she lls. In any atom, the outermost she ll
is known as the 'va lence shell'. Since it directly interacts with
other atoms, it is this she ll that helps, above al l, to def1ne the
chem ica l properties of that atom.

This schematic shows the distribution of electrons in an atom of
neodymium [atomic number 60]. The complexities of electron energy levels
mean that its outermost 32 electrons are distributed through theN, 0
and P shells, rather than all collecting in the N shell.
Quantum numbers
T he principal quantum number that describes the energy

levels of electron shel ls is not the only way in which we def1ne
the quantum state - that is, the probability wave function - of
an electron. Alongside it, there are other key quantum numbers
that help def1ne an electron's properties.
Electrons have a property called 'spin' (s; see page 102),

which can have a quantum number of 112 or - % . Meanwhile,
the 'azimuthal' quantum number (I) describes the angular
momentum of the electron (although an electron's mass
is tiny at just 9 x 10- 31 kg, it does exist, and therefore an
orbiting electron must have angular momentum).
Finally, the 'magnetic' quantum number (m,) describes the

energy levels present in the 'subshells' of any given electron
she ll (see page 70 ). Within a magnetic f1eld, m 1 can also
produce further shifts in electron energy, related to a
phenomenon known as the Zeeman effect (see page 86).

Principal Possible values Subshell Poss1ble values Number of
quantum of azimuthal name ofmagnet1c orbitals in
number,n quantum num- quantum subshell *
ber,/ number,m1
1 0 1s 0 1
2 0 2s 0 1
1 2p 1, 0, -1 3
3 0 3s 0 1
1 3p 1, 0, -1 3
2 3d 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 5
4 0 4s 0 1
1 4p 1, 0, -1 3
2 4d 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 5
3 4f 3, 2, 1, 0, 7
-1, -2, -3
* NB- Two electrons can coexist in each orbital

if they have opposite spins.
Electron energy levels
E ach electron shell within an atom exists at a different

energy level, and the further from the nucleus an electron
travels, the greater the energy it must have. Converse ly, the
closer it lives to the nucleus, the le ss energy it requires.
For example, consider an argon atom. Thi s has 18 electrons,

so entirely f ill s its K-, L-and M-shel ls. Electrons in the K-shell
have -4,4 08 electronvo lts (eV) of energy. The minus sign is
exp lained by the fact that the potential energy of an electron
on ly reaches zero at an infmite distance from the nucleus,
so all the electron she ll s closer in are considered to have
negative energy. The electrons in the L- shell have an energy of
-1,102 eV and in the M-she ll their energy is -489.78 eV, so the
energy leve ls are getting higher (that is, closer to zero) with
greater distance from the nucleus. For an electron to jump to
a higher shel l, it therefore must gain some energy by absorb in g
a photon. Converse ly, to drop down from this excited state, it
must lose some energy by emitting a photon.

Electron in excited state
Electron cascades
through energy
levels, losing energy
at each step
Energy provided
by high-energy Energy released
photon as lower-energy
photon as electron
drops back to
ground state
Ground state
(lowest energy level)
Fluorescent materials glow when electrons excited by high-energy radiation

drop back to their original state andre-emit photons of lower energy.
Calculating energy levels
W hen analysing spectra, physicists often need to calcu late the

approximate energy levels of electrons in a particular shell, and
they can do this using the equation shown opposite. Here, E signif1es
the energy we are attempting to calcu late, h is Planck's constant
(see page 28), and c the speed of light, 2.998 x 108 m/s. R is a factor
called the Rydberg constant with a numeric value of 1.097 x 107, Z is
the atomic number (the number of protons or electrons in an atom)
and n is the principle quantum number. In our previous example of
the argon atom, Z = 18, so if we want to calculate the energy of
the M-shell (n = 3), then we simply multiply everything together
f = - 6.626 X lQ- 34 X (2.998x10 8) X (1097x10 7) X (18 2/3 2)
giving - 7.845 X lQ- 21 joules. Quantum physicists, preferring to

work in smal ler units of energy, translate this to electronvolts
(the energy needed to move a single electron across a 1 vo lt
difference in electric potential), producing a result in this case
of E= - 489.78 electronvo lts (eV).

The ground state
T he lowest - energy el ectr ons in an at om (th ose in th e

inn erm ost K- shel l) are so metim es desc rib ed as bein g in
th e grou nd st at e: th eir ener gy canno t get any lower and t hey
have, in effect, hit t he 'grou nd'. Th os e el ectrons in the hi gher
electron shells wit h t heir ext r a ener gy ar e, on th e ot her
hand, descri bed as being 'exc ited'.
Th e difference between ground - st ate and excited electrons is

t he key be hi nd muc h of t he quantum phys ics tha t happens in
t he ele ct ron shel ls. When an elec t ron gains energy by abso rbin g
a photon, it becomes exc ited and t r ies t o JUm p up an ene r gy
leve l. Conve r sely, when an elect r on loses energy, it em its a
photo n and drops back down t o a lowe r energy state Why
would an electron feel the nee d t o dr op down? All part icles ar e
at t he ir ha ppiest when t hey are as close to the gr ound state
as t hey can get, so exc ited elec t ro ns are in he r ent ly unst ab le. If
t he r e is a vaca ncy in the electron shell im mediately be low it, an
ele ct r on wil l shed excess energy t o occ upy that space.

l.Ground
state
2. Excited
state
Electron drops
back to lower
Electronjumps
to higher energy
level
3.Ground
state
Electron subshells
T he equation given on page 67 might suggest that all electrons

in the same shel l have exactly the same energy, but this is not
strictly true; as is often the case, quantum physics introduces
some ambiguity. An electron shell is divided into a number of
subshells, one of which wi ll have the energy ca lcu lated using the
equation, while the other subshells will have slight variations
around that energy leveL An electron in a given electron she ll
might exist in any of the subshell s. The subshells are distinguished
using more letters - s, p, d, f, and then following alphabetically, g,
h, i, and so on The innermost K-shell has just one subshell, known
as ls. The second, L-shell, has two subshells, 2s and 2p; the third,
M- she ll, has three subs hells, 3s, 3p and 3d, and so on.
Subshells arise because the wave function of the electrons allows a

little wiggle room in their spatial distribution - an electron will have
a given probability of existing in one of the subshel ls. Which subshell
in particular can be calcu lated using the famous Schrodinger wave
equation (see page 156).

Generalized shapes of individuals, p, d and f subshells
• ls 2p
.. _
3d
Quantum degeneracy
athematical model s ca ll ed 'harmo nic oscil lators' are

M ubiqu itous in phys1cs, and offe r a way t o descr1be many
vibra ting an d wavelike phenomena. The simplest kind of oscillat or
is a mass attached to the end of a spring, bouncing up and down in
one - dimension. Howeve r, co nsider a three -dim ensiona l oscil lation,
one that's vibrating up and down, left and r ight, and back t o front.
If all three states of vibratio n oscillate with equa l amplitude and
energy, the system is described as 'deg enerate'; fewer numbe r s
ar e nee ded t o describe it t han we might expect.
Qua ntum physics has its own analogous concept of degeneracy

that appli es when more than one quantum state shares th e
sa me energy level in an electron shell. Quantum degeneracy
describes how many quantum numbers ca n have the sa me
energy, and is give n by t he sq uare of the principle quantum
number. In a hydrogen ato m, a ground-state electron ha s a
degeneracy of just 1, but if that electron is boosted into the
L- she ll, it's degenera cy becomes 4 [2 2); in t heM-shel l, 9 [3 2).

Energy levels in a single-electron (hydrogen) atom
3s 3p 3d
_ _ _ _ _ Degeneracy
=9
Sub shells with the same

principal quantum number
share the same energy level.
Degeneracy= 4
Non-degenerate
1s ground state
Hund's rules
n 1927, German physicist Friedrich Hund developed a set

I of rules that help to bring order to the potential chaos of
electron configurations. He set out three rules to determine
whic h configuration of an atom with severa l electrons has the
lowest-e nergy ground state, and is therefore favoured.
Th e rules invo lve adding up the spin (s) and orb ital angular
momentum(/) of all individua l electrons to fmd totals denoting
Sand L, respectively Added together, these then give a 'tota l
angular momentum quantum num ber' (J). Th e rules themselves
are shown opposite, but it's their imp lications that matter most·
Hund's rules imply that all electrons in singly occupied position s
must be sp inning in the same directio n, and also that all empty
pos ition s must f1rst be filled before electrons can beg in pairing up.
This matters because the configuration of the electrons in the

outermost shell def1nes an atom's chemical properties, so the
order in wh ich they occupy the positions is crucial in defining
how one atom interacts with other atoms and molecules.

Pauli's exclusion principle
hile Hund's rules describe the configuration of electro ns,

W they don't offer an exp lanation as to why these
configurations happen. That exp lanation lies in the famous
exclusion prin cip le discovered by prodigious Austrian physicist
Wolfgang Pau li in 1925.
Pauli realized that the number of electrons in every fully

occup ied electron she ll- two in the K- shel l, six in the L-shell,
ten in theM - she ll, and so on - were identical to the number
of poss ible different arrangements for the quantum numbers
among electrons in that she ll. He conc luded that nature does
not allow two electrons with identical quantum numbers to
occupy the same she ll; any that attempt to do so are exc luded
(forced into a different she ll with a higher energy leve l). Thus,
the structure of electron shells is prevented from co llapsing.
It later became clear that Pauli's exclus ion prin cip le app lies not
on ly to electrons, but also to neutrons and protons, with some
fascinating consequences [see page 236 ).

Electron distribution in some simple elements
Pauli's exclusion principle prevents

electrons from sharing identical
Helium quantum numbers, forcing them to
(2 electrons) take up new positions in the orbital
shell structure.
Boron
(5 electrons)
Nitrogen
(7 electrons)
Oxygen
(8 electrons)
Neon
(10 electrons)
1s subshell 2s subshell
2p sub shell
Fraunhofer lines
hen sun light is sp lit by a prism, we can see the visib le

W reg1on of the electromagnetic spectrum dispersed
according to the different wave lengths in its light. In the early
19th century, scie nti sts began noticing that this rainbow-like
pattern of colours was crossed by dark lin es. German optician
Joseph von Fraunhofer studied these in depth, identifying over
500 lines, although thousands of these are now known.
Fraunhofer lines are produced by atoms in the Sun's atmosphere

absorbing li ght emitted at its visible surface, and are a
consequence of the discrete energy levels within atoms. To JUmp
between levels, an electron must absorb a photon and take a
precise amount of energy corresponding to a specific wave length
in the spectrum. When many atoms absorb simi lar photons they
remove that wavelength from the broad 'continuum' of sunlight,
creating dark absorption lines. Each line matches a spec if1 c
transition in a particular atom, so scientists can use them to
identify the atomic make - up of stars and other objects.

Emission lines
A s well as dark absorption lines, electrons can also cre ate bright
M. 'em1ss1on lines' by releasmg photon s as they tran s1tlon f rom an
exc ited st at e t o a less excited one. Em ission li nes have wavelengths
equiva lent t o the diffe ren ce in ener gy involved in a trans ition, and
are produced by energized gases, for instance in neon strip lights or
th e nebulae surrou nding newborn sta r s.
Hydrogen, t he simp lest and most co mmo n element in the Universe,

has its own set of electron transit ions givi ng r ise to specific
wavelengths of light. The Lyman se r ies, discovered by Theodo r e
Lyman in 1906, is produ ced by electrons dropp ing from va r ious
energy levels stra ight to the ground state. The transition from
the L-s hell to the K-shell, kn own as the Lyma n alpha, corre sponds
t o ultraviolet radiation at a wavelengt h of 121 nanometres. Th e
transition f rom t heM-shell to th e K-shell is t ermed Lyman- beta,
and so on Meanwhile, the Balmer series, wh ich incl ude s both
visible and ult raviolet lines, describes tra nsitions from high er
excited states down to the L-shel l.

Conservation of energy
and momentum
T he f1rst law of thermodynamics (see page 22) is based on

the 1dea that the total energy of a system is conserved;
energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change from
one form into another. For example, when an ice cube is heated
and sublimates, an input of heat energy is transformed into
kinetic (motion] energy in the molecules of water vapour.
Energy is not the only property in the Universe that is

conserved; momentum is too. Think of balls on a pool table. When
a player strikes the white ball with the cue, it gives the ball a
certain momentum. When the white ball hits a stationary red
ball with zero momentum, some of the white ball's momentum
is passed to the red ball, while the white ball retains the rest of
its momentum as it rebounds away. The total momentum of the
wh ite ball and the red ball after the collision is the same as the
total momentum between the two before the collision. Although
ice cubes and pool tables are everyday examples, the principles
behind these conservation laws also hold in particle physics.

Forbidden transitions
A lthough nature as depicted by quantum physics is inherently

M. uncertain and messy, it can occasionally be fussy about a
few things - notably the conservation of properties such as
energy, momentum (see page 82) and quantum states
However, an electron doesn't inherently know what the ru les

are. When it absorbs a photon, it wil l naturally attempt to make
a quantum jump to a higher energy state, even if that jump
takes it into a quantum state that's already occupied or one
that doesn't conserve quantum numbers. When an electron
makes one of these 'forbidden transitions', it is swiftly forced
to return to its original state. However, by then it is in some
ways too late: the electron has already absorbed a photon, so
we see a dark absorption line. When returning to its original
state the electron also has to spit out a photon carrying the
excess energy, so creating an emission line. Hence, absorption
and emission lines can appear even when the laws of physics
say that certain transitions shouldn't officially take place.

The Zeeman effect
T he concept of electron spin arises freque ntly in quantum

physics (for examp le, 1n our discussions of quantum
numbers and Hu nd's r ul es, see pages 62 and 74). As effective
'point masses' with negligi ble physical dimensions, electrons
don't actually spin, but t hey sti ll sport quantum properties
that behave as though they were sp inni ng, and t hi s sp in can
be distinguished as either up or down (in terms of quantum
numbers, spi ns of either 1h or - 112).
Because electrons have negative electri cal charges, their passage

through an electric f 1eld generates a magnetic f 1eld, and the spin
of th e electron decides the fi eld's magnetic polarity. Therefore, an
electric f1eld will deflect electrons with spin up in one direction,
and those wit h spin down in a different direction. There is also a
smal l but measurable energy difference between the two spins,
which can result in the f1ne splitti ng of energy levels while under
the influence of an electric f1eld. This effect was f1 r st noted by, and
subseq uently named after, Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman.

A beam of electrons fired through an electric
f1eld will produce two spots, not one.
The particle zoo
T he protons, neutrons and electrons found inside everyday

atoms are just the t1p of the iceberg when 1t comes to
the particle family tree. The 20th century saw an explosion
of discoveries as particle accelerators ramped up in power
and theoretical physics became more advanced. Research
continues apace in the 21st century, significantly with the
discovery of the famous Higgs Boson in 2013.
We describe our best picture of particle physics as the

'Standard Model'. Like a grand soap opera, the Standard
Model's family tree is actually the story of three families-
the fermions, the quarks and the so - called force carriers or
bosons- and how they get along with one another. Relations
between these particles are determined via fundamental
forces known as the strong, weak and electromagnetic
interactions [the fourth fundamental force, gravity, is negligible
on particle scales]. On these subatomic levels, quantum physics
is king, moulding and influencing the particles to do its bidding.
88 PARTICLE PHYSICS
Tracks left by the
passage of subatomic
charged particles
through the Big European
Bubble Chamber at the
The Standard Model
P hysicists converged on the so-called Standard Model of

particle physics in the 1970s, following several decades
of research and discovery. Th e model describes particles
at their most fundamental level- those that are indivisib le
or elementary, ground zero for the construction of matter
[for example, quarks, which cluster together to form other
particles, such as protons and neutrons).
However, the Standard Model is more than just an exercise

in cata loguing particles; it's a model of how the particle world
operates, describing how those particles interact in ways that
ultimately enable them to create the world we see around
us. We' ll learn more about them and their interactions in the
following pages. Yet there wi ll also be unanswered questions,
puzzles that the Standard Model cannot yet expla in, such as
the origin of the fundamental forces, how neutrinos are ab le
to change from one type into another, as we ll as the nature of
mysterious 'dark matter'.
90 PARTICLE PHYSICS
Fermion generations
II Ill
Charge -1
Spin ---1
2/J
1/z u 2/Jc
1/z
2/Jt
1/z
0
1
y ~H
en up charm top photon Higgs boson
~
a:
<(
::l
~
0
-1/Jd -1/Js -1/Jb

1/2 1/z 1/z en
z
0
down strange bottom en
0
ID
w
zo
(!)
::l
<(
1~2ve 1~2v1-l 1~2v't

0 (!)
1
electron tau
en neutrino
muon
neutrino Z boson
z neutrino
0
f-
a..
0
w
-1e
....1
1/z -1
1/2 !-! ~1w
±
electron u W boson
Quarks
T he protons and neutrons found in each atomic nucleus are

themse lves made of tiny partic les known as quarks. Murray
Geii - Mann, the physicist most associated with their discovery,
named them after a line in James Joyce's novel, Finnegans Wake
Quarks are tiny, no more than a million - trillionths of a metre

in size, each containing about one-third the mass of a proton
or neutron. They are also unique in the Standard Model in that
their charges are fractions of the charge on an electron,
rather than whole-number multiples. They come in six flavours,
somewhat whimsical ly referred to as up, down, strange, charm,
top and bottom. Th e last three forms are highly unstable, and
don't seem to play a role in the structure of matter.
Quarks bind together in clusters of two or three through a

fundamental interaction known as the strong force (c lusters
of three form protons and neutrons). So powerful is this force
that no quark has ever been observed in isolation.
92 PARTICLE PHYSICS
The three generations of quarks
Charge +2h Charge - h

1
Top Bottom Ill

quark quark
(Mass: (Mass :
173 GeV/c 2) 4180 MeV/c 2 )
Gl
m
Charm Strange
z
m
:D
quark quark
(Mass: (Ma ss:
~
0
1275 MeV/c 2) 95 MeV/c 2) z
Up Down
quark quar k
(Mass (Mass:
2.3 MeV/c 2) 4.8 MeV/c 2)
Hadrons
articles bui lt from quarks are known as hadrons. They can be

P further split into two fami lies, namely baryons (the protons and
neutrons of the atomic nucleus) with three quarks, and a variety of
short-l ived meson particles wit h two The phys ics underlying the ir
bond ing is known as quantum chromodynam ics, or QCD (see
page 260 ). 'Chromo-' refers to co lour (not literal colour, but a
un ique qua ntum property be longing to quarks).
Pau li's exclusion principle states that part icles with identical
quantum numbe r s cannot occupy the same space. The add ition
of a colour property allows quarks that would otherwise have
t he same quantum numbers to get around t hi s. There are three
'colours' red, green and blue (plus ant iquarks that are anti r ed,
antigreen or antiblue]. Co lours and the ir antico lours attract, and
can bind two quarks in to a meson. The three colours also attract
each other, lead ing to ba r yons formed of one red, one blue and one
green quark. A 'boson' pa r t icle called a gluon, meanwhi le, transm its
t he strong force between quarks.
94 PARTICLE PHYSICS
Leptons
E lectrons and the other members of their particle family are

known as leptons. These are a different breed of partic le
to the hadrons, not least because they are indivisible: there are
no quarks or other tiny particles making up leptons, so we say
they are 'elementary'. Alongside the electron, which is vital to
quantum physics, there are two other types of lepton: the tau
particle and the muon These are highly unstable and don't really
play much of a role in norma l particle physics.
Another form of lepton- the neutrino- holds the crown as the

most bizarre particle that we know. Neutrinos fill the Universe,
with tril lions streaming through your body at this very moment.
Yet these particles have barely any mass at all, and are ab le
to osci llate between three 'flavours' named after their fe ll ow
leptons: electron, tau and muon neutrinos. Because they
interact so weakly with other particles and have no electrical
charge, neutrinos can only be detected indirectly in experiments
built deep underground to shield them from interference.
96 PARTICLE PHYSICS
The three generations of leptons
Charge- 1 Charge 0
Tau
Tau Ill
neutrino
particle
(Mass
(Mass:
15.5 MeV/c 2 )
1777 MeV/c 2) Gl
m
z
m
Muon Muon :0
(Mass· neutrino ~
0
106 MeV/c' ) (Mass: z
<0.17 MeV/c 2)
Electron Electron
(Mass neutrino
0.51 MeV/c 2) (Mass:
<0.000 002 MeV/c 2)
Dark matter
espite the great stride s made by physics in the past

D century, it's a striking fact that all types of visibl e matter
account for just 4.9 per cent of the mass and energy in
the Universe. The rema inder is comp letely unknown, and the
bulk of that is accounted for by an energy f1eld known only
as dark energy. Some 26.8 per cent, however, is composed
of a substance cal led dark matter. This is referred to as
dark because we cannot see it- it does not em it or absorb
radiation of any sort, and we ca n only detect its gravity
through the way it affects the motions of stars on the edges
of galaxies, and of galaxies on the edges of galaxy clusters.
Dark matter is assumed to consist of subatomic partic les

of some description, that may be 'hot' or 'co ld' (depending on
how much energy they have). Neutrinos were once a popular
candidate for hot dark matter, but dark matter is now mostly
thought to be dominated by cold 'W IMPs' (weakly intera cting
massive particles). whose id entity remains mysterious.
98 PARTICLE PHYSICS
Electric charge
T he electric charge on a partic le is, fundamental ly, an indication

of 1ts susceptibility t o electric and magnetic f1elds, and 1ts
ability to take part in electromagnetic interactions. Like energy
and momentum , charge is conse r ved, meaning the tota l charge
in a system is the same befo r e and after an interaction between
part icles. In f act, cha r ge ca n play a key role in such interactions,
since it is susce ptib le t o the electromag netic f orce Charge is also
quantized: it co mes in discrete 'p ackets' that are usually integer
mu ltiples of t he charge of the electron or, in th e case of qu arks,
si mple fract ions of the electron cha r ge. Particle charge is never
in ra ndom amounts, but incr eases in quantum leaps, so the charge
that a particle has can be predicte d by the Standard Mode l.
Particles such as electrons have a negative charge, while others

like proto ns and positrons ('antielectron s') have a positive one.
Neutrinos an d neutrons, meanwhile, are ele ctrica lly neutral, due
either to an inherent lack of charge, or beca use the charges of
th eir constituent particles cance l out.
100 PARTICLE PHYSICS

8
Every charged particle is surrounded by its own electric field, conventionally

depicted as emerging from positive charges and flowing into negative ones. As
with magnetic poles, like charges repel while unlike ones attract each other.
Particle angular
momentum
A ngular momentum is simply the momentum of something
M. spinn ing on its axis or moving around something, as distinct
from the momentum of its straight- lin e motion through space.
Particles can have a real angu lar momentum L [a property that is
both quantized and conserved during particle interactions- see
page 82), but the calculations that describe a particle's angular
momentum also describe another particle property known as
'spin'. This is important because spin is a quantum number, one of
the key parameters describing the state of a particle.
Sp in is a strange property; despite the name, it does not refer

to actua l physical rotation, yet it endows particles with a
magnetic moment in the same way as if it did [see page 106)
Calculating L involves multiplying a 'position operator' r by a
'moment um operator' p [operators are tools used to deal
with vectors- see page 196) To calculate the total angular
momentum of a particle [denoted J) we also have to add the
total spin S, so total angu lar momentum J = rp + S.

Spin - 12
1
Spin+ 12
1
Although spin is not a true

rotation like that of, for
example, a spinning top, it
is still useful to think of
particles as spinning in one
direction or another at
particular quantized rates.
Chirality and parity
R otational symmetry plays an important role in particle

physics. Systems that are identical after a 360-degree
rotation of their wave function are said to have parity, whereas
those that change are said to be chiral. Picture an electron
with spin 112. If you rotate its wave function by 360 degrees, the
result is not identical to the original, and spin changes to -lJz.
These changes cause it to behave differently in terms of both
quantum properties and interactions with other particles. An
analogy is a mirror image: if an object is not identical to its
mirror image, it too is chiral. Most letters of the alphabet, for
instance, are chiral but a few, such as 'A' and 'H' have parity.
Chirality can be either left- or right-handed (referring to

how the wave function is rotated). and 'handedness' has
some important consequences. For example, only left - handed
fermions (i e. electrons) or right-handed antifermions (i e
positrons) are capable of interacting with the weak force
responsible for radioactive decay.

Just as the amino acids illustrated here are chiral, with
distinct left-and right-handed forms, so subatomic
particles can also be chiral.ln both cases, this can have
an important influence on their behaviour.
Magnetic moments
araday's laws [see page 18) tell us that a rotating electric

F f1eld can induce a magnetic f1e ld. Some particles- electrons,
for example - possess charge. They are essentially tiny packets
of electrical current [the electricity we plug into in our homes
is just a stream of electrons). Electrons also have inherent
quantum spin, so their rotating electric f1elds should also
generate a tiny magnetic f1eld Physicists refer to this f1eld as
an electron's magnetic dipole moment. The 'magnetic moment'
of a regular bar magnet is calculated as the strength of the poles
multiplied by the distance between them, so it depends in part on
how large the bar magnet is. Calculating the magnetic moment
of an electron is somewhat more complicated, but the magnetic
moment is always 'antiparallel' to the spin angu lar momentum.
The term 'dipole' indicates that a f1eld has both north and south
poles. Magnetic monopoles with just one pole have not yet been
found to exist in the Universe, though they are proposed by
some advanced theories, such as superstrings [see page 274).

Spin-orbit interactions
W hen an electron is locked in or bit arou nd an at om ic nuc leus,

the magnet1c mom ent created by 1ts quantum sp1n (see page
102) will inte ract with th e magnetic f1eld induced by its or bital
mot io n around the nucleus. This sp in-orbit interaction leads to
the creat io n of unexpected features that can be detected wi thin
the spectral lines of an atom. Th e sp in of the electron relative to
the induced mag netic f1 eld can have two differe nt orientat io ns,
either parallel t o the direct ion of motion, or 'ant ipara llel'. Para ll el
spin has a marg inal ly lower energy t han would otherwise be
expected, while antipara llel spin has sl ight ly higher energy Thi s
r esults in the atom ic energy leve ls sp litting in two, a pheno men on
that phys icists re f er to as 'f1ne st ructu r e'.
There is also an opposite effect, where th e nucleus itse lf has

sp in and, therefore, a mag netic mom ent, whi ch interacts wi th
the magnetic f 1eld induced by the electron . This resu lts in
'hype rf1ne structure' - extreme ly smal l sh ifts in spectra l lines
that revea l sec rets of the energy leve ls within the atom.

Fermions
P article physicists catalogue subatomic particles in many

different ways. Just as particles can be associated with
different 'families', such as baryons, leptons and mesons, so
groups of families can be aligned under common characteristics,
such as quantum spin. This gives rise to the 'fermions', which
are particles with half- integer spin (in other words, spins
of 112, %, - % or - %}The fermions include quarks, and hence
encompass the baryons (see page 94) since the three quarks
bound together in these particles result in a spin of either %
or % . Leptons, which have a spin of 112, are also fermions, as are
composites of particles made from an odd number of quarks,
such as some atomic nuclei.
Fermions are named after Italian nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi.

Their behaviour is described by a mathematical model called
Fermi-Dirac statistics, and their most important property is
that they adhere, without fail, to Pau li's exclusion principle, with
important consequences for atom ic structure (see page 76).

LEPTONS (Spin 1/z)
Symbol Flavour Mass (MeV/c 2) Charge
v Electron neutrino < 0.000 002 0
e Electron 0.51 -1
vu Muon neutrino < 0.17 0
[), Muon 106 -1
v, Tau neutrino 15.5 0
c Tau 1777 -1
QUARKS (Spin 1/z)

Symbol Flavour Mass (MeV/c 2) Charge
u Up quark 2.3 +213
d Down quark 4.8 _113
c Charm quark 1275 +213
s Strange quark 95 _113
t Top quark 173,000 +213
b Bottom quark 4180 _113
Bosons
amed after Ind ian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, and

N described by a model ca lled Bose-Einstein statistics, bosons
are particles that have integer or whole- number spins [0, 1, 2, and
so on) For reasons not entirely understood, bosons happ ily flout
Pau li's exclus ion principle, so that many bosons can coexist in the
same quantum state. This is important because it all ows them
to permeate space as so-ca lled 'gauge bosons'- partic les that
transm it the four fundamenta l forces of nature that ho ld matter
together and govern how particles interact [electromagnetism ,
t he strong force, t he weak force and gravity)
Only elementary bosons are force carriers: these include photons

[carrying the electromagnetic force), gluons [the strong force),
Wand Z bosons [the weak force) and the hypothetical graviton
[gravity). Other bosons include mesons [see page 94), whose two
quarks have a combined spin of 0 or 1, and atomic nuclei such
as helium - 4 [which conta ins two protons and two neutrons,
amounting to 12 quarks in all and hence a total spin of 6).

ELECTROWEAK FORCE
Symbol Name Mass Charge Spin
(GeV/c 2)
y Photon 0 0 1
w· w· boson 80.39 +1 1
w- w- boson 80.39 -1 1
zo zoboson 91.188 0 1
STRONG FORCE
(GeV/c 2)
g Gluon 0 0 1
HIGGS FIELD
(GeV/c 2)
H Higgs 126 0 0
boson
Bose-Einstein
condensates
he fact that bosons don't obey Pau li's exclusion princip le means
T there 1s no l1m1t as to how many can be packed 1nto the same
energy level with the same quantum numbers. In the 1920s, Albert
Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose r eal ized this cou ld have some
strange consequences. Their Bose- Einstein statistics described
all the quantum states in which a gas of bosons could exist.
Ein ste in wondered what wou ld happen if those bosons we r e chil led
to j ust a few degrees above absolute zero. He proposed that all
the bosons would sink to the lowest possible energy level, creating
a new form of matter called a Bose-Einstein condensate.
Condensates were f1nally produced in laboratories in the 1990s,

and freak ishly display quantized propertie s on a visible scale. For
examp le, when heliu m- 4 (a bosonic gas] is cooled to 2°C (3 6°F]
above abso lute zero, it starts to act as a superfluid - a liqu id with no
resistance to movement. Bose display many curious properties- they
can even slow the passage of light to a cra wl and even stop it, wh il e
when stirred, they form vortices that continue to swirl indefinitely

The Large Hadron Collider
n order to detect new subatomic particles, physicist s have built

I Immense machines that smash particles together at ultrahigh
speeds, creating higher and higher energ ies that briefly give rise
to short- lived particles not usually foun d in nature The biggest
of these particle detectors is the La rge Hadron Collider (LHC) at
CERN, on the Swiss- French border near Geneva.
The LH C's ring- shaped underground tunnel, some 27 kilometres

(16.8 miles) in circumference, is lined with 1,625 superconductin g
magnets that bend, accelerate and focus beams of hadrons
ranging from isolated protons to heavier atomic nuclei and
electrically charged ions. Two beams at a time race around in
opposite di r ections, each loaded with up to 120 billion hadrons.
Accelerating through the underground t ubes, their speeds
approach the speed of light before th ey smash into each other at
energies of up to 13 trillion eV Each year several hundred trillion
collisions take place, recorded by seven separate experiments
located in enormous chambers around the ring.

Key experiments at the
Large Hadron Collider
Particle
dump
LHCb
(LHC-beauty)
ALICE
(A Large
len Collider injection .-------JL...----- injection
Experiment) ATLAS (A
Toroidal LHC
Apparatus)
LHC discoveries
he Large Hadron Col lid er is designed to test all kinds

T of exotic particle phys ics theories, from id eas suc h as
supersymmetry [see page 274) to extens ions of the Standard
Model. Its best known quest, however, was the searc h for the
famous Hi ggs boson particle predicted in the Stand ard Mode l
[see page 90). Data co ll ection began w ith the LHC's inaugural
run in 2009, and each followi ng run gr adua lly narrowed down
the energy range at which the particle might be found. On
4 Ju ly 2012, scientists an nounced that the Hi ggs boson had
fmally been ident if1ed in particle col lision s with an energy of
between 125 and 127 billi on eV as theory predicted.
The LHC's other discoveries inc lude severa l new particles

and the creation of a new, superdense state of matter
ca ll ed a quark- gluon plasma, which exists at temperatures
as hig h as 5.5 trillion o C [9 9 trillion oF). Upgrades to make
the accelerator even more powerful wi ll doubtless lead to
further discoveries.

The Higgs boson
magine you've just been dropped into a big vat of treacle

I and are slowly sin king to the bottom. Then im ag1ne t hat a
ball - bearing - tiny, but with the same mass as yourse lf - is also
dropped into the treacle. It sinks mu ch f aster, reaching the
bottom before yo u, because it has a sma ller cross - sectional
area with wh ich to create resistance in the treacle.
Accord ing to British physicist Peter Higgs, this is a good analogy

for the process that gives particles their mass. Th ey too have
to wade through a medium of sorts, in thi s case an invisible one
known as th e Hi ggs f1eld. The t heory, developed by Hi ggs in 1964,
predicts that JUst li ke the fundamental forces, the Higgs f1eld is
distributed across spacetime by a boson (see page 112).
Th e Higgs boson was f1nally discovered by the Large Hadron

Collider in 2012, but sc ienti sts have yet to decipher many of
its mysteries: in particular, the crucial question of why some
particles are more massive than others.

Electromagnetic force
A longside gravity, electromagnetism is the force that we

M. experience most 1n our daily lives. Whether we're typing
at a keyboard, turning the page in a book or opening a door,
everything we do involves interactions between molecules
and atoms that re ly on the electromagnetic forces between
charged nuclei and electrons (in particular, the outermost
electrons in an atom, known as va lence electrons, see page
60). Electromagnetic forces are responsib le not only for
the strong bonds between atoms in molecules and solid
materials, but also for the weaker bonds that bind molecules
more loosely in liquids and some gases. Our everyday lives are
therefore built upon the foundations of quantum phenomena.
Like other fundamental forces, the electromagnetic force is

carried by a gauge boson particle - in this case, photons of
electromagnetic radiation. Because photons travel at the
speed of light, the electromagnetic force can, in theory, have
an almost infinite range.

Fine structures called lamellae on
the feet of geckos allow them to
use Vander Waals' forces (a weak
electromagnetic attraction] to scale
impossibly smooth surfaces .
Strong force
f the great range of the electromagnetic force makes it the

I long-distance runner of the Universe, the so-called 'strong
force' is more like a 100- metre sprinter. It is incredibly powerful
over the short sca les of the atomic nucleus (distances of
around one million billionths of a metre, or 10-15 metres, also
known as a femtometre). In fact, at this scale, it's 137 times
stronger than the electromagnetic force This allows it to easily
overcome the electromagnetic repulsion that is trying to drive
positively charged protons apart within the nucleus.
On the scale of the nucleus, the strong force is carried

between baryons through the exchange of messenger
particles cal led pions (a type of meson, see page 94). The
strong force is also what holds quarks together inside baryons
and mesons. The force carriers exchanged between the quarks
are gluons (of wh ich there are eight types). The strength of
the strong force is why we never see lone quarks outside the
nucleus: they simply cannot escape its grip.

The strong force: binding the nucleus
d u
tXI
~ -w
\IV\ Strong force carried " " ' Strong force transmitted
between quarks by between baryons by
gluon particles pion particles
Weak force
he weak force gets its name not because it is intrinsically

T weak, but because of its exceptionally short range. At scales
of one billion bil lionths of a metre [10 -18 metres), it is stronger
than the electromagnetic force, but at just 10-17 metres,
electromagnetism gets the upper hand.
The weak force plays the key role in beta decay, a type of
radioactivity in wh ich neutrons change spontaneously into protons
and emit electrons. The reason for its short range is because
neutrons in atomic nucle i must 'borrow' energy from the Universe in
order to decay and em it one of the weak force's carriers (a charged
w• or w- boson, or a neutral Z boson). These bosons are far more
massive t han a neutron, and the cosmic debt co llector doesn't loan
this much energy out for long; hence, such bosons on ly last for one
tril lion trill ionths of a second before be ing absorbed by another
particle in order to repay the energy def1c it Beta decay is also a
ch iral interaction [see page 104) the preservat ion of 'handedness'
he lps determine which particu lar interactions can occur.

Radioactivity
e're familiar with radioactive phenomena in modern life,

W rang ing from natural radon gas to nuclear power, and from
nuclear weapons to radiocarbon dating. In fact, rad ioactivity is a
quantum physical process; no one can predict when an atom wi ll
undergo radioactive decay, because it is a random, spontaneous
affair dictated by a probabilistic wave function.
Energy emitted by radioactive decay is released when a nucleus

becomes unstable, usually because it has insufficient 'binding energy'
to hol d large numbers of protons and neutrons together against t he
electrom agnetic repulsion of the like-charged protons. The atom's
solution is to release some of these excess protons and neutrons
through a process of alpha or beta decay, while also shedding
excess, quantized 'gamma radiation'. The process transmutes the
configuration of the nucleus, often into a different element While it's
impossible to predict the decay of an individua l atom, when many
radioactive atoms are present, it is possib le to calculate the 'half
life'- the t ime it takes for half the sample to decay.

The probabilistic nature of radioactive decay gives rise to a
characteristic decay curve in which the quantity of radioactive
parent atoms halves repeatedly over time .
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
••••••••••
Cl
100 •I •I •I
c:
·c:
"iii
E
OJ
'-
·a;
u:l
....,c:
c: 50
OJ
'-
'"
a.
......
0
OJ
Cl 25
....,m
c:
OJ
u 12.5
'-
a.
OJ 6.25
0 1 2 3 4
Time (half lives]
Alpha decay
ometimes a particularly heavy element will release a cluster of

S two protons and two neutrons through rad1oact1ve decay. This
particular combination of protons and neutrons is, in effect, a
helium nucleus. In terms of radioactivity, however, it is known as an
alpha particle. Removing these neutrons and protons transforms
the parent atom into a different element. For example, the alpha
decay of uranium-238 produces thorium-234.
Alpha decay is only possible thanks to one of quantum physics'

more bizarre consequences. An alpha particle requires around
25 million eV to escape from the binding energy of a nucleus,
but normally has between 4 and 9 million eV In ordinary
circumstances this should trap it with in the nucleus, behind an
energy wa ll known as a Coulomb barrier. However, all particles
have an associated wave function and, if the alpha particle's
wave function extends beyond the Coulomb barrier, there is
a small probability of it appearing outside of the barrier. This
phenomenon is known as quantum tunnelling (see page 170).

Alpha decay of Americium-241
The synthetic element Americium is a common

component of smoke detectors. Alpha particles Helium nucleus
emitted during its decay ionize air and allow it to (alpha particle)
conduct electricity, completing a circuit. When 2 protons
smoke enters the detector, it blocks the passage 2 neutrons
of alpha particles and stops the current.
Half life of
432.2 years
Americium-241 nucleus Neptunium-237 nucleus

95 protons 93 protons
146 neutrons 144 neutrons
Beta decay
s with alpha particles, the term beta particle is used to

A refer to a particle we've already met, but when 1t is
em itted by radioactive decay. In this case, the particle is an
electron (and sometimes the electron's antiparticle, a positron)
Beta decay involves the transformation of a neutron into a

proton or, le ss commo nly, a proton into a neutron. Each of the se
particles is made of three quarks: protons have two up and one
down quark, whil e neutrons have one up and two down. Up and
down quarks have slightly different energies and can morph
into one another. In beta-minu s decay, an up quark changes to
a down quark, turning a proton into a neutron whil e releasing
a negatively charged electron plus an antineutrino. The less
co mm on beta-plus decay turns a down quark into an up quark,
changing a neutro n into a proton and releasing a positively
charged positron and a neutrino Because the overall number of
protons and neutrons remains the same, an atom undergoing
beta decay does not change into a different element.
13 2 PARTICLE PHYSICS
Two forms of beta decay
Beta-minus decay
Half life of
5730 yeare
+ +
Antineutrino Electron
(beta
Carbon-14 nucleus Nitrogen-14 nucleus
particle)
6 protons, 8 neutrons 7 protons, 7 neutrons
Beta-plus decay
Half life of
~
+ --+ + + +
Neutrino Positron
(beta-plus
particle)
Carbon-10 nucleus Boron-10 nucleus
6 protons, 4 neutrons 5 protons, 5 neutrons
Gamma decay
F ollowing an atom's radioactive decay via either an alpha or

beta particle, the parent nucleus is left in an excited state,
with its component particles in a configuration that is less
than optimal Subseque ntly, the nucleu s has to shed energy as
these particles settle into their lowest- energy configuration
(in a simi la r way to exc ited electro ns, see page 68). Exc ited
atomic nuclei shed this excess energy as photons of gamma
radiation, the highest frequency of electromagnetic radiation.
Gamma decay acts fast - usual ly within trillionths of a second
after alpha or beta decay has taken place. For some nu clei,
however, the process can take a little longer, perhaps one
billionth of a second instead. Such comparatively long - lasting
nuclei are termed 'metastable'.
The em itted gamma ray doesn't always escape into the world at
large. Often it wi ll co llide with an orbiting electron in the atom's
ground-state K-shell, giving that ele ctro n enough energy to
escape f rom the atom entirely via the photoelectric effect.

Energy loss through gamma decay
Excess energy in the form

of high, unstable spin
Gamma-ray
photon released
Gamma decay is almost

instantaneous
I
Composition of
nucleus remains
unchanged
Nucleus drops into a

stable ground state,
with lower spin
Virtual particles
ver previous pages we've mostly concerned ourselves with

O long - lasting, persistent particles. But quantum physics has
another astonishing secret to reveal: much of nature is, in fact,
held together by ghostly 'virtual particles' that only exist for the
tiniest length of time, around 10· 43 seconds. These particles can
take almost any form, and f1zz into existence from the vacuum
energy of the Universe [see page 140) They defy the laws of
conservation of mass and energy, but because they 'pay back'
the energy they borrow in order to exist in such a short time,
the Universe turns a metaphorical blind eye to them.
Many particle interactions depend on virtual particles: the

photons that carry the electromagnetic force between
electric charges are virtual, as are the gluons that hold quarks
together, and the W and Z bosons that wield the weak force.
The Vander Waals forces that bond molecules together, and
even the electrostatic force attracting two meta l plates in the
Casimir effect [see opposite) also rely on virtual photons.

The Casimir effect is a weak force that arises between
parallel metal plates separated by a very small distance in
a vacuum. It arises because while virtual photons of many
different wavelengths can pop in and out of existence in
the space around the plates only short-wavelength ones
can exist in the space between them .
Parallel
metal plates
Fewer virtual particles

in gap to create
outward pressure
Virtual photons of many

Separation of
wavelengths exert
nanometres
pressure from outside
Lamb shift
uring the 1930s, physicists realized that measurements of

D the b1nd1ng energy of electrons in hydrogen atoms differed
slightly from theoretical predictions. Th e problem was most
noticeable in the excited P-shell (see page 60), where the theory
was just 0.00003 per cent off, but even that was enough to
cause consternation amongst atomic physicists.
It turned out that empty space itse lf was to blame. In quantum

mechanics, space is never truly empty, but is filled with quantum
f1eld s that f1zz with enough energy to produce countless virtua l
particles that appear and disappear within fractions of a second.
Among these quantum f1elds is a sup erposition of random
electromagnetic f1elds, each with its own associated virtual
photon. These photons, popping in and out of existenc e, jostle
the electron, pushing it around in random directions that create
a shift in the electron's binding energy. The shift is named after
Willis Lamb, whose experiments proved the theory, and ultimately
led to the development of quantum electrodynam ics

Willis Lamb's 1947 experiment measured
three different types of spectral line
splitting that arise when a beam of
hydrogen atoms are exposed to microwave
radiation in a magnetic f1eld.
Hyperf1ne splitting due

to tiny shifts in nuclear 1 ,
structure 1,'
~1~
/'------------~
... 1',
4.5 x 1Q- 5 eV
I'------
~ ~ =======
\
4.4 X lQ- 6 - - - -- .
eV --- --- - ~- ~ ~ =========
- - - -
Lamb shifts due to

influence of virtual photons
are about 1/10th the scale Large-scale
of hyperf1ne structure Zeeman effect
splitting due to
influence of
magnetic field
(see page 86)
Vacuum energy
here does the energy to create short- lived virtua l

W particles come from7 The Universe is f1lled with a raw
energy, known as vacuum energy, gove rned by wave functions
that allow for the possibility that some of this energy wi ll
spontaneous ly turn itse lf into mass as virtual particle/
antiparticle pairs (see page 136). Thi s is possible only because
of the inhe rent fuzziness of quantum physics, as described
by the famous Heisenberg uncertainty principle (see page
172). In short, the principle makes it impossible to know the
exact energy of the cosmos at any given time. If the Universe's
accounting of its total energy is inherently askew, it's unlikely to
miss those tiny quanta of energy borrowed by virtual particles
for a short time
Virtual particles are created everywhere al l of the time.

The Universe is constantly f1zzing with their creation and
destruction. Some scientists say this causes spacetime itself to
fluctuate on the tiniest sca les, forming a 'quantum foam'.

Particles created from
'borrowed' vacuum energy
releases
energy
The wave-particle world
aying that particles also act as waves is one thing, but what
S does this mea n in reality? The particle isn't a physical wave
like a water wave on the ocean or a sou nd wave moving through
the air Instead, it's a description of the probabi lity that a particle
will have a given location or mom entum when measured. Thi s, in
turn, produces many results that we interpret as particl es acting
like waves For example, if yo u collect a large number of particles,
such as a laser beam of photons or a beam of electrons fwed
from a hot electrode, t hen the spread of probabilities means
that you can conduct experiments that show them acting en
masse li ke waves, rather than discrete particles.
Don't wo rry if this is hard to picture- it is cou nterintuitive

to how we see the everyday world. Yet the repercussions
of 'wave-particle duality' are profound: concepts suc h as
comp lementarity, uncertainty and decoherence (see pages 182,
172 and 176, respective ly) co mplete ly change th e way we think
about reality.
142 THE WAVE FUNCTION

Probability wave function
ften represented by the Greek letter psi ('tjJ), a wave function

O offers a description of the different outcomes of a quantum
system, and the probability that a particle will have a given
solution. In practice, a particle's wavelike properties are never
observed to be smeared out along a wave. Rather, peaks in the
particle's wave function describe areas where it will is more
likely to be appear the taller the peak, the greater the likelihood
This implies that quantum physics is all about probabilities,
which is why nothing is ever truly certain (at least not in the
particle world) There's always a chance that a particle could be
elsewhere, or have a different amount of momentum or energy.
How we interpret wave functions has far-reaching

ramifications. The Copenhagen interpretation says that once a
measurement is made, the wave function 'collapses' to a single
solution. In contrast, the many-worlds theory (see page 286)
predicts that every possible solution happens somewhere,
each one in a parallel universe.

A simple probability wave function
Particle most likely

to be found here
Particle less likely

>- to be found here
1-
::::;
iii
<(
Ill
0
a:
a.. Particle unlikely
to be found here
POSITION
Applying Copenhagen
A lthough it's not the only way to interpret the meaning of

M. quantum physics, the Copenhagen interpretation (see
page 54) has proved the most popular over many decades.
In some ways, it's also possibly the least imaginative
interpretation, because it denies the idea of any deeper
meaning to wave- particle duality: what we see is what we get.
The Copenhagen interpretation says that the wave function

is the complete description of all the measurable properties
of a particle and, conversely, that the properties of a particle
are entirely based on the probabilities described by the wave
function. This last point troubled Albert Einstein, prompting
him famously to claim that 'God does not play dice' The
interpretation also states that a particle is not actually a
wave and a particle at the same time, only that experiments
designed to measure waves (such as Young's slits, see page
40) will see a wave, while experiments designed to measure
particles will detect particles.

Wavefunction
spread out
According to the Copenhagen
interpretation, the act of
measurement causes the diffuse
probabiity wave function to
collapse, localizing a particle's
position and other properties.
Wavefunction
collapses
Measurement
Quantum probabilities
W hat exactly are we referring to when we talk about

'probabilitie s' in a quantum context? Picture a wave function
as a curve, or series of curves, on a graph like the one shown
opposite. The x-axis is a measure of a partic le's possible position,
while they-axis is a property known as amplitude, related to the
probability that the partic le wil l appear in a given position.
The most probable location is the highest peak on the wave

function. As the amp litud e decreases at greater distance,
so too does the probability of the particle appearing at
those locati ons. The sum of all these probabilities always
equals 1, meaning that if the particle exists, it must be found
somewhere along that wave function. So if you fwe a beam
of electrons through a narrow slit, most wi ll fol low the most
probable path, but smal l percentages will be more broadly
dispersed, making it seem as though the beam is a wave This
same mechanism exp lain s how the quantum tunnelling vita l to
radioactive decay can take place (see page 170).

The wave function of a confined particle in a box can take
on a number of different forms depending on the particle's
energy, resulting in patterns of probability distribution
similar to the harmonics of a vibrating violin string.
Low-energy particle
Position
Likely position
of particle
High- energy particle
Position
Likely positions
of particle
The Born rule
T he Born rule is a deceptively simple calculation of the

probability that a particle exists at a given location along
its wave function. In other words, if we make a measurement
to see if a particle is at that location, then the Born rule
(discovered by physicist Max Born in 1926) gives us the
probabi lity that we wil l indeed f1nd it there.
The Born probability is simply the square of the amplitude of the

wave function - that is, the height of the curve on a graphical
representation of the wave functi on- at a particular locati on.
The deceptive element of this simplicity arises from the fact
that, if we probe a little deeper into the workings of quantum
physics, we can't f1nd any satisfactory reason why the square
of the amplitude [multiplying the amplitude by itself) should give
this probability. Given the Born rule's importance to quantum
physics, this is a profound mystery, but the rule provides the link
between theoretical predictions of quantum properties and our
ability to experim ental ly measure them in the laboratory.

Probability density function Wave function at time t 0
Quantum states
W ith many different quantum numbers in play on the

subatomic scale, and wave functions to complicate th ings
further, simply determining the properties of a quantum system
could easily become problematic. Fortunately, however, a concept
called the 'quantum state' offers a convenient way in wh ich to
package all the information about a quantum system, from its
position and momentum to its quantum numbers
However, because quantum phys ics is inherently probabil istic,

the quantum state must be a distribution of all possible values
for a// of the aforementioned properties. Cons id er, for example,
an alpha particle that is trapped in the so - ca ll ed 'potential we ll'
created by the Cou lom b barrier around an atomic nucleus, with
a wave function extend ing beyond the barrier (see page 168).
Th e quantum state includes all outcomes of the partic le's wave
function, inclu din g both the possib il ity that it re ma ins inside the
potential we ll and that it tunnels out. This 'split personal ity' is at
the heart of some of the strangest aspects of quantum phys ics.

Quantum superpositions
T he ab ility of a quantum state to have a distribution of

possible outcomes is known as superposition. Think of
each outcome having its own wave function, and all those
wave functions overlapp ing or being superposed on top
of each other. Al ignments of the troughs and peaks ca use
those troughs and peaks to increase in amp litude, wh ile
misalignments cause the wave functions to cance l out. This
pattern of constructive and destructive interfere nce is
exactly how everyday waves, such as sound waves, behave.
In quantum systems, however, the patterns of superpos iti on

are rather abstract. There is no actual physical wave to
amp lify or intensify, but instead superposed peaks in crease
the probability that, for examp le, a particle wi ll be in a given
position. Adding two or more wave functions together can
therefore create a new quantum state. The double-slit
experiment (see page 14) offers a good real-world examp le
of quantum superpos itio n at work.

Wave function #1
Wave function #2
Resultant
wave function
Schrodinger's wave
equation
M any quantum mechanical concepts are so abstract that
words and illustrations can never hope to describe them
completely. Instead, they can only be fully explained using the
language of mathematics. The most important mathematical
description of all is offered by Schrodinger's wave equation.
Developed by physicist Erwin Schrodinger in 1926, the equation
was initially used to describe the quantum states of electrons
in atoms. However, it can be adapted to describe quantum
systems on any scale, up to the size of the Universe itself.
There are two versions of the equation; a time-independent

form shown opposite [for non - moving particles), and a time -
dependent one (used for a moving particle with a given location
at a given time, see page 191). At the heart of the equation
lies the concept of the wave function, also invented by
Schrodinger. The equation, and, consequently, the Copenhagen
interpretation, says that the wave function is the most
complete description of a particle possible.

Time-independent Schrodinger equation in one dimension x
Reduced Planck
constant, h/2n
a2W(x)
2m
a 2 -t:U(x)W(x) = EW(x)
I
Mass of particle
X
I
I
Potential energy
of system
I
Total energy of
system
Partial derivative
of wave function
(rate of change in
dimension x)
Quantum harmonic
oscillators
T he classic example of a harmonic osci llator is a pendulum:

assuming there's no frictional force such as air resistance
to slow, or 'dampen', the pendulum's swing, it will oscillate with
constant frequency and amplitude. Many physical phenomena
involve vibrations, and physicists often use a mathematical model
based on this kind of idealized motion to describe them.
The quantum harmonic osci llator is sim ply the quantum

ana logue to the classical models of the pendulum, and is
useful for understanding a huge variety of quantum systems,
such as a molecule with two atoms vibrating around f1xed
positions. In a quantum pendu lu m, the weight on the end of
the wire cou ld exist anywhere along the wave function, and
since the energy of the ball is quantized (and the energy
helps determine the frequency of the oscillation). this means
quantum harmonic osci llators are also quantized. In other
words, the wave funct ion is on ly re levant at specific quantized
energy levels.

Special relativity
E instein's special theory of relativity describes the

counterintuitive effects that happen when an object moves
at 'relativistic' speeds, close to the speed of light. Einstein
showed that the speed of light remains the same (299,800
kilometres or 186,000 miles per second) for all observers, no
matter where they are or how fast they are travelling. In order
to accommodate this remarkable fact, he found that a variety
of other physica l properties show strange behaviour.
For examp le, from the point of view of an outside observer,

clocks run slower at relativistic speeds, whi le the dimensions of
a moving object appear shorter. Because of E = mc 2 (see page
50), the mass of an object travelling ever closer to the speed
of light also seems to increase, unti l the mass needed to reach
light- speed itself becomes infinite. Relativity raises issues for
quantum physics because special formulations of its equations
are required to accurately describe what happens in the
quantum world at close to the speed of light.

The Klein-Gordon
equation
ne of special rel ativity's golden rule s is that nothin g
0 travels faster than the speed of light- neither physical
objects nor information. Desp ite all the we irdness in quantum
physics, thi s is one rule that ca nn ot be broken, and it's one of
the biggest tests that re lativistic quantum theory ha s to face.
Schrod inger's wave equation is not relativistic- it deals with

'wave packets' (groups of superposed wave functions belonging
to a particle) as stand ing waves with neg ligib le velocities.
Schrod inger him se lf developed a relativistic version of the
eq uati on init ially, but found it inacc urate because it didn't
incorp orate sp in. Subseq uently, numerous physicists, inclu ding
Swede Oskar Klein and Germany's Wa lte r Gordon, revisited
the relativistic version and showed how it cou ld describe the
relativistic motion of particles with zero spin, such as the
Higgs boson. Fo rtun ately, the Klein-Gordon equation, as it has
since become known, shows that wave packets do not travel
faster than light, preserving the cosm ic speed limit.

Second derivative
(rate of change) Rest mass
Wave overtime of particle
function
1
-
Laplacian
(measures the
divergence of Speed of Reduced Planck
wave function light constant, h/2n
in space)
The Dirac equation
hile the Klein-Gordon equation works for the very specific

W case of particles with zero spin, a much more adaptable
equation is needed to deal with quantum effects across a wide
range of particles at relativistic speeds
It was shy British genius Paul Dirac who resolved this in 1928. His
variation of the wave equation works for all particles with a spin
of 112, meaning that, unlike the Klein-Gordon equation, it can be
used to describe the energy levels of relativistic hydrogen atoms.
However, as with the Klein-Gordon equation, some of the Dirac
equation's solutions appeared to suggest particles with negative
energy - a physical impossibility that doesn't make sense in the
everyday world or even in our quantum picture of reality
Fortunately, Dirac soon came up with a theory to explain this

apparently nonsensical result. The solutions weren't literally
particles with negative energy, he argued. Instead, they
represented something else entirely: antimatter.

'Gamma
matrices'
Imaginary Rest mass of Wave

unit ( v-1) electron function
I I I
ihy~a
~
w - meW - 0
I I
Reduced Planck Speed of
constant (h/2rr) light
'Four gradient'
Antimatter
W e've encountered antiparticles before [see, for example,

page 127), but prior to the work of Paul Dirac in the late
1920s, the concept was completely unknown. The discovery of
the f1rst antimatter particle, the positron, came in 1932, and
today we know that every particle in the Standard Mode l has
a mirror- image antiparticle with the same mass but opposite
charge [so if the charge on an electron is -1, then the charge on
its antiparticle, a positron, is +1). Physicists have also proved that
antiparticles can form their own 'antiatoms' and 'antimolecules'.
Put a particle and its antiparticle together and they annihilate

each other in a flash of energy, producing a pa ir of high - energy
photons in their stead. However, antimatter is extremely rare- at
most the Large Hadron Collider could produce one - billionth of a
gram of antimatter each year. Nobody knows why antimatter is so
scarce, but it's a good job that it is- had there been equa l amounts
of matter and antimatter at the dawn of the Universe, the ir
annih ilation wo uld have left a Universe filled only with photons.

Electron
\ Annihilation
transforms particles
into pure energy
Positron
High-energy
Annihilation between electrons
and positrons produces a pair of
gamma-ray photons each carrying
energy of 511 keV- the same as the
rest mass of an electron.
The Coulomb barrier
ne intriguing consequence of the quantum nature of

0 particles is their abi lity to be in one place at one moment,
then reappear in a different place a moment later. This is what
happens in alpha decay, when a helium nucleus 'tunnels' its way
out of a larger nucleus. Before we exp lore quantum tunnelling
in depth, however, we need a better understanding of the
barrier through which a particle or nucleus has to tunnel.
In atoms, this barrier is called the Coulomb barrier. It's not a force
f1eld, but an electrostatic interaction between nuclei. At very close
distances to the nucleus, it is attractive, but it becomes repulsive
just a little further away. This makes it very good at keeping alpha
particles in and very good at keeping other atomic nuclei out
The attractive Coulomb barrier that traps an alpha particle
in the nucleus has an energy around 26 million eV, and should,
according to classical physics, be insurmountable. Similarly, two
nuclei trying to join together in a nuclear-fusion reaction require
enough energy to overcome a repulsive Coulomb barrier.

1:
0 Electromagnetic
"iii Coulomb force repels
:;
c. similar charges
"'
a:
Distance between
positive charges
Strong force
-attracts protons and
neutrons to each other
The Coulomb barrier binds protons and

neutrons together in the confines of the
atomic nucleus, but also acts to prevent
separate nuclei from coming too close
to each other and fusing together.
Quantum tunnelling
T here are two ways of overcoming the Coulomb barrier

around an atomic nucleus. The fwst way is through sheer
energy, but for a particle to attain a kinetic energy greater
than the energy of the Coulomb barrier takes exceptionally
high temperatures (tens of billions of degrees). Such high
temperatures do not even exist in the centres of some low-
mass stars, and yet hydrogen nuclei still merge to form helium
nuclei and emit the energy that makes stars shine.
Instead, particles are more likely to resort to the second way

of overcoming the barrier. The wave function of, say, an alpha
particle or two atomic nuclei trying to fuse together can
extend beyond the Coulomb barrier, meaning that there is a
small chance that a particle can appear beyond (or penetrate
through) the barrier. The size of the Coulomb barrier is different
for each atomic nucleus so, depending on which nucleus is
decaying, it may take anything from a few millionths of a second
to many billions of years for an alpha particle to escape.

Classical model of alpha decay
Alpha
particle
Particle Barrier cannot be overcome

remains
trapped 0
-~...111111~~~i
unless particle has a large
amount of energy
Quantum model
Particle
wave
function
Wave function has a small

but significant chance of
tunnelling through barrier
Particle escapes nucleus
I
Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle
T he fuzzine ss of quantum physics isn't only found in the

wave funct ion, but is also apparent in the properties we
can measure in a particle. Werner Heisenberg stumb led upon
this problem, realizing that it is impo ss ible to be certa in of
both the momentum and the position of a particle at any
one instant: the more accurately we know the value of one
of these properties, the less accurately we know the other.
Heise nberg called this his 'uncertainty principle'. It has nothing
to do with errors in experimenta l apparatus or method but
is, instead, a result arising from the behaviour of a particle's
wave function. The more you can pin down a particle's location,
the more tightly bunched the wave function (which determines
the particle's position) becomes. However, this has the
consequence of making the wave function's wavelength (which
determines a particle's momentum) less precise. Conversely,
the more accurately the wave length is known, the more widely
distributed the wave function is, giving the particle a greater
probabi lity of existing in many different locations.

Change in position Change in momentum Reduced Planck
constant (h/2rr)
I I I
~x· ~p >
- 11/2
Change in energy Change in time
I I
~E • ~t";?.h/2
The uncertainty principle states that certain complimentary
pairs of quantum properties (position and momentum, or
energy and time) cannot both be determined with perfect
accuracy in the same measurement.
Uncertainty in action
H eisenberg's uncertainty principle has so me f asc inating re al-

life uses. Magnetic resonance Imaging (MRI), for example,
relies on the re lationship between the frequency of a r ad io -
wave length photon and its momentum The uncertainty principle
says we can't know a photon's frequency and its position at t he
same time, so in a burst of radio photons whose positions are
known, frequen cies will be uncertain and spread across a wide
range- perfect for probing different parts of the human body.
The principle also ha s some other fundamental co nsequences.

It dictates the size of electron orb ita ls, and hence the size of
atoms themselves. It also exp lains why the oppositely charged
electrons and protons in atoms are not attracted to each
other: moving closer to the nucleus would pin down an electron's
position so tightly that the uncertainty in its momentum wou ld
be huge. Quantum tunnelling is another manifestation of the
uncertainty prin cipl e, while virtual particles (see page 136) ca n
only exist because of un certa inty in the exact energy of space.

Uncertainty and the wave function
The more accurately an object's de Broglie

wavelength (related to its momentum) is
determined, the less accurately its location
can be pinned down.
Constraining the object's position leads to

greater uncertainty in its wavelength and
momentum- a probem that gets worse the
more tightly the position is defined.
Quantum decoherence
f we want to measure a single property of a quantum system- say

I the energy of an electron or the pos1tlon of a proton - we can
do so with great accuracy. When we make th ese measurements,
the wave fun ction is sa id to col lapse. Thi s is a misnomer, howeve r·
a pa r ticl e doesn't actual ly lose its wavelike properties whe n a
measurement is made. A bett er way of describing what hap pens
is to say t hat qua ntum info rmation leaks out of the syste m This
effect, cal led decoherence, was outl ined in 1970 by Heinz-Dieter Zeh.
Zeh suggested that whe n the wave function of a measuring device

comes into contact with that of a part icle, it creates interference
that causes the pa rticl e wave function to decay, allowing precise
measurement In so me ways, this is the oppos ite of superpositio n:
waves are scramb led by dest ructive interf erence rat her tha n
str ength ened by constructive overlapping. Because larger
objects are in constant contact with the wave functions of t he ir
envi ronment, they decay much faste r, expla ining why quantum
'fuzzin ess' isn't apparent at everyday scales.

Isolated particle
Properties remain
superposed
Interference between
Particle in wider wavefunctions causes
environment superposition to
• •' - - - - collapse
Wave functions
from particles
in larger object
Wave functions
from environment
Schrodinger's cat
othi ng lays ba re the we ir dness of quantum physics so we ll

N as Schri:id inger's cat. Erwi n Schri:id inger creat ed his f amous
f el ine thought experiment in 1935, t o demo nstrate wha t he saw
as the absurd ity of the Co penhagen interpretation (see page 54]
Ill ust rated op pos it e, the experiment imagines a way of putting a
mac r oco pic system (a ca t that may be alive or dead] into a st at e
of quantum su perposit ion . To a pe r son ou t si de t he box, there is
no way of knowing whet her and when a rad ioact ive substance has
decayed ther ef ore, Sch r i:id inger sa id, Copenhagen imp lies t he cat
is both alive and dead at t he sa me time until t he box is opened.
Sch r i:id inger argued that such a situat ion was intuitively absu r d,
but he rea lly only ad dress ed an extr eme rea ding of Cope nh agen
in which a conscious obse r ver is the cause of t he wave f unction's
co llapse Nie ls Bohr, for one, argued for a br oader def inition of
obse r vation in t erms of interaction with macroscopic syste ms
including the Geiger counte r and the cat itself, which wou ld
ther ef ore trigger co llapse long befo r e the box was opened.

lmagme lock1ng a cat ins1de a box w1th no way to see in.A small quant1ty
of rad1oact1ve mater1al, placed 1n the box along w1th the cat, has a known
probability of decaying 1n a g1ven time frame, governed by quantum rules
If the decay event happens, a Ge1ge~ counte~ detects the rad1ation, and
tr1ggers the release of a flOison that kills the cat.
Testing
Schrodinger's cat
o cats were harmed in the making of this book, and indeed
N a real-world enaction of Schri:idinger's thought experiment
would serve no practical purpose since the entire point is that
events in the sealed box remain undetermined until an outcome
is observed. But scientists have tested the principle behind it in
other ways and shown that, despite Schri:idinger's scepticism, the
Copenhagen interpretation does indeed reflect what happens.
The trick is to place a quantum system in a state of

superposition of wave functions. In the cat experiment,
these belong to the different outcomes of the cat being
alive or dead. No one has succeeded in superposing such
large quantum systems in reality, but in experiments photons,
beryllium atoms and even a vibrating tuning fork composed of
ten trillion atoms have all been superposed in oscillating states
that cause them to act as though they are in two places at
once. The experiments prove what we struggle to embrace:
that on the smallest scales the Universe really is probabilistic.

The challenge is therefore to explain why
the wave function then resolves itself,
and why uncertainty doesn't really apply
to cats and other large-scale objects.
Complementarity
T o Niels Bohr, architect of the Copenhagen interpretation,

the wave and partic le aspects of nature were two sides of
the same coin that complement one another. If a measurement
observes an electron acting li ke a wave, that's because
the experiment is set up to detect a wave (and likewise if
it detects a particle). Th e act of measurement causes the
electron's wave function to 'co llapse' into the wave so lution. At
the same time, we cannot know the fu ll properties of a particle
without considering both its wave and particle natures, but the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle puts this comp lete knowledge
out of reach. The comp lementary nature of partic les is both a
blessing and a curse: it allows them to do extraordinary things
and for the building blocks of the Universe around us to form
and function. At the same time, however, it creates a sense of
frustration that on a particle - by- particle bas is, the quantum
world is entire ly random and not deterministic. For early 20th-
century physicists who preferred the Universe to run li ke
clockwork, this was a hard pill to swallow.

Screen with narrow slit to
diffract electrons
Wave function of electron

before detection
Source of
electrons
Electron
detectors
Wave function
collapses to more
localized form
depending on
where electron
is detected
Quantum mathematics
1 ike al l physics, the study of the quantum realm is an

~ inh erent ly mathematical subject. A sc ientific theory cannot
rely on making statements of fact alone. It must also have a
mathematical foundation that both explains observations and
makes predictions. As we have seen, however, quantum physics
is radically different to classical physics, and so it requires
its own brand of mathematics and its own unique equations.
Concepts that seem counterintuitive from a conceptual
standpoint sudden ly make more sense when viewed with a
little more understanding of the maths involved.
Unfortunately, the mathematics of quantum mechanics is hard

-it took some of the best scientific minds of the 1920s and
1930s to invent the systems required to make sense of it all.
This book cannot hope to exp lain everything but, nevertheless,
even a cursory look at some of the techniques and terminology
used can help us to quantify quantum behaviour and provide
deeper insights into what's really happening.
184 THE LANGUAGE OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

What is a matrix?
common mathematical tool used in a wide variety of

A applications, including quantum physics, a matrix is simply
a table of numbers arranged in rows and columns. The examp les
shown opposite are square, but equa l numbers of rows and
co lumns are not compulsory. Each number within the matrix is
ca ll ed an 'element'.
The advantage of a matrix is that it allows you to perform

mathematical functions on each element sequentially. For
example, matrices of equal dimensions can be added to, or
subtracted from, one another by adding or subtracting the
corresponding properties in each matrix (see opposite, above)
Mu ltiplying is a littl e different, and requires the number of

columns in the fwst matrix to be the same as the number of
rows in the second. Each row in the fwst matrix then multiplies
by each column in the second matrix and the products of those
multiplications are added together (see opposite, below)

Matrix mechanics
n the 1920s, quantum physicists struggled to conjure up

I a mathematical description of the strange wave -particle
duality they were observing. A so lution came from Max Born,
who developed an idea from Werner Heisenberg that electron
orbits were best described by harmonic waves. Heisenberg
calculated the quantum jumps of the electrons through
cumbersome equations that contained a lot of multiplication.
Born realized that these sequences of multiplications cou ld
be much better described in matrices, where multiplying each
matrix element helped ca lculate the electrons' spectral lines
given their energies.
Yet, at the time, Born's 'matrix mechanics' approach proved quite

unpopular. Matrices were considered an oddity of pure maths
by most physicists in the 1920s, and so this seemed a strangely
abstract way of depicting electron orbits. Consequently,
Schrodinger's wave equation (see page 156) remained the more
popular means of describing the quantum behaviour of particles.

Wave mechanics
chri:idinger's wave equation takes a different tack to

S matrix mechanics, by turning the wavelike properties of a
particle into an equation that describes their distribution. In
essence, the equation describes how the quantum state of a
system, defmed by its wave function, changes over time. The
Schri:idinger equation is described as wave mechanics- the
motion of wavelike matter. In that sense, it offers a quantum
analogue to Newton's classical second law of motion: force
equals mass times acceleration [f = ma).
There are several versions of the Schrodinger wave equation.

The most common is the time-dependent equation, shown
opposite. Here, i is the square root of -1 [an 'imaginary' number
that does not exist as a real number, but is vital to the solution
of some equations), n is the Planck constant divided by 2:n:,
'I' is the wave function [see page 144) and His the Hamiltonian
operator, which helps to describe the total energy of a
quantum system [see page 198).

The time-dependent Schrodinger equation
for position vector rat time t
Hamiltonian Reduced Planck

operator constant (h/2n)
I
A
HW(rlt) --
IWave function
[dependent on
Partial derivative
of wave function
position and time) [rate of change
with respect to
time)
Hilbert space
vector is a mathematical quantity, such as velocity or

A acceleration, that has both a magnitude or strength, and
a direction. We can draw it on a two - dimensional graph with x
and y axes in what mathematicians call two-dimensional flat or
Euclidean space. But suppose we want to measure vectors in
an infinite (or arbitrary) number of dimensions, with an infinite
(or arbitrary) number of coordinates, not just x andy? Such a
structure is called Hilbert space, named after physicist David
Hilbert. You can measure distances and angles within it just as
you can in Euclidean flatland
Hilbert space is important to quantum mechanics, where the

vectors of classical mechanics are replaced by particles whose
wave functions can have an infinite number of solutions. Both
wave functions and solutions to the wave equation can be
visualized in Hilbert space. What's more, string theory, a potential
'theory of everything' (see page 252], also appears to describe
the Universe as a Hilbert space with up to a dozen dimensions.

Three-dimensional space, in which positions can be defined
in terms of coordinates along three perpendicular axes, is
a familiar example of a Hilbert space.
Transformation theory
A lthough they arrive at the same physical consequences,

M. matr1x mechanics and the Schri:id1nger wave equation
[see pages 188 and 156) represent very different versions of
quantum mechanics. So when Paul Dirac (opposite) developed
his transformation theory, not only showing how matrix
mechanics and the Schri:idinger equation are equivalent, but
unifying them under a single mathematical umbrella, it was a
maJor achievement.
Both matrix mechanics and the Schri:id inger equation are

descriptions of how quantum states evolve. Dirac unif1ed
the two models by depicting them as 'transformations' in
Hilbert space. When a quantum state changes over time,
the vector that describes its wave function is effectively
moving between different locations in Hilbert space - a
movement that Dirac described as the transformation.
Matrix mechanics and the Schri:idinger equation are just two
different ways of describing such a transformation.

Quantum operators
n c lassical Newtonian physics, properties such as energy,

I velocity, momentum and position are given by real, def1ned
numbers: a car travelling at a velocity of 40 kilometres per
hour (25 mph) with a kinetic energy of 35,000 joules can be
located at specific coordinates along every step of its Journey.
But as we have seen through the wavelike nature of particles

and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is impossible to give
exact values to such properties on the scale of atoms and
particles. Instead, in quantum mechanics these properties are
def1ned as 'operators' that form the basis of the mathematical
language of quantum mechanics. Operators describe functions
that transform one set of quantum states into another set.
For examp le, the Hamilton ian operator (see page 198) is the
operator that describes all possible outcomes when the total
energy of a quantum system is measured. Similarly, the position
operator describes the sum of possible outcomes when we
attempt to measure the position of a particle.

Observable phenomenon Operator
Name Symbol Symbol
A
Position
r r
Momentum A
p p
Kinetic energy A
T T
A
Potential energy
V(r) V(r)
Total energy A
E H
Angular momentum A
(in x, y, z directions) Ix~~z
I x~~z
Hamiltonian operator
ne of the most important operators in quantum mechanics

0 is the Hamiltonian. It describes the set of all possible
outcomes when measuring the total energy of a quantum
system. For a single particle, this is essentially the sum of the
operators describing the particle's kinetic energy (derived
from motion and mass], and potential energy (derived from its
position in a force f1eld) However the Hamiltonian can also be
used when describing energy levels embedded within a system,
such as those of electrons orbiting around an atomic nucleus.
Named after 19th-century Irish physicist William Hamilton, the

operator can vary depending on the number of particles in
the system being measured. It plays a major role in the time-
dependent Schri:idinger wave equation (see page 190), where
it instigates evolution of the wave function over time. The
eigenvalues arising from possible solutions to the equation
(see page 204) correspond to the energy levels associated
with those solutions.

Path integral formulation
s we've seen, the secret behind electron diffraction in the

A doub le-sl it experiment (see page 40 ) is a particle's ability
to display wavel ike behaviour: a wave can pass through both
slits, whereas in classical phys ics a partic le's trajectory can
pass through on ly one. The particle's wave function is therefore
a probability distribution, describing all the different possible
trajectories that the particle could take.
However, given the uncertainty in knowing whic h path a wavelike

particl e takes to get from A to B, how ca n we determine the most
likely trajectory? The possib le routes are virtually infi nite, including
those that go across the Universe and back. It was Richard
Feynman, one of the greatest minds of the 20th ce ntury, who
came up with a technique to calc ulate the most likely path of a
particle, based on ideas initial ly developed by Pa ul Dirac. Feynman's
'path integral formu lation' takes t he sum of probabi litie s from
the wave function for every possib le path and mat he matically
combines or integrates them to f1n d the most like ly path.

A particle can take many different paths
in moving from point A to point 8 in a
given time. The path integral approach
involves combining them all to find the
most likely route. 8
A
Feynman diagrams
hy bother with complicated equations when you can just

W draw a picture? That sounds flippant, but it's essentially
the diagrammatic approach pioneered by Richard Feynman when
representing quantum interactions. A Feynman diagram can show
particles represented as straight lines converging on a point
called a vertex, where they interact. The interaction involves the
exchange of a gauge boson- a photon, gluon, W+ or w-boson
depending on which quantum f1eld dominates the interaction. The
gauge bosons are depicted by wiggly lines, and on the other side
of the interaction the particles resulting from the interaction
continue on their way (opposite, above).
Sometimes, a Feynman diagram can show the interaction

between a photon and a single particle, such as an electron. In
this case, the straight line of the electron and the wiggly line
of the photon meet at the vertex The particle absorbs the
photon and is momentarily excited, represented as a single
horizontal line, before re - emitting the photon (opposite, below).

Simple interaction between fermions
Particle 1
Particles after
Gauge boson
Particle 2
Electron excitation
Photon emitted
absorbed
Eigenfunctions
U sually, when an operator acts on a wave function, it

transforms the shape of the wave function and therefore
the probability of various outcomes. But this isn't always the
case; sometimes the operator creates multiple versions of the
wave function instead. In this case, each of the resulting wave
functions is cal led an 'eigenfunction' (a hybrid German - English
word essentially meaning 'its own function')
A common example is the Hamiltonian operator describing the

total energy of a quantum system When app li ed to a wave
function, it typically produces meaningful so luti ons of the
Schrodinger equation on ly for certain discrete values of energy.
Each of these possible energy states is known as an eigenva lue,
and the wave function associated with it is its eigenfunction. In
the broader case of any operator 0 that produces quantized,
discrete outcomes, the multiple outcomes created by an
operator become eigenvalues. Each can be associated with an
index i - a new quantum number that helps def1ne the system.

Operator Wave function Eigenvalue Eigenfunction
I I I
Qop 'Pi= qi 'Pi
Wave function
Eigenfunctions
The correspondence
principle
uantum mechanics deal s with the phys ics of t he ve r y small
Q and, as we've seen, quantum behaviour 1s ve r y differen t to
the macrosco pi c behaviour in our everyday world dominated
by classica l phys ics But t here mu st co me a po int in scale at
which quantum and c lass ica l behaviour overlap. At this point,
calcu lations conducted using quantum mathematics mu st
correspo nd to the re sults of classica l mathemati cs.
Hence th e 'correspondence princ iple', deve loped by Niels Bohr,

whic h states that when quantum systems (or rather their quantum
numbers) become sufficiently large, they must approximate to
classical mathematics. Thi s pri nciple is very useful in dete r mining
whic h quantum mechanical mode ls have any basis in r ea lity In f act,
the concep t serves wel l throughout science, dictating that any new
th eory must also be able t o explain the results of any old theory
that it replaces. For examp le, in order to succeed, Einstein's genera l
relativi t y had to be ab le to exp lain Newton's laws of gravity in new
t erms, while matching t heir accurate predictions.

A quantum harmonic oscillator (see page 158) differs starkly from
classical models in its ground state, but starts to resemble them
much more closely in its higher states of oscillation.
Ground state Classical

wave function probability
distribution
Quantum
probability
distribution
+-Classical limit ..,.
Higher state :: ~
wave function ~·
N
1~
~.
Quantum
I I /probability
Classical / ~ , V distribution
probability
distribution
) 1\
+ - - - Classical limit ------+
Limits of the
quantum realm
t's often said that quantum mechanics is the physics of very
I small things, and we know we don't see quantum mechanical
behaviour in the large - scale everyday world; the position and
momentum of people and cars and buildings all seem very precise
to us. So at what point does the correspondence principle
take hold? What is the largest piece of matter that can exhibit
quantum mechanical properties?
One of the most popular tests for quantum properties is the

double-slit experiment, which tests wave-particle duality. In
theory, we could simply fwe bigger and bigger chunks of matter
at the slits and see when the interference fringes disappear. The
largest molecules so far shown to produce wave like behaviour
are carbon 'buckyballs' about a nanometre (a billionth of a metre)
wide. How much larger we can go before quantum behaviour
breaks down is still unknown, but tests with viruses, which can be
several hundred nanometres long, have been proposed. If they
could show wave- particle duality, it would be truly remarkable.

Football-shaped carbon molecules known as
buckyballs have many remarkable properties, not
least of which is that they are the largest objects
so far shown to display wave-particle duality.
Perturbation theory
hile physicists can calculate solutions to Hamiltonian

W operators correspond in g to, say, a quantum harmonic
oscillator or the energy levels of a hydrogen atom with great
precision, these are pretty idealized scenarios. Hamiltonian
operators become rapidly more troublesome to solve exactly
with the more complex Schrbdinger equation.
Perturbation theory is a trick that physic ists use to get

around t his problem. The idea is to start with a simple quantum
system, such as a hydrogen atom, and then add a Hamiltonian
operator that 'perturbs' it, tweaking it incrementally. The
result is a system for which we already know the solution,
with additional sma ll corrections or modifications to quantum
properties, such as energy levels. Th is is the method used to
calculate variations in energy levels caused by phenomena
such as the Stark effect [see opposite) Simple systems act as
touchstones, al lowing physicists to take known so lutions and
use them to explore the solutions to more complex ones.

Weak ELECTRIC FIELD Strong
Application of an electric field splits the spectral lines of hydrogen

(indicated by principal quantum number n) into numerous, sometimes
overlapping, sublevels. The phenomenon, known as the Stark effect, is
best modelled with perturbation theory.
The Universe
T he greatest mystery in all of science is the origin of the

Universe itself. How did it begin? How has it evolved since
the dawn of time? Was there anything before it and wil l
anything come after it? Are there other un iverses, and what
does this al l mean for life on Earth?
Throughout the ages, myth, superstition and religion have

attempted to provide answers to these questions, but it is
only relative ly recently that science has been ab le to make a
meaningful contribution to the discussion. Our te lescopes probe
ever deeper into the Universe, wh ile our microscopes peer closer
into the subatomic world in wh ich quantum physics reigns. In
doing so, they have started to provide answers, often involving
quantum-level effects, that nevertheless wield considerable
influence on the largest sca les of the Universe. Indeed, it may
be that the whimsical nature of wavefronts and quantum
fluctuations decided the shape our cosmos wou ld take before
the f~rst fraction of a second had even passed.
212 QUANTUM PHYSICS AND THE UNIVERSE

The Big Bang
T he orgins of the Big Bang theory lie in the fact that space itself
is expandi ng [see page 228). 1fthe Universe is getting bigger now,
th en it mu st have been smaller in th e past. Extrapolating bac kwards,
scientists believe that everyth ing in today's Universe originated at a
single point in space around 13.81 billion years ago.
Contr ary to popular belief, however, the Big Bang does not expla in
what caused th e birth of the Universe, on ly what happened
immed iat ely after wards. The Big Bang itself is shrouded in mystery
f or the fwst t ril lion tril lion trillionth [10-36 ) of a second conditions
were so intense [all the energy in the Universe packed into a volume
th e size of an apple with a t emperature in excess of 1032 °C) that our
understan ding of physics utterly fa lls apart. This earliest fra ction of a
second was dominated by t he unknown rule s of quantum gravity that
marry quantum physics with Ein stei n's re lativity [see page 48). Even
the Big Bang itself may have been the r esu lt of a random quantum
fluctuation that allowed the mass- energy of the Universe to pop into
exist ence in a similar way to today's virtual particles [see page 136).

Quantum fluctuations
n the f1rst tiny fractions of a seco nd of the Big Bang, there

I were no atoms, no protons, no quarks, no particles of matter
at all, just pure energy. Rul ed by quantum gravity, this energy was
subject to myriad quantum fluctuations Virtual particles popped
in and out of existence everywhere, resulting in stark variations
in energy density across the tiny fledgling Universe. These
fluctuations had such a lasting influence that they dictated the
large-scale distribution of matter, in the form of galaxy clusters
and superclusters, that we see in the Universe today.
Einstein's famous equation E = mc 2 shows that mass and energy

are two sides of the same coin and, as the Universe expanded
and cooled, much of the original raw energy transformed into
matter. Regions in wh ich the energy density was greatest
naturally had a greater density of matter. Without those early
quantum fluctuations, energy and matter wou ld be spread much
more evenly across space, with particles scattered so thinly
that no stars, planets or galaxies would be able to form.

Cosmic microwave
background radiation
F or 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the Universe was a sea
of plasma, a state of matter within wh ich atomic nuclei and
free - floating electrons formed a kind of electrica lly charged
'soup'. Photons of light attempting to travel through the
Universe would continually scatter off the electrons, ricocheting
like light trapped in fog. However, as the Universe expanded, it
cooled, and the temperature dropped sufficiently for electrons
to be captured in orbit around atomic nuclei. As they were
absorbed, complete atoms formed for the fwst time [mostly
hydrogen, with smal l proportions of helium and lithium), and
photons were at last able to travel unhindered through space.
Today, we detect photons from this event, ca lle d the moment

of last scattering, in the cosmic microwave background
radiation [CMBR) - short - wave length radio waves that can be
detected from all parts of the sky Tiny temperature variations
within it are a record of the quantum fluctuations that the
Universe experienced in the very earli est moments of time.

This detailed map of the CMBR from NASA's WMAP satellite shows variations
in temperature and density that must have been seeded in the moments
after the Big Bang by quantum-level variations in the infant Universe.
The origin of galaxies
T he temperature variations seen in the cosmic microwave

background, resu lting from quantum fluctuations JUSt
after the Big Bang, went on to form the seeds of galaxies. The
fluctuations created differences in the energy density of parts
of the infant Universe and, as the Universe coo led, the raw
energy condensed into matter distributed unevenly in space.
Areas that were denser would have had stronger gravity.

Over time these began to pull other matter towards them,
generating a sort of 'cosmic web', with long filaments of matter
stretching for millions of light years around much la rger voids.
The filaments of the cosmic web mirror the pattern that we
see today in the distribution of galaxy clusters, each containing
hundreds to thousands of ga laxies. Arrangements of many
clusters form chains or walls of galaxies that are the biggest
structures in the known Universe. Everything that we see around
us in the Universe, including these, is a result of initial quantum
fluctuations that were frozen in place as the Universe expanded.

The horizon problem
T he furthe st dist ance into t he Universe that our tele scopes can
see is the 'co sm ic horizon'. Lig ht f r om anyth in g beyond a certain
distance sim ply hasn't had enoug h t ime to r each us si nce the Big
Ba ng. Astronomers calculate the distance to the cosm ic horizon
at 46.5 bi llion lig ht yea r s, mean ing that Earth lie s in the cen tre
of a spherical volume 93 billion light years across, the limit of our
observab le Universe. The reaso n that we can see so far, despite
the Un ive rs e be ing 13.81 bill ion years old, is because of cosm ic
expa nsion light left the most distant visible galaxies 13 bi ll ion
years ago, but they have since been carried even furthe r from us
This r aises an important qu estio n light might have had time to

reach us, but neither it nor any other ki nd of information can have
r eached the oppos it e horizon. Yet the Universe looks remarkab ly
si milar in all directions, more than ca n be explained if they have not
had contact sin ce the in stant of the Big Bang it sel f Solving t his
'horizon prob lem' required a new theory that would transform ou r
understan din g of the fwst second of cosm ic histo ry

Inflation
n 1980, cosmologist Alan Guth came up with an ingenious

I solution to the horizon problem. He decided that if opposite
sides of the visible Universe looked like they had once been
in so-called 'causal contact' (that is, close enough for events
in one part of space to affect the other), then maybe that
was because they had. Perhaps somehow the seeds of our
observable Universe had indeed stayed together for a little
longer than had previously been suspected7
Guth's theory, called inflation, proposed that in the very f1rst

fractions of a second of creation, 'our' Universe remained small
enough for causal contact. But then, just 10- 33 seconds after
the Big Bang, a sudden burst of accelerating energy called
inflation caused the Universe to balloon dramatically in size,
pushing areas that were once in contact so far apart that light
could never again reach from one side to the other. Inflation
lasted for an instant, but it played a key role in magnifying the
quantum fluctuations of the infant Universe (see page 216).

Eternal inflation
T he theory of inflation still raises unanswered questions.

Nobody truly understands why it began or, indeed, what
caused it to stop. Indeed, several cosmologists have proposed
that, in some parts of the Universe, inflation never stopped.
One idea is that during inflation the Universe was filled with a
'false vacuum', a higher energy state that, at least in our part
of the Universe, decayed back to a ground state. The energy
of this false vacuum drove the increased expansion. Alan
Guth suggested that it might on ly decay in some parts of the
Universe, creating 'bubbles' of different expansion rates. Each
bubble would form its own isolated universe, one of many in a
larger multiverse. In a similar ve in, Andrei Linde developed a
model of chaotic inflation that proposes an eternal multiverse
arising from a quantum foam in which fluctuations can spark
new Big Bangs and new periods of inflation in different regions.
The vagaries of quantum fluctuations could, therefore, mean
our Universe is just one among an infinite number of universes.

The expanding Universe
n the wake of the Big Bang and inflation, the Universe is stil l
I expand ing today, a fact that was discovered by the American
astronomer Edwin Hubble. Prior to 1925, nobody knew that
there were galaxies beyond our Milky Way; most scientists
assumed that the mysterious 'spira l nebulae' were part of our
own star system. However, using what was then the world's
largest telescope, Hubble resolved individual stars in these
sp iral nebulae. Using an ing eni ous method to calculate their
intrinsic brightness he realized they were millions of light years
away, and that spiral nebulae must be galaxies in their own right.
What was more, light from these remote ga laxies was stretched
to lon ger, redder wavelength s by expanding space and the
Doppler effect (see opposite). Not only are galaxies generally
moving away from Earth, but the more distant ones are moving
away more rapidly, an effect known as Hubble's law. It turns out
that the Universe is currently expanding at 22.4 kilometres (13 9
miles) per second per hundred million light years of space.

The accelerating
Universe
T he wide acceptance of the Big Bang theory meant that, even
after the addition of inflation, most cosmo logists assumed
that the expansion of the Universe must have been gradual ly
slowing down as its energy became more thinly spread. So
it came as a startling surprise when, in 1988, two groups of
astronomers found that the Universe wasn't slowing down at
all, but was speeding up. The astronomers were probing the
distant Universe for light from supernovae (exploding stars; see
page 234), whose brightness can reveal their exact distance
and the r efore pin down the rate of cosmic expansion. Previous
measurements of expansion had depended on objects in the
relatively local Universe, but these more distant measurements
showed how fast the Universe had been expanding over the
billions of years since the light left these remote galaxies.
The acce lerating rate of expansion shows that the Universe is

ga ining an energy boost from somewhere, and astronomers soon
gave this mysterious acce lerating factor a name: 'dark energy'.

Accelerating
expansion drives
galaxies apart
more rapidly
Small Universe
RECENT PAST
DISTANT PAST
Dark energy
hat exactly is the force that is driving cosmic expansion

W to acce lerate? The answer almost certainly lie s in the
fundamental nature of space on a quantum level. One of the
leading contenders for the identity of this dark energy is a
so - cal led 'cosmological constant' that describes a density
of energy inherent to each point in space. As the Universe
expands, there are naturally more points in space, and hence
exponentially more energy to drive expansion. Unfortunately,
calculations indicate that the most likely form of cosmo logical
constant, cal led 'vacuum energy' (see page 140). is about 10- 54
times too smal l to account for the effects of dark energy.
The other leading possibility is that dark energy is something

called 'quintessence' which, if it exists, wou ld be a quantum f1eld
that pervades the Universe and that can have varying strength
in different regions of time and space. Quintessence could be
attractive or, in the case of the accelerated expansion, repulsive.
As yet, however, there is no independent evidence for its existence.

The death of stars
stronomers seek out the ste ll ar exp losions of supernovae

A to measure the rate of the Universe's expansion because
certain types exp lode with predictable leve ls of li ght. By
measuring how bright they appear, astro nomers ca n ca lcu late
their distance, and compare that with the rate at wh ich they
are moving across space. But supernovae are more than just
distance markers. These vio lent bursts of destruction create
extreme environments in whi ch qua ntum effects re ign supreme.
A supernova ca n manife st in two ways. The f1rst is the exp losion

of a massive star that runs out of fuel (causing its core to
co llapse and a shockwave to blast its outer layers apart). The
second is the violent co ll apse of a white dwarf (the remnants
of a burnt-out, Sun like star) into a much denser state. Both
types of event can create a neutron star, within which atoms
are broken apart into their subatom ic components, the forces
of electromagnetism are overcome and on ly the rules of
quantum physics prevent a comp lete col lapse.

Two paths to a supernova
Massive, Core exhausts

unstable star fuel and collapses Shockwave
tears star apart
White dwarf collapse
'
Sunlike star in White dwarf pulls
binary system material away from
evolves into companion star, White dwarf
white dwarf increasing its mass becomes unstable
and collapses into
neutron star with
burst of energy
Neutron stars
tars generate energy through nuclear fus ion. reactions in their

S cores, governed by the laws of qua ntum phys1cs. They beg 1n life
with a supply of hydrogen and hel ium, and temperatures in the ir
core strip these eleme nts of the ir electrons, creating an electrica lly
charged pla sma of atom ic nuclei and free-floating electrons. Fus ion
steadi ly creates heavier elements by f using the nuclei together, and
in st ars with eight or more times the Sun's mass, these r eactions
ultimately f il l the star's core with iron, an element whose fus ion
absorbs more energy than it re leases. Fusion abruptly halts, and
with no energy to support it, the core col lapses under its own
gravity Under normal circ umstances, the collapse of a star's burnt-
out core is halted by the Pauli excl usion principle, which creates a
'degeneracy pressure' between electrons and prevents them being
compressed beyond a certain limit. However the co llapse of a mass ive
stel lar core breaks these r ules. As it dwind les to a diameter of just a
f ew kilometres, extreme cond itions break atomic nuclei into protons
and neutrons and force electrons and protons together to create
more neutrons. The resulting objects are ca lled neutron stars.

Quark stars
N eutron stars are supported against gravity by a force

known as neutron degeneracy pressure. This quantum
property is determined by Pauli's exclusion principle, which on
the level of neutrons states that no two particles with identical
quantum states can share the same space. In a neutron star, all
the lowest quantum states are filled. This creates a repulsive
pressure, known as degeneracy, that prevents the neutrons
from getting any closer together and halts the star's collapse.
However, if the force of the supernova or even the neutron

star's own gravity is great enough, it can overcome the
neutron degeneracy pressure. The continuing collapse
overwhelms even the strong force, and breaks neutrons into
their individual quarks, creatin g an object made out of exotic
'quark matter'. Such quark stars are sti ll hypothetical, although
some candidates have been identified. The confwmation of
quark stars would provide a revolutionary new laboratory for
testing models of particle and quantum physics.

Black holes
ometimes, the core of a star is so massive t hat, when it goes

S supernova, gravity can overwhelm neutr on degeneracy pressure
and even quark degeneracy pressure (hyopthetical ly created by
str ong-f orce interactions between quarks]. The core of the star,
many t imes more mass ive than the Sun, co llapses to a single point
of near- infinite dens ity - a black ho le. We ca ll the centre of a black
ho le a 'singu lar ity' the physics within it goes beyond our cu r rent
understanding, but could be described by quantum gravity (see page
262]. In accordance with Einstein's theory of genera l relativity, a
black ho le warps spacetime around it. Its gr avity is so strong that
even light straying too close cannot escape: hence, the sing ularity is
surrounded by an invisib le barrier ca ll ed the 'event horizon'.
Black holes are not theoretical objects. Ste ll ar-ma ss black

holes from supernovae have been located in objects known
as X- r ay binary systems, while monstrous supermass ive black
holes, millions or billions of times t he mass of t he Sun, have
been ide ntif ied at the ce ntre of many ga laxies

Hawking radiation
A lthough even light can not escape the event ho r izon of a

M. black hole, t here's one caveat. In 1974, Stephen Hawking
realized that virtual particles, forming on the inside edge of the
event horizon thanks to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
cou ld potentially tunnel their way out. Hawking's idea was that
when a particle - antiparticle pair is created, one f alls into the
black hole and gives the illusion of havi ng negative energy, while
the other tunnels its way to freedom. To conserve energy, it
takes some from the black hole and becomes a rea l particle.
This phenomenon, as yet unobse r ved, is ca lled Hawking rad iation.

Since every escaping particl e carries with it some of a black ho le's
mass/energy, it means that the black ho le is gradua lly evaporating
This ca uses someth ing of a paradox. Does quantum information
from objects that have fa llen into the black hole j ust disappear
from the Un iverse or is it conserved , and possibly even rele ased in
the Hawkin g radiat ion? Hawking himse lf is uncertain on the matter,
bu t many other physic ists believe that it is indeed conserved.

Creation/annihilation At safe distance
of virtual particles from event horizon,
particle and
~
antiparticle
annihilate.
On event horizon,
one particle falls
into black hole, while
the other escapes.
Event horizon
of black hole Net emission of
Hawking radiation
Proton decay
o far as we know from observations, protons are eternal.

S Yet even though no one has ever seen a proton decay, does
that mean they never do7 Theories attempting to combine
the fundamental forces of the quantum Universe into a 'grand
unif1ed theory' (GUT; see page 253) predict that protons
decay with a half- life between 10 34 and 10 36 years. The Super-
Kamiokande particle experiment in Japan has searched for
proton decay and found nothing, constrain in g the half-life to
at least 10 35 years. Either way, it's an extremely long time and
means proton decay, if it happens, is very rare.
This has consequences for the fate of the Universe. Matter

itself wil l begin to disintegrate as protons decay into a
neutral pion particle and a positron, or a neutral pion and a
muon, which in turn will spontaneous ly decay into gamma - ray
photons. If these theories are correct (and the Universe lasts
that long). then more than one trillion trillion trillion years into
the future al l matter wi ll have decayed into radiation.

Vacuum decay
uring the inflation epoch, a tiny fraction of a second afte r

D the Big Bang, the Universe is sa id to have been in a stat e
of 'f alse vac uum'; that is, t he quantum f1elds und erlyin g t he
Universe were at a higher energy level, a bit li ke an electron in a
higher energy leve l around an atomic nucleus. Th e ground state
of the Universe is termed the 'true vac uum'. (In t hi s case a
vacuum means space alm ost devoid of energy, r ather than air.)
The theory of eternal inflation suggests that some pockets of

space are always in a false vacuum state, and there's circumstantial
evidence that our Universe could be one of t hem. False vacu um s ar e
'metasta ble' they can survive for a long time, but eventually decay,
quant um t unnel li ng into a t r ue vacuum If t his were to happen, it
would create a bub ble of true vacu um emanating from the point at
whic h the tun nell ing occurred, expand ing at the speed of light and
ann ihil ating everyth ing in its path until t he entire Universe is a true
vacuum. Fortunate ly, even if our Universe is in a false vacuum stat e,
it's un li ke ly to decay for bil lio ns of years.

Fates of the Universe
B efore the processes of vacuum decay or proton decay can

destroy the Universe, dark energy and gravity may get the
f1nal say. If left unchecked, the cosmic expansion driven by dark
energy (see page 232) could keep accelerating until space itself is
torn apart in a 'Big Rip'. However, if scientists can show that dark
energy has not remained constant in the past, this could indicate
that, one day in the future, the rate of acceleration will decrease,
sparing us from this fate.
Combatting dark energy in a cosmic tug-of-war is the force of

gravity. Dark energy may not need to decrease by too much for
the mass of the Universe to win out. Perhaps gravity wi ll slow
the expansion to a halt, creating a static Universe in which gas is
spread so thinly that no new stars can form (a 'Big Chill' scenario)
Alternatively, gravity might even reverse the expansion altogether,
causing everything to come together again in a 'Big Crunch'
governed by the unknown laws of quantum gravity (see page 262),
and perhaps sparking a new Big Bang event in its aftermath.

Before the Big Bang?
M any cosmological models that utilize quantum mechanics

suggest that the Big Bang may not have been the
beginning of everything after all. Eternal inflation, for example,
describes how a multitude of Big Bangs could keep happening
in different parts of the Universe as a result of quantum
fluctuations in the false vacuum (see page 246).
Another way for something to have existed before the Big Bang
is if the Universe is cyclical. This would only happen if dark energy
diminishes and there is sufficient matter for gravity to pull the
Universe back to a 'Big Crunch'. During such an event, all the
matter and energy in the Universe would be condensed down to
a singu larity of incredibly high temperature and density, in which
the force of quantum gravity would once again re ign supreme
and perhaps begin the chain of events all over again. However,
measurements of the mass density of the Universe so far seem
to suggest that it is not above the required 'critica l density', so
we may be doomed to the co ld fate of an expanding cosmos.

The theory of everything
uantum mechanics unif1es three of the four fundamental

Q forces in nature: the strong and weak forces at work
inside atoms, and the electromagnetic force. Gravity is
excluded, and theoreticians investigatin g the operation of
gravity on a quantum scale see it as the key to a grand 'theory
of everything'. Such a theory wou ld not only exp lain where the
fundamental forces are coming from, but also the structure of
the Universe and even, perhaps, its origins.
Unifying Einstein's general theory of relativity with quantum

mechanics is not easy, however. Gravity operates on the
largest sca les, where the more mass there is, the more gravity
there is In contrast, quantum mechanics describes the physics
of the very sma ll- things like particles and individual photons
of light. Quantum mechanics and gravity only come together in
extreme environments- during the Big Bang or inside a black
hole, for examp le. But if physicists can f1gure out how to unify
them, the new physics revealed cou ld prove revolutionary.
252 THE THEORY OF EVERYTHING

Unifying the theories of physics
Electricity Magnetism
Electronuclear force/
Grand Unif1ed Theory (GUT)
Quantum gravity
Theory of Everything
Quantum f1eld theory
uantum f1eld theory (OFT) is the f oundation upon which

Q the modern un derstanding of quantum phys ics is built. A
'f1eld' in this context is a way of defining how a c hosen quantity
operates at every possible po int in spacetime. For example,
the electromagnetic f1 eld def1nes the electro magnetic force
at any po int in space and time. A quantum f1eld is JUst the
quantization of a classical f1eld like electromagnetism
OFT describes how f1elds are ab le to transmit their influence

using force-carrying messenger pa rticles cal led gauge bosons.
Particles are simply afterthoughts to the f1eld, a way of ma king
real the f1eld's quantization. A f1 eld theory is also handy when
dealing with the unspecified number of virtua l particles that
result from Heisenberg's uncerta inty principle when a particle
has a relativistic energy, since the Schrbdinger wave equation
only works for one particle at a time It's also worth notin g that,
since gravity is also a f 1eld, any theory that co mbines quantum
mechanics with gravity is itse lf going to be a f1eld theory.

Symmetry
N ature is full of symmetries and quantum mechanics is no

different. When physicists refer t o 'symmetry', th ey are
discussing properties that ar e un cha ng ed w hen they und ergo
a transformation An everyday example of sym metry is a
mi rror imag e: hold some wri tin g up to a mirror and some of
the letters are reversed; the reflection has changed them,
so they are not symmetrical. Other letter s do not change and
loo k exactly the same in the reflection. These are symmetrical.
In quantum f1eld theo ry, 'gauge symmetry' is a spec ial type of

symmetry that explains why particles of a specific type, be
they proton s, electro ns or qua rks, are id entica l, or symmetric,
to every other particle of their type Gauge symmetry also
plays a r ole in unifying the f undamenta l forces of nature: at
increas ingly high energ ies, forces become symmetrica l and
operate identica lly. First the electromagnetic and weak forces,
then the strong force, and f 1nally gravity all start to behave in
the same way.

Common types of symmetry
Reflection Rotation
Translation Glide-reflection
Quantum
electrodynamics
uantum electrodynamics (OED) is the f1eld theory
Q describing how the electroma gneti c force interacts wit h
matter. A co mmon situation involves t wo electrons col lidi ng
and being r epel led and scattered by their like charge s. The
force between them is a quantized electromagnetic f 1eld,
carried by photons. To expla in the theory visua lly, US physicist
Richard Feynman developed Feynman diagrams (see page 202),
esse ntially a pictorial dep icti on of the equati on governing the
inter actio n. Eit her sid e of the interactio n in a diagram should
balance in te rms of mass/energy, charge, momentum and any
other conserved properties.
The middle part of the diagram, where the interaction occurs,

must in corporate all possibilities, like t he mult iple peaks of a wave
function. However, Feynman diagrams offer a way to determine
whic h process is most likely. The points where photons are
emitted or absorbed are called verti ces, and t he more vertices
there are, the less like ly that particular process will happen.

Feynman diagrams
for the simplest
(top) and a more
complex version
of an interaction
between two
electrons. The
simplest interaction
is also the most likely
to occur.
Quantum
chromodynamics
uantum chromodynamics (QCD) explains the strong force
Q that holds protons and neutrons together. In essence, it
is the quantum theory of quarks, which exist within protons
and neutrons in trios This seemingly presents a problem, since
two of each trio are either both up or both down quarks, with
identical spin and charge. This violates Pauli's exclusion principle
(see page 76), since two particles with the exact same quantum
numbers should not be in the same place at the same time.
Physicist Murray Geii-Mann proposed that there must be

another unknown quantum number at work to differentiate
between the two up or two down quarks. He called this
property 'colour', hence the term 'chromodynamics'. QCD
results in two important properties, namely 'asymptotic
freedom', which describes the strange effect of the strong
force becoming stronger with distance rather than weaker,
and 'confinement' which prevents particles with the colour
property from existing individually.

QCD proposes that all quarks
carry one of six 'colour charges',
and that they combine in trios
or quark-antiquark pairs that
appear colour-neutral or 'white'
Green+ red+ Anti green +anti red from outside.
blue=white + antiblue =white
Quantum gravity
ravity is the on ly force not yet reconciled wit h quantum

G mechanics. Einstein's genera l theory of relativity doesn't
describe it as a force, but as a distortion of spacetime by the
mass of objects. Yet a theory describing it as a quantized f1eld is
required to exp lain how it operates on very sma ll scales, in dense
regions such as black hol es or during the Big Bang.
One major problem is that, because Heisenberg's uncertainty

principle prevents us from precisely pinning down both the
position and momentum of particles, we ca nn ot know the exact
gravitational force they will feel. Another is that the bending of
spacetime by re lativity robs us of a f1xed coordinate system:
how can we determine the probabi lity of a pa rti cle existing in a
given location if space itse lf is consta ntly chang ing? If gravity
can be quantized, then it should have a force - carryin g boson
particle of its own, but this hypothetical particle, the gr aviton,
remains undetected, perhaps because its energy li es far
beyond even that ach ievable in the Large Hadron Collider.

Electroweak theory
A bove temperatures of a thousand trillion degrees, the

M. electromagnetic force that governs light and the weak
force that controls the radioactivity of elements become
unif1ed and symmetric. This 'electroweak' force, discovered by
Steven Weinberg, Abdus Salam and Sheldon Glashow in the
1960s, existed in nature shortly after the Big Bang.
At distances of JUSt w -ts metres (a billion billionths of a metre),

the weak force and electromagnetic force still retain much the
same strength. At large distances, however, the weak force
rapidly declines. This is because its force carriers, theW and Z
bosons, are among the most massive particles known, so their
'virtual particles' do not travel far, while the photon, as carrier
of the electromagnetic force, has no mass at all and hence
a theoretically limitless range. Physicists suspect the radical
difference in mass between force carriers is due to some
kind of interaction with the Higgs f1eld (see page 120), when
symmetry was broken and the two forces separated.

Loop quantum gravity
ne possib le solution to the problem of quantum gravity is

0 that space itself is quantized. Physicists Lee Smo lin and
Theodore Jacobson proposed th is idea in 1986, envisaging
space as being formed by myriad interlinking quantum 'loops',
each no bigger than the smallest size that is theoretically
measurable [the so - called 'Planck length' of 1.6 x 10- 35 metres).
If such loops exist, then it means that space is granular at
quantum sca les. Networks of interl inked loops are known as
'spin networks', while a 'spin foam' describes how a spin network
changes over time as a result of varying gravitational f1elds.
One advantage of this 'loop quantum gravity' [LOG) theory

is that it removes the need to worry about precise location
Loops can be moved around by the warping of space without
changing how they respond to gravity. However, LOG is stil l
very much a work in progress, and it also makes no predictions
regarding the graviton, a particle considered essentia l to a
quantum f1e ld theory of gravity.

1
Spin networks
are a type of
diagram used to
model interactions
between particles
and fields, and used
by Smolin and others
in the development
of LQG.
String theory
more popular riva l to loo p quantum gravity, string theory

A posits that all matter is made of tiny vibrating str1ngs
no longer than the Planck length. These strings vibrate at
different frequencies, creating a variety of 'notes', to use a
musical analogy. Each note manifests the quantum numbers
of a different particle, giving rise to all the particles in the
Standard Model The theory depicts interactions between
particles in terms of strings splitting apart and rejo ining.
Furthermore, it is dependent on the existence of the graviton
and the maths wi ll not work without it. Add the fact that
the maths of strin g theory does not give rise to awkward
mathematical infinit ies, and it makes for an extremely
attractive theory of everything.
However, alt hough some discoveries have been argued to

corroborate it, string theory is untestable. Its maths may describe
reality accurately, but as yet there is no way to experimentally
confirm whether particles really are vibrating strings.

Planck epoch
hat makes physicists believe that all four fundamental

W forces of nature rea lly can be unif1ed in a single quantum
theory? The main reason is because scientists know that in
the distant past they were united in just such a way This
moment, known as the Planck epoch, happened in the f1rst
instant after the Big Bang and before inflation, when the
Universe was no more than 10-43 seconds old.
At the time, the Universe was sti ll compressed into a

minuscule volume, yet it contained the same amount
of energy that it does today, leading to in cred ibly high
temperatures of around 10 34 ° C. Under these circumstances,
electromagnetism and the strong and weak forces, closely
united with each other in a so -call ed 'Grand Unif1ed Theory',
merged togther with quantum gravity to act as a single
superforce w ith uniform properties. The sp litting apart of
this superforce gave rise to every law of nature that we see
in the Universe today.

This schematic shows
the order in which the
fundamental forces are
thought to have separated
from each other during
and shortly after the
Planck epoch.
Symmetry breaking
A t the end of the Planck epoch, 10-43 seconds after the Big
M. Bang, the four elements of the primord ial superforce began
to separate, no longer acting as one. The forces sp lit apart, one
at a t ime, as temperatures dropped. Each separation marked a
'phase change' in the laws of physics, analogous to the changes we
see when steam condenses into water and then freezes into ice.
Those famil iar changes involve a pause in the drop in temperature
as reconf1guration of bonds re leases energy, and someth ing similar
happened in these more fundamenta l transitions. The period of
phase changes is known as symmetry breaking [the symmetry be ing
the way the unif1ed forces in it ially displayed identica l strength)
The f wst force to break off was gravity, and energy re leased in the
phase change created the quantum foam of spacetime. At 10-36
seconds, the strong force separated, re leasing a burst of energy
that may have driven cosmic inflation Fina lly, electromagnetism
and the weak force sp li t at between 10-12 and 10-6 seconds as the
Universe coo led past 10 quadril lion ° C.

Phase transitions involve changes in the arrangement
of matter. Though triggered by changes in temperature,
they typically involve a brief pause in that change, as
when ice melts into water at freezing point.
Supersymmetry
hypothetical model of particle physics, called supersymmetry,

A says that the Standard Model1s symmetric, w1th each boson
symmetrical ly lin ked to a fermion, known as its 'superpartner'.
The masses, charges and other quantum numbers of symmetric
particles are identical; only their spin differs, since that is what
def1nes bosons and fermions.
So why don't we see these superpartners in nature? Their

apparent absence means that if supersymmetry is real, it must
be a 'broken symmetry', such that the superpartners have far
higher mass-energies between 100 and 1000 billion eV (higher
than even the Higgs Boson). So why do physic ists persist with
this theory? Supersymmetry turns out to have many benef1ts
essentia l to producing working models of string theory, and
also offers a potential identity for the Universe's dark matter.
What's more, it cou ld also be a key player in unifying the four
fundamental forces, since it causes their very different
strengths to converge when traced back to the Planck epoch.

Superpartners of the Standard Model particles
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Higher dimensions
e experience our Universe in four dimensions: three of

W space and one of time. So when the orig1nal equations
of string theory came up with results that needed 26
dimensions of spacetime in order to work, there were naturally
reservations. Things got a littl e better with the introduction of
supersymmetry to string theory, which reduced the required
dimensions to ten (nine of space, plus time) A recently developed
model,called M-theory, unif1es f1ve rival vers ion s of string theory,
but needs 11 dimensions to work.
If any of these theories are correct, then where are the

extra dimensions, and why don't we experience them? One
possibility, known as compactif1cation, involves them being
wrapped up very t ightly on such microscopic sca les that we
cannot detect them. Another option is that the dimensions
are very large and that our three-dimensional Universe
resides inside them as a sort of 'membrane' floating through
higher- dimensional space.

Higher dimensions may be imperceptible
to us because they are compactifted on
very tiny scales. An analogy is the way
we can curl a sheet of paper into a tube,
which appears as a one-dimensional line
when seen from a great distance.
Calabi-Yau space
f string theory is correct, and the extra dimensions it requires

I compactif1ed, where do they lu rk? The answer may l1e in a place
called a Calabi -Yau manifold, named after mathematical theorists
Eugenio Calabi and Shing-Tung Yau. Th e idea is that the entrance
into six-d imensiona l space with in the Ca labi-Yau manifold is tiny,
on the scale of 10-15 metres across. 'Unravelling' the manifold to
make the effect of any of its dimensions measurable requires
huge amounts of energy, but scienti sts at the LHC hope to f1nd
some evidence of Calabi -Ya u space in energetic particle colli sions.
Calabi-Yau space is appealing to proponents of superstring s,

because the compactif1cation of dimensions allows for a
partially unbroken supersymmetry String theory allows for
many different types of six-dim ensional spaces, and predicts
that Calabi -Yau space shou ld contains 'holes', correspond in g
to the number of particle families If this is correct, we can
narrow the possible so luti ons down to Ca labi-Yau spaces with
three holes (corresponding to fermions, quarks and bosons).

This graphical representation shows how a
multidimensional Calabi-Yau space might
be perceived in three-dimensional space.
Brane theory
spin-off from string theory, brane theory describes a

A scenario involving a higher-dimensional space with extended
dimensions, sometimes called hyperspace or 'the bulk'. A brane
(derived from the word membrane) is a physical representation
of a dimension, or collection of dimensions, in hyperspace.
Individual objects are described by p - branes, where p is the
number of dimensions involved. A point particle like an electron,
with no physical size, would therefore be a 0-brane, a string would
be a 1- brane as it exists in one dimension, and so on. Strings can
either be looped or open-ended, and in the latter case the ends
of the strings are attached to so-called 0-branes, which are
multidimensional objects moving through hyperspace.
According to the so-called 'braneworld' cosmology, our Universe

is JUSt such a brane. It has even been suggested that the Big
Bang occurred when two branes collided, with the subsequent
expansion of the Universe caused by the two branes then
moving apart

Brane cosmology Six extra dimensions curled
up as Calabi-Yau space
Extended
hyperspace D-brane
dimension
0
0 0
Looped strings
pass between
branes
0
0
AdS/CFT
correspondence
W e live in a Un iverse dominated by dark energy, a mysterious
force accelerating cosmic expansion. A popu lar explanation is
that dark energy is the cosmological constant, a hypothetical energy
f 1eld that fwst cropped up in solutions to Einstein's f1e ld equations
of spacetime. A Universe dominated by a positive cosmological
constant is called a 'de Sitter space', after Dutch scientist Willem de
Sitter. Anti de Sitter (AdS) space, in contrast, wou ld have a negative
cosmological constant causing expansion to decelerate.
In 1997, Argentinian Juan Ma ldacena made an astonishing discovery:

if we extend an AdS into f 1ve dimensions, then 'o ur' four-di mensional
Universe appears on its 'boundary surface'. Furthermore, t here is a
re lationship between f1ve-dimensona l gravity and a group of quantum
f1eld theories ca lled conformal f 1eld theories (CFTs) in four dimensions.
Maldace na's discovery marked a maJor advance in the search for a
theory of everything, since it appears to conf1rm t he holographic
principle, a proposed property of quantum gravity t hat 'encodes' its
higher-dimensional properties onto four-dimensional spacetime.

The best theory?
F or seve r al decades, string theo ry has been the lead in g

co ntender for a theory of everyth in g t hat unif1es
the fundamental forces, exp lain s the Standard Model
and desc ribe s a quantum theory of gravity. It does have
detractors, however, with its unproven extra dim ens ions a
particular focus for criticis m. Th e discovery of superpartner
particles [see page 274) wou ld provide good, albeit in direct,
evidence for strin g theory. These particles should have
energ ies in the range of 100 to 1,0 00 billion electronvolts.
Presen tly, the LHC can only probe the botto m end of thi s
energy sca le, however, and so far there's no sign of even th e
lightest proposed sup erpartner.
This might seem li ke good news for loop quantum gravity, in

whi ch supersymmetry is optional. But LOG has its own problems;
crit ics point out that sp in networks do not incorpo rate time,
and also fail t o expla in the Sta ndard Model. It seems that
there's still a long way to go to f1nd a theory of everything.

Potential theories
of everything
Many-worlds
interpretation
ne of the most stunning consequences of quantum theory
0 is that our reality might not be the only one; there could be
an infinite number of parallel universes in which every possible
event can occur. According to the Copenhagen interpretation
[see page 54), the wave function is simply our best attempt
at describing the inherent uncertainty in quantum mechanics.
Once an observation is made, it collapses to produce a single
outcome. In 1957, however, physicist Hugh Everett Ill suggested
an astonishing alternative: what if the wave function never
collapses and, instead, reality itself diverges, allowing every
possibility it describes to happen somewhere in an alternative
universe? Everett's idea, now known as the 'many- worlds'
interpretation, is a leading alternative to Copenhagen.
It's not the only quantum theory of parallel worlds. Eternal

inflation, sparked by quantum fluctuations, could create
myriad new universes, each with their own characteristics and
realities and possibly even an infinite number of you.
286 MULTIVERSES
Types of multiverse
T he multiverse is the name given to a co llection of different

universes that are poss ibly infinite in number. Max Tegmark,
a cosmologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), hypothesizes that there are four different types (see
opposite). The simplest, Levell mu lt iverse, rel ies simp ly on
the overall Universe being very, very big, much larger than the
'observable Universe' whose edges are limited by the speed of
light (see page 222).
Factoring in cosmic expansion, our observab le Universe is

around 96 billion li ght years across. If we took every single atom
within it, put them in a bag and shook them around, there is only
a f1nite number of ways in which they could be rearranged. In
an infinite Universe th is means every possible arrangement will
eventually be repeated - not just once, but an infinite number
of times. If the idea is correct, then somewhere out there, at an
unimag inab le distance, there is another you at the centre of a
sphere that looks just like our own observable Universe.
288 MULTIVERSES
Tegmark's 4 levels of
multiverse
1. The extension of normal spacetime beyond
the limits of our observable Universe
2. The multiverse of Universes with different

physical properties produced by processes
such as eternal inflation
3. The multiverse of parallel Universes arising

from the many-worlds interpretation of
quantum mechanics
4. The 'ultimate ensemble', a set of

mathematical structures capable of
describing any possible multiverse
including those in Levels 1 to 3
The inflationary
multiverse
f a Levell multiverse has 'more space' and is similar to our
I own but repeated to infinity, Tegmark's Level 2 multiverse
is more varied. Eternal inflation (see page 226) predicts that
parts of the Universe are constantly 'budding off', thanks to
quantum fluctuations that drive new bouts of inflation. This
creates a multitude of new universes, expanding away so fast
that nothing in our Universe could ever reach and enter them
If string theory is broadly correct, then each of these new

universes could potentially have completely different laws
of physics to our own. This is because the equations of
string theory may have some 10 500 potential solutions, each
of which could describe a universe with different laws of
physics- a different mix of dimensions, different strengths
of fundamental forces and different fundamental particles.
Chaotic inflation could produce an infinite number of such
universes and, furthermore, many of these could be Levell
multiverses in their own right.
290 MULTIVERSES
The uncollapsible
wave function
n the early days of quantum phys ics, many sc ientists were unhappy
I with the Copenhagen interpretation, sin ce certain read ings of it
implied that vast expanses of the cosmos cou ld exist in probabilistic
limbo until observed. Among them was Hugh Everett Il l, whose many-
worlds interpretation suggests that wave functions don't really
col lapse when observed, they JUst present an illusion of co ll apse
Everett pointed out that it's not only the object being observed
that is in a state of quantum flux; so, too, is the observer. If an
electron has a possibility of existing at one of severa l points,
then the observer also has a wave function describing the
possibility of their observing the electron in each location. The
electron and the observer's quantum states are 'entangled',
with the outcome of one re lated to the outcome of the other.
Each possible outcome for the observer is superposed over
the other, and in each outcome the observer sees their version
of the wave function collapse. In general, the wave function is
uncollapsible, but we can experience only one of its outcomes.
292 MULTIVERSES
Entanglement
between observer
and quantum object Wavefunction never collapses
I within wider multiverse
.--- ~
·---r--.I
It
1~1
I
I
I
I
=-~-·
I
Observers see wavefunction collapse in
different ways in different Universes
The many-worlds
multiverse
A ccording to the many-worlds interpretation (see page 286),
M. every possible outcome of every wave function occurs
somewhere - but where does this all take place? The answer, it
seems, lies in the existence of parallel worlds, class ifi ed by Max
Tegmark as the Level 3 multiverse.
Unfortunately the many-worlds theory has little to say on the

subject of how the continual divergence into parallel universes
happens, or where these infinite parallel realities exist relative
to each other. Since our entire world is built on quantum
foundations, everything that happens is probabilistic in
nature, and every possibility branches off from each other, like
branches on a tree. In one universe, Schri:idinger's cat lives, in
a multitude of others that branch off from the fwst universe
every second, the cat dies. But the cat will only ever know the
universe in which it survives. This gives rise to an int riguing
'test' of the many-worlds theory, known as the quantum
suicide experiment.
294 MULTIVERSES
Quantum suicide
n the many-worlds interpretation, Schrbdinger's cat never

I experiences a universe in which it dies. That's t he aston ishin g
conclusion of a thought expe rim ent called quantum suicide. The
experiment [not to be attempted I) is a kin d of quantum Russian
roul ette, a modificatio n of Schrbd inger's original idea, but with the
experimente r themselves stand ing in for t he cat. A gun is connected
to a particle in a st ate of quantum su perposition and measured
every second. If t he par t icle is found to be in one particu lar state,
th e gun fwes a bullet; if it is in the ot her state, the gun holds f we.
Ord inari ly, the experime nter might be lucky and survive the fwst
f ew times, but within a few seco nd s they will be shot and kill ed.
However, in the many-worlds interpretation, t he experimenter
survives every ti me; the wave funct ion never co llapses fro m
their po int of view, so they always perc eive a un ive r se in wh ich
they su r vive. Only an outside observe r will see the wave function
col lapse and the expe ri menter die, while the experim enter lives on
in a parallel reality
296 MULTIVERSES
A testable theory?
T he many-worlds interpretation provides a compelling

solution to counterintuitive aspects of the Copenhagen
interpretation. It removes the paradox of Schrbdinger's cat,
and does away with the necessity for the Universe to be
observed in order to exist in a given state. It also offers an
explanation for the 'f1ne - tuning' problem.
However, without observational evidence to support it, the

many- worlds interpretation has received criticism for being an
untestable theory. The scientific method on which all modern
science relies is based on empirical observation and testable
predictions, but no one has yet conceived an experiment that
could test the multiverse theory because, so far as we know,
the different universes would not interact after splitting. With
no satisfactory explanation for exactly how different quantum
universes branch off from one another, at present it seems
that belief in many worlds depends on how much faith you put
in the logic and mathematics behind the theory.
298 MULTIVERSES
Cyclical universes
T he question of what came before the Big Bang has often

been dism1ssed as meaningless; the Big Bang created
everyth ing, including time, so there should have been nothing
at all before it, not even empty space.
But this is not necessarily true. For a start, if eternal inflation

(see page 226) might today be continually branching new
universes off from our own, then presumably our Universe
would once have budded off another, even older universe. Brane
theory (see page 280) gives us another alternative, the cyclical
universe. Cosmologists Neil Turok and Paul Steinhardt ask us to
imagine two parallel branes moving towards one another, then
colliding and rebounding. The collision causes a big bang and the
dark energy that is causing our Universe to expand is a force
felt between the two branes as they move away. Eventually,
the branes move closer once more and our Universe begins to
contract, resulting in a 'Big Crunch' that immediately creates a
new Big Bang, and the cycle repeats again.
300 MULTIVERSES
The anthropic principle
ne of the stra ngest aspects of our Universe is t he way in which

0 fundamental co nstants that l1e beh1nd many fun damental
phys ical processes seem pecu lia r ly f1 ne-tuned to create a cosmos
capable of support ing lif e For examp le, if the strong force was JUSt
slightly weaker, quarks would not be able to hold to gether and form
baryo ns. If it was slightly stronger, it wo uld have ca used all the
hydrogen in the early Universe to fuse into hel ium, robb ing sta r s of
their f uel supp ly Th e speed of light, the charge of the electron and
the strength of gravity also have val ues that are JUSt righ t for l1fe.
Cosmo log ists explain this f1ne-tuning with an idea called the
anthropic principle. The 'weak' form of the principle argues that
we should expect to measure va lues li ke these, since we cou ld not
exist in a Universe that is not su itable for life. The 'strong' form,
in contrast, looks fo r a rea son behind the f1ne - tuning: perhaps
it is a consequence of the theory of everything, or perhaps our
Universe is indeed one among an infinitely varied multiverse, not
all of which have give n rise to life.
302 MULTIVERSES
Playing dice
hen Albert Einstein declared that 'God doesn't play dice with
W the world', he was bemoan1ng the apparent randomness
of the Copenhagen interpretation's probabilistic wave function.
This has consequences far beyond whether light or electrons are
particles or waves; the Heisenberg uncertainty principle means
that at the quantum level, nature is fundamentally random and
cannot be predicted to any degree of accuracy.
Ein stein utterly rejected this notion. To him, the apparent

randomness just meant that our understanding of quantum
physics was in comp lete; there must be more information
buried within the properties of particles to describe their
behaviour in a predictable, deterministic manner However,
Einstein admitted his objection was based on gut in stinct and
our intuition is, of course, biased by our observations of an
everyday world that is predictable and deterministic. Ultimately,
Einstein was proved wrong about quantum mechanics by an
experiment of his own devising.
304 THE SPOOKY UNIVERSE

Quantum entanglement
and the EPA paradox
n 1935 Einstein, along with fellow physicists Boris Podolsky
I and Nathan Rosen, set out their concerns about the
Copenhagen interpretation in what became known as the
EPR paradox. Suppose an atomic nucleus decays into a pair
of particles that move apart in opposite directions. Because
they formed in a state of superposition, their quantum
properties are entangled. So if, for example, one particle's
spin is measured and found to be 'spin down', then according
to Copenhagen the other particle's wave function must
simultaneously collapse and force the other electron to be
'spin up', even if by now it is on the far side of the Universe.
Einstein famously described the phenomenon as 'spooky action

at a distance', but since information cannot travel faster than
light, he could not see how it was possible. Yet experiments
have shown that entanglement is exactly what happens
quantum mechanics operates on a principle of 'nonlocality'
that goes against our classical understanding of physics.

Entangled particle pairs have
properties that remain uncertain
until they are observed, but
which nevertheless must be
opposite or complementary
to each other.
Hidden variables and
Bell's theorem
rish-born John Bell expanded the EPR paradox in a series of
I thought experiments from which he made predictions that
have subseq uently been borne out. Einstein, Podo lsky and Rosen
believed that there must be some 'hi dde n variables', as-yet-
undetected properties, t hat carry the information to let each
particle know which state it is in. If these factors ex isted,
then both the faster-than-light co mm un ication paradox of
entang lement and t he uncertainty inherent in the Copenhagen
interpretation co uld be avo id ed.
Be ll put the EPR paradox through a str ict mathematica l test, now
known as Bell's theorem. The nature of a particle's quantum spin
means that t he probab ilit y of measuring a given spin depe nds on
the angle from wh ich it is measured, so Bell performed a statistical
analysis, ca lcu lating the odds of measuring a given sp in from a
give n angle. He could f 1nd no evidence f or a relationshi p between
the probabilities and the angles that suggested hidden variab les
existed. Instead, entang lement must be rea l.

- - - - - - Classical Quantum
())
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Experiments to test Bell's theorem by measuring the spin of entangled particles
produce results that match the quantum mechanical, rather than classical,
distribution. A classical distribution could be explained by hidden variables, but
the true quantum distribution cannot-hence entanglement is real.
Defying causality
T he main reason Einstein was wro ng about entanglement is

that he assumed that cause and effect operated on the
basis of 'locality', where information propagates outwards from
the location of the 'cause' at the speed of light. This is one of
the most intuitive principles in physics: if you commit an action,
the consequences of that action should naturally follow
Quantum entanglement, however, seems to operate on a princip le

of nonlocality; the distance between entangled particles doesn't
matter It's hugely counterintu itive and still not fully understood,
but it means that norma l rules of cause and effect no longer
app ly John Bell likened this bizarre behaviour to his friend Dr
Reinhold Bertlmann, who liked to wear odd socks of different
co lours, one blue and one green, on randomly different feet each
day If one morning you saw him wearing a blue sock on his right
foot then you cou ld instantly know that the green sock was on his
left foot without taking the time to look, just as entanglement can
defy causality by conveying in formation in a non - local way.

Entangled
particle pair
created
Particles separated by
distance or other barrier
Measurement Entangled partner

of one photon instantaneously takes
resolves its state opposite state
Determinism
lassical physics relies on the principle of determinism,

C the idea that the state of an object is completely
determ ined by its earlier states. Take, for example, kicking a
football: the ball's physical properties [such as its shape and
weight) and the forces acting upon it [the strength of the
kick, location of contact, wind strength and so on) all affect
where the ball is eventually going to land. If you have access
to all such information, the behaviour of the ball is perfectly
predictable However, if that ball exists in a series of
quantum states, then the Heisenberg uncertainty principle
means that its future states are inherently unpredictable
and capable of changing instantly.
Entanglement is another means of determining the future

state of a particle without that linear progression of
cause and effect [see page 310) This is the fundamental
difference between classical physics and quantum physics:
one is deterministic, while the other is probabilistic.

Faster than light?
t's little wonder that Albert Einstein was not a fan of the
I notion of quantum entanglement, since his special theory
of relativity declares that nothing can travel through the
Universe faster than the speed of light. However, if information
about entangled quantum states can travel faster than light
[see page 310) does this mean that other information can also
be communicated instantly across vast distances?
Einstein's postulate regarding the speed of light survives

because of a technicality. It's not information regarding the
quantum state of a particle that is being communicated faster
than the speed of light. Instead, it is some kind of signal for the
particle to reveal its quantum state that is propagating faster
than the speed of light. The information is already contained
within the particle's wave function. This subtle distinction
means that there may be limits to how we can apply quantum
entang lement to our advantage - we may stil l be prevented
from sending 'useful' information at faster- than - light speeds.

A light cone is a way of visualizing
how cause and effect ripple across Traveller from point 0 can
spacetime, limited by the fixed reach this point without
speed of light. breaking speed of light.
Traveller can only break

Locations within out of cone by travelling
future light cone can see faster than light.
events at point 0 and be
influenced by them.
SPACE
Events within past

light cone can affect
an observer at point 0 .
Quantum teleportation
uantum entang lement opens the door to te leportation of

Q a kind. Physical objects cannot be sent instantaneous ly
over great distances, but their quantum states can, allowing
for the creation of replicas. For teleportation to work, we need
three objects: two of them (particles X andY) are entangled
and begin to move apart. At some indeterminate distance from
each other, X encounters particle Z Quantum information
from Z transfers to X, and X's quantum state is then instantly
communicated from X toY, transforming Y into a replica of Z.
One comp lication is that the quantum state of Z is destroyed

in the process. This may make human teleportation, if it ever
becomes a rea lity, a somewhat scary process. What's more,
a Star-Trek-sty le transporter would need a supply of atoms
at the destination ready to take on quantum information. The
sheer amount of information involved in sending any large
object would mean the process would take a very long time,
and decoherence might create further stumbling blocks.

Teleportation
experiments
uantum teleportation isn't just a theoretical fancy;
Q scientists have already succeeded in teleporting particle
information. The fwst successful experiment was conducted
in 1998: just f1ve years after the fwst theoretical thesis on
the possibility had been written, researchers succeeded in
teleporting the quantum state of a photon across a table -
top. In 2004, scientists teleported an atom for the f1rst time
Since then, the range of teleportation has grown substantially

The current record for teleporting the quantum state of
a photon stands at 144 kilometres (89 miles), achieved by a
team led by Anton Zeilinger of the University of Vienna. That
experiment was conducted across 'free space', but in 2015
American scientists at the National Institute of Standards
and Technology were able to teleport the quantum states of
photons down 102 kilometres (63 miles) of f1bre optic cable. In
the future, such techniques cou ld prove useful for setting up
secure communication systems using quantum entanglement.

Quantum time
n the everyday world of class ical physics, the flow of t ime

I co incides with increas ing entropy (the natural and inevitable loss
of order in thermodynamic systems, see page 22) On quantum
scales, however, entropy doesn't have qu ite the same hold that it
does on macroscop ic sca les. Thanks to Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle, a handful of particles cou ld turn from an ordered, low-
entropy state into a disordered, hi gh-entropy state and back aga in
almost at random. So what def1nes t ime on the quantum leve l?
Seth Lloyd of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M IT)

believes that the f low of time is def1ned by an increasing loss of
information. Decoherence and the collapse of wave functions
are certa inly irrevers ible ways of losing quantum information,
but at its heart, says Lloyd, is entanglement. Imagine a cooling
cup of tea. In Lloyd's picture of time, the tea's atoms gradually
become entangled with their surroundings, moving the system
towards greater equilibrium with the Universe, but losing the
tea's quantum information in an irreversible process.

Time running backwards?
he principle of cause and effect seems locked to the

T forward flow of time, but aspects of the quantum world
suggest things aren't always that simple. For example, in
the dua l-slit experiment, interference fringes are caused by
wavelike behaviour (opposite, top]. If you were to measure
which slit each photon passes through [observing the photons
as particles and not waves), the interference fringes would
disappear (opposite, bottom]. Suppose, however, that you
change the experiment to measure which slit entangled
photons pass through only after they have passed through
it. Cause and effect says that you should be able to see the
interference fringes, yet that's not what happens. Instead, we
still observe the photons acting as particles: it seems that
somehow the measurement in the present has affected the
particle's behaviour in the past. Is this phenomenon, known as
retrocausality, evidence for information travelling backwards
in time? Perhaps, but most physicists believe it to be a result
of quantum effects rather than actual time travel.

Light waves
I diffract and overlap
~ l ~
Light detected
1 as waves
e)
))) forming
interference
f
l pattern on
screen
Dual-slit
barrier
Light
source
Light detected as
photons on straight-line
paths through slits
Boltzmann brains
A lthough we describe the flow oftime as linked to irreversible

M processes, in truth, nothing is Irreversible given enough
time. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle means that there's
a tiny chance of such processes reversing themselves; for
example, if two canisters containing two different gases are
mixed, there is a tiny probability, given aeons of time, that all the
atoms will unmix and end up back in their respective canisters
Another bizarre consequence of the passage of aeons are

'Boltzmann brains', f1rst put forward by 19th-century physicist
Ludwig Boltzmann. Boltzmann believed that we live in a chance
fluctuation of low entropy and relative organization in a high -
entropy Universe, and that other low-entropy fluctuations
could naturally lead to the appearance of consciousness.
Although Boltzmann had no knowledge of the quantum realm,
there's a quantum mechanical analogy to this in the form of the
quantum fluctuations that fill space. Given enough time, such
fluctuations could fashion anything, even a conscious entity.

Quantum mechanical
applications
A lthough the bizarre behaviour of particles in the quantum
M. world seems remote from everyday experience, this does
not mean that quantum physics is an abstract f 1eld that is of
interest to theoretical physicists alone. In fact, nothing cou ld
be further from the truth: quantum physics is a practical
science that has integrated itself into numerous aspects of
our day-to-day lives. It lurks everywhere, from our electron ics
to our telecommunications, and from our smart phones to
mundane visits to the supermarket.
Some technologies deliberately take advantage of quantum

mechanical effects, while others were invented and applied
long before the theory behind them was fully understood.
Without quantum mechanics, much of the techno logy we take
for granted in the modern world would not have come to exist.
Quantum science also operates in living things, underying many
chemical processes vital to life. Perhaps it even acts as the
basis for our consciousness.
326 QUANTUM APPLICATIONS

Lasers
biquitous in modern technology, laser s are powerful beams

U of light that owe thew un1que properties to the fact that
their individua l photons are all 'co herent'. Thi s means that the
peaks and troughs of their waves are lo cked in st ep with each
other, allowing them to form intense, tightly focused beams.
The word laser is an acr onym f or 'light amplification by

stimulated em iss ion of radiation'. It relies on a material ca ll ed a
lasing medium, in the form of a crysta l or a gas. When electrons
in the medium's atoms are energ ized by an electric f1 eld or
intense light, they jump to a hi gher energy leve l. Normally, they
would emit photons of identical wavelengths at random as they
natural ly dropped back to the ground state However, here the
surrou ndi ng laser 'cavity' traps these photons, bo uncing them
back and forth thro ugh the medium. As the photons interact
with electro ns eac h time, they trigger stimulated emission,
forcing an ele ctron to release another photon with identica l
properties to the fwst and amplifying the overal l beam.

How a laser works
Fully reflective
mirror
Electron
Cascade multiplies
number of photons
energizes
medium
95% mirror reflects

most photons back Escaping beam
into medium, of photons
intensifying laser
Scanning tunnelling
microscope
T he wavelike properties of electrons can be used to image

objects on much smal ler scales than is possible with visible
light (see page 40). The scanning tunnelling microscope takes
this a step further, making use of quantum tunnelling. It plays
a key role in medical research and microchip manufacturing,
among numerous other applications.
The microscope is essential ly a stylus with an extremely f1ne

t ip that ends in a single atom that is brought within an atom's -
width distance of the sample A voltage is then appl ied that
excites electrons in the surface, caus in g some of them to
quantum tunnel across the distance between the surface
and the tip and generating a so-called 'tunnelling current'. The
t ip then scans across the surface, moving up and down with
respect to its contours to ensure that the tunnelling current
remains constant. By monitoring the up-and-down movements
of the stylu s, the microscope builds up an image of the surface
at the atomic scale.

Principle of the scanning tunnelling microscope
Direction of scan
Tip trace keeps tunnelling

current constant
I
Magnetic resonance
imaging
f you've ever been to hospital fo r a magnetic resonance
I ima ging (MRI) sca n, then you've experienced applied quantum
physics at work in your very own body. MRI takes advantage of
the fact that protons within hydrogen atoms inside your body's
water and fat have a quantized spin that 'points' in one of
two directions, each with a slightly different energy (see page
108). During an MRI sca n you move through a short cylinder
that applies a strong magnetic f 1eld. The f1eld aligns most of
the proton spins in the direction of the f1eld, whi le those with
hi gher sp in energy are al igned in the opposite direction
A rapidly varying radio - frequency magnetic f1eld is then appl ied,

whic h the lower-sp in energy protons absorb, causing their spin
to 'flip' to the higher state. When the magnetic f1eld is turned off,
the protons return to their lower state and emit radio waves
that are detected by the scanner Protons in different tissues
return to their lower states at different rates, allowing doctors
to differentiate between organs and monitor their health.

Electronics
M odern microelectronics are built on silicon chips and the

electric cu r rents t hat move around them. Harnessing t 1ny
flows of charged electrons through re latively sma ll collections of
at oms, they're a tangible examp le of quantum physics in action
The electr ons in sil ico n, as in any so lid object, are distributed
in quantized ene r gy ban ds that dictate how that so lid object
conducts electrical curre nt. The structure of the bands is unique
t o each mat erial. By 'dop ing' si licon wi th small amounts of other
elements, eng in eers ca n alter its co nducting pr operties to suit a
variety of app lications, creating semiconductor mate r ials that will
only allow elect r icity t o flow in certain directions or under certain
cond itions. Layered semicond uct or s can be used to bu ild diodes,
tra nsistors and other electron ic componen ts t hat are mere
nanometres across, yet are ca pab le of performing simple 'logical'
f unctions Pl aced alongs ide each other on silicon ch ips, these
com ponents ca n be fas hion ed into the comp lex integrated circuits
that are the basis of most modern techno logy.

Flash drives
T he humble computer memory stick is another quantum

mechanical marvel. Its 'flash-drive' memory stores bits of
digital data (ls and Os), using a device known as a floating gate
transistor This conta in s two distin ct logic-gate circuits- a
'control' gate that governs the flow of current through the
transistor (like an on/off switch) and a floating gate that acts
as a memory cell. To preserve its state, the floating gate is
electrically insulated from the rest of the transistor by two
thin oxide layers.
When we save a bit of data onto a memory stick, our computer

sends a signal that applies a strong voltage across the
transistor. This causes electrons to quantum tunnel their
way across the oxide layers into the floating gate. Here, they
become trapped and the data becomes stored in the insulated
memory cell. To delete the data, a voltage is applied in the
other direction so that the electrons can tunnel their way back
through the oxide layer.

Structure of a floating gate transistor
Electron source Electron drain
Floating
Oxide gate traps
layers electrons
Electron-rich
semiconductor -~--~--~-·
Flow of electrons
Electron-rich
semiconductor
Electron-deficient
semiconductor material
LEOs
1 ight emitting diodes (LEOs) are another ubiquitous feature of

L. everyday life that operates on quantum principles. Inside an
LED bulb is a semicond uctor chip that only co nducts electricity
in certa in co nditions. The LED semico nductor is made of two
layers of a crystallin e material, such as gal lium arsenide or
gallium nitrate, mixed with other elements that sl ightly alter its
conducting properties. Thi s mixi ng leaves one of the layers wi th
an excess of high-en ergy electrons and t he other with many
spaces at lower energies for the electrons to fill .
Between t he two layers is a gap known as a p-n juncti on (p r efers

to t he layer with spaces, n refers to the layer with the excess
electrons) Th e p-n junction is a diode, meaning t he electrons can
only f low one way when a voltage is applied. As they cross t he p-n
junction, the electrons have to shed quanta of energy in the form
of li ght, causing the diode to illuminate. The wider the junction,
the greater th e quantum jum p, and the higher the energy and
shorter the wavelength of li ght emitted.
3 3 8 QUANTUM APPLICATIONS
Structure of an LED
+
p-type material n- type material
holes excess electrons
Energy levels at the p-njunction
conducting electrons
+-
~~
J t' --------
>-
(!)
a:
w
zw
,. electrons recombine
- - - - - - - - *" w1th holes, los1ng energy
0 0 O_Q 0 0 0~------
- holes '-' ~
Atomic clocks
T he most accurate timekeepers in the Universe, atomic

clocks are unsurprisingly reliant on quantum principles.
Magnetic f1elds and blue laser light are used to cool individual
atoms of beryllium, caesium or strontium to extremely low
temperatures at which the atoms are hardly moving. A red
laser is then shone onto the atoms, its wavelength specifically
attuned to the amount of energy required for their electrons
to make a quantum JUmp to a higher energy level.
Once the electrons have absorbed a photon and jumped, they

immediately emit a microwave photon and drop back down.
As long as the atoms remain illuminated by the red laser, the
electrons keep jumping up and down within a precise period, like a
pendulum ticking off the seconds. Pulses of emitted microwaves
create a measurab le signal with an accuracy of one lost second
every 300 million years. Even more accurate are 'quantum clocks'
that measure the vibrational states of cooled ions of beryl lium or
aluminium. These clocks only lose a second every 3.86 billion years.

Quantum cryptography
ecure encryption of data plays an increasingly impo r tant role

S in our Information age. It usually involves algorithms based
on long string s of number s that are virtu al ly impossible to break
using tra ditional co mputing techniques In the future, however,
quantum compu t er s may easily crack t hese codes, so systems
are likely to rely on undec ipherable quantum encryption.
In a typical quantum cryptography system, the sende r encod es

photons with binary data by adju sting the ir sp in alignment .
The receiver passes the photons throu gh a filter (either+ or
x- sha ped), and openly asks the sender if th ey chose the correct
filter at eac h stage (see opposite). Thi s tells the receiver the
correct filter sequence, but the non -q uantum informatio n
relayed is mea ningless to eavesdroppers with out context. Any
attempt to intercept the signal will al t er the spin states of th e
photons, showing that someo ne has been interfering. For even
greater sec urity, photons don't need t o be bea med at all: the
informati on could, instead, be sent using quantum t eleportation.

Alice puts photons through filters to encode information before sending them
to Bob. Photons cannot be intercepted without disrupting the message.
t
Alice
t
Bob
1
Bob puts photons through one of two filters and measures result.
Bob openly sends Alice a list of the filters he used.

0
t irn rn rn rn [g) [g)

Alice confirms which filters were right or wrong.
)
Bob
(YES YES NO NO YES YES
rt
t
Bob
I
1 0 0
(Not 1)
1
(Not 0)
1 0
Bob can now deduce the filters Alice used,
and fmd the original information.
I
Alice
Telecommunications
M odern telecommunications are built around microwaves,

lasers and optical f1bres. Lasers in particular are a
quantum phenomenon created by manipulating the way in which
photons are emitted by electrons as they jump between energy
levels (see page 328). Their intensity allows digital signa ls, in the
form of pulses of laser light, to be transmitted across huge
distances by f1bre optic cables without losing strength.
In the near future, with data security becoming ever more

important, tamper-proof quantum cryptography is sure to be
more widely implemented acros telecommunications networks.
In 2016, China launched the f~rst quantum communications
satellite, named Mozi. The satellite incorporates quantum key
encryption and, if successfu l, wi ll create an unhackable wire less
network. The initial steps in setting up quantum - encrypted links
to and from a distant sate llite are complex, but in the next few
years the Chinese government intend to have the f1rst quantum
communications network running between Europe and Asia.

Radiometric dating
A n inge nious application of the quantum phenomenon of

M. rad ioactivity (see page 128), radiometric dating uses t he
probabilistic decay of rad ioactive atoms to determine the age of
everyth ing from r ocks to organic matter. The best-known method
is carbon dating, widely used by archaeologists. A rad ioactive
form of carbon, carbon-14, is continually produced in Earth's
atmosphere as particl es from space coll ide with nitrogen atoms
Radiation intensity 100% Radiation intensity 50%
~· ..... \
... ... .....
Directly after death 5,730 years after death

All living things contain a sma ll amount of rad io act ive carbon that
is constantly be ing recycled in and out of the environment.
Once an organis m die s, howeve r, this exchange stops, and t he

quantum process of radioactive decay takes hold. Ca rbon - 14 has
a half- life of 5,730 yea r s, meaning it takes that long for hal f of the
atoms in a sample t o decay. Scienti sts can t herefor e measu r e the
surviving amount of carbon - 14 and work bac kwards to f1nd t he
age of a sa mple. Carbon-14's half-l ife is rel at ively short, lim iting
t he tec hnique t o re lics dating back just 50,000 years, but similar
t echniques can be used to date billi on -year- old rock sam pl es.
Radiation intensity 25% Radiation intensity 12.5%
\
...
11,460 years after death 17,190 years after death
QUANTUM APPLICATIONS 347

Quantum dots
uantum dots are tiny pieces of se mi conductor (usually

Q sili con or germanium ),just a few dozen atoms across.
Atoms in the dot are so close that their electrons influence
each other. However, because Pauli's exclusion principle forbids
them to share the same quantum states, a new arrangement
forms, creating new energy leve ls aro und the dot, rather like the
electron orbitals around a sin gle atom. For this reason, quantum
dots are sometim es referred to as 'artifi cial atoms'.
As in an in dividua l atom, electrons in the dot ca n absorb

photons, jumping to higher energy leve ls and then em ittin g a
photon as they drop back down, wh ich ca uses the dots to glow.
The size of the dot dictates the co lour it glows: in larger dots
the energy leve ls are more closely spaced, so the energy of t he
photon is lower and the light redder. Smaller dots have more
broadly spaced energy leve ls and so produce higher energy,
bluer photons. Quantum dots can be used as biosensors, in
so lar cell s, or even as LEOs in next - generation te levision sets.

Quantum dots: size and colour
Illumination
from blue light
Dot size
(nanometres)
depends I
..,
\
on size I \
I \
I \
I \
I \
\
\
450 500 550 600 650

Wavelength (nm)
Superfluids
hen certain liquid s, such as liquid helium, are cooled t o just

W a few deg r ees above abso lute zero, they lose all frictional
resistance. Given a litt le momentum, t hey will keep flowing
uphill or will creep out of co ntainers and over obstacles. Set a
superflu id spinning and it creates quantum vo rti ces that ca rry
quantized angular momentum, and ca n keep swirling indefinitely.
Supe rfluid s are Bose-Einstein conde nsates (see page 114),

systems in whi ch atom ic bosons drop to the lowest possible
energy leve l and hence avo id col lisions, dramatically lowering
their viscos ity. As quantum so lve nts, superfluid s ca n dissolve
chemicals into clumps of ju st a few molecules, surrounded by a
'quantum so lvation shell' that all ows them to rotate freely. This
proves useful for studying individual gas molecules. Frictionless
superfluids have also been used in a hi gh - pr ec ision gyroscope,
and also as a means of 'trapping' electromagnetic radiation·
intera cti on between photons and superfluid s ca n slow the
speed of light to just 17 metres (56ft) per second.

FERMIONS BOSONS
Fermions obey Pauli's exclusion Cooled bosons can all fall into
principle-particles are forced to lowest-energy state, allowing them
occupy different quantum states. to exhibit identical behaviour such
as superfluid properties.
Superconductivity
hen some metals, such as lead, niobium, mercury and

W rhodium, are ch illed to a few degrees above absolute
zero, they experience a sudden drop in electrica l resistance
to practically zero. They become superconductors, capable of
holding an electrica l current without losing energy, in theory
for billions of years. Superconductors also repel magnetic
f1elds, whi ch is the secret behind magneti c levitation
Inside the metals, ions (charged atom ic nuclei) are arranged

in a lattice structure, surrounded by electrons. Normally,
ions vibrate and co llide with the electrons flowing past them,
creating electrica l resistance. But when cooled below a critical
temperature, the electrons begin to form pa irs that defy
Pauli's exclusion principle by having similar quantum states. The
energy of these 'Cooper pairs' dramatically lowers and, in the
lattice structure, an energy gap ope ns up above the electrons.
Because they don't have enough energy to cross the gap, they
can't collide with the ions, so there is no electrica l resistance.

Inside a superconductor
Crystal-
line lattice of
conducting
material
lattice deforms
to create trough
of positive charge
that aids flow of
electrons
Metal ions-
centres of
positive
charge
Quantum chemistry
ince it dea ls with mo lecules rather than ind ividua l atoms

S or particles, chemistry is genera lly considered to be a step
up in scale from particle physics. Nevertheless, the quantum
properties of atoms still have an effect on many aspects of
chemistry. Chemical bonds are formed by the exchange or
sharing of electrons between different atoms in order for
eac h to achieve a relative ly stable shel l configuration (e ither
full or half full), so it's understandable that quantum physics, by
changing our understanding of the electrons and their orbits,
also has an impact on our understand ing of these bonds.
German physicists Walter Heitler and Fritz London used

the newly minted Schri:idinger wave equation to model the
structure of the bond between two hydrogen atoms as early
as 1927. Today's quantum chemists use a variety of different
techniques, including computer modelling, to better understand
how electron properties are distributed around more comp lex
molecules, and how this can affect their larger- scale properties.

Using quantum mechanics to model the distribution of electrons,
scientists can better understand the shape and functionality of
complex chemicals such as this insulin molecule.
Quantum biology
A ll living things rely on the transfer and conversion of energy

M to keep themselves alive, and wherever energy is being
converted, a quantum process is usually involved. The growing
f1eld of quantum biology seeks to explain biological processes
through the prism of quantum mechanics.
Most functions of plant and animal life rely on chemical reactions

that are themselves predicated on the quantum behaviour of
electrons. Absorption of light can be used to generate chemica l
energy or send information to sensory organs. Neurons in our
brains, meanwhile, are the nodes of chemica l and electrical
networks that operate on a quantum level. Enzymes, the
biological workhorses that catalyse chemical reactions in our
body, seem to use quantum tunnelling to help move electrons
through otherwise insurmountable energy barriers around
molecules. If we can understand how these processes work, we
may be able to create artificia l catalysts to generate energy and
form new molecules in environmentally friendly ways.
3 56 QUANTUM BIOLOGY
Biological compasses
ome animals display a sixth sense that makes them aware

S of Earth's magnetic f1eld. This is most obvious in migrating
birds, which fo llow f1eld lin es to navigate across the planet.
For birds, one possible exp lanation is the presence in the

sensory system of an iron - oxide mineral called magnetite,
which is highly magnetic, allowing ind iv idu a l gra in s to
al ign with Earth's own magnetism. Another explanation,
however, invokes quantum mechanics. Certain proteins,
sensitive to blue light, create a pair of 'radicals', highly
reactive atoms or molecules with a single va lence electron,
rather tha n a pair. The effect of Earth's magnetism on
their quantum spins causes the blue-sensitive proteins
to remain active for longer and creates a colour shift in
vision that a migrating bird can detect. It has even been
suggested that va lence electrons in each of the rad icals
cou ld be entang led, ensuring that when one aligns with the
magnetic field, so does the other.
358 QUANTUM BIOLOGY

Quantum photosynthesis
P erhaps surprisingly, one of the key proce sses that permits

life on Earth also owes its success to quantum physics.
Plants ga in energy through photosynthesis, using ene rgy from
the Sun to convert wate r and carbon dioxide into glu cose. The
key to this process is th e green pigment molecule ch lorophyll
and, spec ifica lly, elements cal led chromophores that capture
the energy of su nlight in the fwst place.
When a photon is abso r bed by chlo r ophyll, it s energy cr eates

molecular vib rations in a pa ir of ch r omophores that can only be
described in quantum terms. The vibrations tra nsport the energy
ar ound a leaf's ce llular st ructure, and the efficie ncy of this energy
transport is increased whe n the energy of a pair of vib rating
chromophores matches the ir vi brationa l transitions, lead ing
t o the exchange of a quanta of energy. Remarkab ly, chlo r ophyl l
demonstrates th is quantum be haviou r in wa r m te mpe r atu re s
whe r e we might expect it to be drowned out by other mo lecu lar
vibra tion s. There's much we can learn from t he hu mble tree leaf.
360 QUANTUM BIOLOGY

Quantum vision
ur eyes are biological sensors for detecting photons of

0 light, so it's unsurprising that the visi on process involves
quantum physics. The retina at the back of the eye is lin ed
with photoreceptor cells that convert photons of light into
electrical signals using a chemical called retinal, whi ch changes
its structure when it absorbs light energy. This is the fwst step
on an electrochemical pathway that ends with signals to the
brain. However, in a biological analogue of the photoelectric
effect, a photon must carry a certain quantized amou nt of
energy in order to stimulate the retinal
Th is explains a biological oddity. Our warm bodies produce large

amounts of thermal [infrared) radiation, wh ich inevitably le aks
into our eyes. A mil lion times more photons enter our eyes from
our bodies than from the outs ide world, so why do we not see
all th is thermal radiation when we close our eyes? The answer is
that, even though there are more of them, no ne of these thermal
photons carry sufficient energy to stimul ate retina l
362 QUANTUM BIOLOGY

Quantum consciousness
auld quantum physics lie at the root of human

C consciousness? Numerous physicists have speculated
on these lines, including Niels Bohr and Eugene Wigner. The
current champion for quantum consciousness is British
physicist Roger Penrose. Together with an anaesthesiologist
named Stuart Hameroff, Penrose has proposed a theory,
called orchestrated objective reduction, that describes
consciousness as a consequence of quantum gravity.
Penrose and Hameroff's idea is that quantum gravity

manifests itself as spacetime vibrations inside tiny
protein polymers ca lled microtubu les that reside in the
neurons of the brain. A superposition of quantum states
generated by the microtubules decays steadily rather than
instantly, creating the moment - to - moment awareness of
consciousness. In 2014, Penrose and Hameroff went further,
claiming the rhythm of brain waves as evidence for the
presence of spacetime vibrations within the microtubules.
364 QUANTUM BIOLOGY

Structure of a neuron
-Axon
Complex molecules called microtubules
are a crucial component of cells in most
living organisms. Some scientists have
argued that the molecular structure of
microtubules within the neurons of the brain
makes them an ideal location for quantum
behaviour that could form the basis
of consciousness.
Against quantum
consciousness
M any scientists have poured cold water on claims that

human consciousness arises from quantum effects.
Chief among these sceptics has been Max Tegmark of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Pointing out
that the brain is a hot and very complex structure, he ran
calculations suggesting any quantum superpositions that
might arise in the brain would decohere faster than neurons
can signal each other. This means that, should these quantum
states exist, they could have no effect on brain processing.
Since Tegmark's analysis, however, studies have shown that

living creatures can indeed use quantum effects to their
benef1t These include photosynthesis in plants and the
magnetoreception sense of migrating birds. Ultimately, the
human brain is far too complex for us to model properly yet,
which means there is still space for theories of quantum
consciousness alongside the better-supported theories that
our brain can be described by classical physics.
366 QUANTUM BIOLOGY

No free will?
F rom a philosophical point of view, the most significant effect

of quantum mechanics is whether or not 1t allows us free
will. Many quantum physicists and philosophers believe that
determinism, which says the Universe is predictable, results in
all our actions and decisions being essentially predictable,
too (if, of course, one had the computing power, a complete
understanding of the processes involved and access to all
necessary information about the Universe). Converse ly, some
also suggest that the probabilistic randomness of quantum
mechanics effectively removes free will: if nothing can be
predicted with accuracy, we don't really get any say in what
happens as a result of our actions.
In either case, free wi ll would be an illusion, and German physicist

Sabine Hossenfelder has proposed the existence of 'free - wi ll
functions', hidden laws that cou ld give rise to something that
appears to be free will. Whether that distinction is enough to
affect our own perception, however, is another matter.
368 QUANTUM BIOLOGY

3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197169
+ + ~
Apparently random- 979323846264338327 9
str1ng of numbers
3
7
5284308268998026826046187032954494790285015
3
4
2 865132823066470938 _Apparently random
str1ng of numbers
1
1 + +
7067982148086513282306647093844609550582231
7
2
5
3
5
...5011258391072014820547111848218049
Printer
Sabine Hossenfelder compares her 'free will
functions' to a machine that sequentially
prints one digit of pi every second: if you
read part of the printout from such a
machine without knowing anything about
it, the digits would appear random and
unpredictable.
Quantum computing
uantum computers prom ise to change the world in ways

Q we can't imag ine. Our informatio n age sees us swamped in
data - from soc ial media to the results of sc ientific experiments
-and t r ad itional dig ita l computers struggle when analysing huge
amounts of information. Quantum computers, however, have the
paral lel processing power to take on these challenges.
While digital computers store information as binary 'b its' that

take a va lue of either 0 or 1, quantum computers use the
superpos ition of quantum states of particl es to store informatio n
in elements called qubits. Superposition boosts the processing
speed of quantum computers: while an ordinary computer works
on just one computation at once, a qua ntum computer can be
working on millions of computations sim ultaneous ly In the future,
t hese powerful devices will be able to sift and analyse enormous
amounts of data, solving complex mathematica l problems that
can be app lied to areas such as modell ing the environment, curing
disease and invest igating the quantum world itse lf.
370 QUANTUM COMPUTING

Qubits
T hink of a qubit as a quantum of information -the simplest

and smal lest unit of information poss ible. The difference
between a qubit and a digital bit is that, whereas a normal bit
can be in on ly one of two states (0 or 1, true or false, yes or
no), a qub it can exist as both 0 and 1, true and false, yes and
no. This is because its quantum states are superposed, like
Schrodinger's cat, until a measurement is made. Qubits can be
individual atoms, ions, electrons, Bose-Einstein condensates,
superconducting circuits called Josephson junctions or even
photons of light
The information in a qubit is encoded into its quantum properties,

such as the spin of an electron or the polarization of a photon.
The number of possible states equals 2Nfor N qubits, so two
qubits can process four states simultaneously, and six qubits
can process 64 states simu ltaneously Each qubit can ultimately
produce just one answer when measured, but the superposition
of states provides extraordinary processing power.

Classical and quantum bits
Value= 1
t
Classical bit
Value= 0
A normal binary digit of A quantum qubit can exist in a

information can only take superposition of 1 and 0 states, allowing
on two states, 1 or 0. an array of qubits to process huge
amounts of information simultaneously.
Types of quantum
computer
P hysicists developing quantum computers don't expect

to bu ild a top-of-the-range model immediately. Instead,
the development of quantum computers is expected to pass
through three stages or milestones. The most basic, ca lled
a quantum annealer, considers variabl e quantum states as
something like a topographical map with hills and va lleys (see
opposite) Whi le devices capab le of this step have been bui lt,
the technique is only useful for specific problems, and quantum
annealers have not proved to be significantly faster than
ordinary computers.
The next step, a so - ca lled 'analog quantum computer', wou ld be

faster than a regular computer. Suc h a machine wou ld operate
with JUSt 50-10 0 qubits and, aga in, cou ld on ly so lve a few types
of problems. But it would be an important milestone on the way
to a true universal quantum computer. Equipped with around
100,000 qub its, such a device wou ld be exponentially faster
than normal computers.

,.,..,. ... , Quantum annealing
,, '\
.
I \ Classical computing assesses
I \ solutions by measuring gradients
I \
1 \ across map to identify local
1 \ and global minima.
:
I
I
3.... Quantum annealing
''
-·
c: tunnels straight to
0 \
:;:; global minimum
0
c:
~
n;
0
:;:;
<11
E
(I)
.c:
~
<11
::2
Optimal solution Variable x
Quantum annealing considers mathematical problems in a way analogous to an

elevation map, with hills and valleys, and a solution at the bottom of the lowest
valley on the map (the 'global minimum'). A classical computer would have to
search the entire map to fmd the right solution, but a quantum computer can
effectively 'tunnel' through the hills to find the answer in moments.
Problems of decoherence
T he biggest prob lem facing quantum computers is decoherence,

the decay of the wave funct1on when a qubit's quantum state
is measured [see page 176] Decoherence would eradicate a qub it's
superpos ition so that, instead, of be ing in a state of both 0 and 1,
it would be forced to take on one value or the other.
Decoherence turns a quantum computer into a regular classical

computer, and it will be hard to avoid. Qubits will have to be
kept iso lated from outside interference that wou ld cause their
wave functions to decay. Entanglement offers one possible way
of measuring the state of the computer without disturbing
the qubits doing the processing. However, many scientists
developing quantum computer systems take the attitude that
decoherence is something to manage; it's always going to be
present, and there's a certain amount that can be tolerated.
This can be done by having a computer with a large number of
qubits, so that the error rate caused by decoherence is sma ll
compared with the number of qubits.

Decohering Decoupling Protected gate
logic gate protection
Electron-
spin qubit Quantum Nuclear-spin qubit:
suffers rapid Qubits coupled slower calculations
decoherence in logic gate but greater stability
A two qubit logic Isolating qubits 'Protected' gates can

gate (see page 380) preserves information, entangle two different
loses fidelity through but prevents them qubits together while
interactions with its from functioning in isolating the system
environment. a logic gate. from decoherence.
Controlling qubits
solating a quantum computer's qubits in order to avoid

I decoherence requ1res some means of trapp1ng and
holding them without causing their wave functions to decay.
Computers that use atoms as their qubits can use a grid of
lasers ca lled an optica l lattice to create potentia l wel ls where
the beams intersect, trapping the atoms in these regions.
Ele ctrica lly charged ions, meanwhile, cou ld be conf1ned by
electromagnetic f1elds, and might convey information through
their collective motions as their charges influ ence each other.
Quantum dots (see page 348) can be used to control the

electrons that arrange themselves in orbits around them,
but quantum computers based on li ght are more problematic,
since photons don't interact with one another. Mirrors and
devices called beam - splitters might be one way of conf1ning
the li ght, as are so-ca ll ed 'Rydberg atoms' - large atoms
that can co ll ective ly slow light to a crawl - paving the way for
quantum computer 'circuits' made from light itself

Simulated wave function of
a Rydberg atom- a possible
means of confining photons for
use in quantum computing
Quantum logic gates
class ical computer uses smal l components cal led logic

A gates that carry out simple logical functions based on the
electronic signa ls (bits of binary data) that are fed into them.
For example, an AND gate multiplies two inputs, an OR gate
adds two inputs and a NOT gate inverts a sin gle input. There
are other variations of these gates, but only the NOT gate is
reversible; the others are one-way only.
Quantum logic gates, in contrast, are al l reversible. Sequences

of quantum gates form 'quantum circu its', and since they only
perform funct ions based on one or two inputs, the ir behaviour
can be described in terms of either 2 x 2 or 4 x 4 matrices. There
can be many more quantum gates than ordinary log ic gates,
each perform ing a different funct ion on the qubits. In the past,
quantum gates have been bu ilt out of such exotic materials as
Rydberg atoms and photons, but in 2015 researchers were ab le to
build a quantum gate out of sil icon for the f1rst t ime, a maJor step
towards making quantum computers practica l.
3 80 QUANTUM COMPUTING
A CNOT gate performs a binary 'NOT' operation on a qubit, flipping its
state from 0 to 1 or vice versa, but only if a second control qui bit is in
state '1'. In 2013 researchers succeeded in building such a gate using
a photon and a quantum dot (see page 348).
Crystal cavity
Quantum dot in
state 1 is invisible to
photon, which leaks
I 1\ rlwrr. 1 Vertically
polarized
photon in
out with its
polarization \. __ + Jl././.,_ _Horizontally
changed by the polarized
surrounding crystal. 0 photon out
Quantum dot in 1
state 0 absorbs ,----4--t~ll'tl\r-- Vertically
photon, and emits polarized
a new one whose photon in
polarization is '---~~JH~--andout
identical to the 1
original.
Quantum algorithms
A n algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that tells a

M. computer how to so lve a problem or perform a task.
Normal algorithms can run on quantum computers, but there
are also quantum algorithm s specia lly designed to take
advantage of qubits' inherent abi lity for para ll el processing.
Because these algorithms work on the principle of finding a

so lution from one of two answers (0 or 1, true or false and
so on), they can't do anything that is illogical, or theoretically
impossible for a normal computer to accomp lish. What they can
do, however, is so lve problems much faster. A task that might
take a normal computer centuries might be comp leted using a
quantum algorithm in a matter of minutes.
The algorithms utilize quantum log ic gates to act on a given

number of qubits of input data, cu lm inatin g in a measurement
that reveals a resu lt. Among the most important are Grover's
algorithm (shown opposite) and Shor's algorithm.

Grover's algorithm
Database of n items
Grover's algorithm Classical solution: n queries required

is a simple quantum to guarantee finding target.
algorithm for sorting
through an unordered Quantum solution: v n queries
database and frnding a required to guarantee finding target.
specific item.
Quantum error
correction
uantum computers are so delicate that you can quite
Q literally change the state of qubits by looking at them.
Decoherence will inevitably introduce 'noise' and logic gates
will introduce occasional errors, just as they do in classical
computers. Traditionally, the simplest way to f1x such errors has
been through redundancy; bits of information are copied and sent
multiple times. If there are errors, the repetition may become
scrambled and the computer can detect and correct the mistake.
Unfortunately, this procedure doesn't work for qubits. We

cannot copy their quantum states because we don't know what
they are. This is called the 'no cloning theorem'. However, the
information stored on a qubit can be spread across multiple
qubits by entanglement, for instance encoding it into the spins of
three electrons. Once this is done, errors can be spotted using
a so-called 'syndrome measurement' that doesn't disturb the
superposition, and suggests various recovery procedures that
can f1x the errors without causing further decoherence.
Simplified error correction procedure
I•
l . lnformation entangled on
three separate qubits
3. Error corrected
Quantum simulations
U nsurprisingly, quantum processes and systems are

difficult to simulate in nonquantum computers, so a major
application of quantum computing will be to better understand
quantum physics itself, along with its applications
Take, for example, collisions in a particle accelerator like

the Large Hadron Collider. A powerful quantum computer
could model these collisions in a virtual experiment, showing
the energies created and the daughter particles released
in high detail before the actual experiment is performed
More exotically, quantum computers could be used to
describe conditions at the cores of neutron stars, where the
temperatures and pressures are so great that matter could
take the form of superconducting superfluids governed by the
strong nuclear force. More down - to - earth applications could
include allowing greater understanding of high-temperature
(that is, closer to 0 o C/32° F) superconducting materials, and
even designing better quantum computers!
Building quantum
computers
uantum computing is still in its infancy: the f1rst
Q experimental test of a quantum algorithm took place in
1998 in Oxford, using just two qubits held in an MRI machine.
The same year a three-qubit computer was built and, by 2000,
the Los Alamos National Laboratory in the United States had
a seven-qub it magnetic resonance quantum computer up and
running. These systems, however, were so basic that they could
only solve the simplest of problems. In 2001, Shor's algorithm
was fwst demonstrated at Stanford University. The quantum
computer that achieved this (calculating that the two prime
factors of 15 are 3 and 5) also had just seven qubits.
In 2012, however, a Canadian company called 0-Wave claimed

to have built an 84-qubit computer using quantum annealing,
and in 2015 they an noun ced the fwst 1,000 - qubit chip. However,
many sceptical sc ienti sts have pointed out that, wh ile these
may technically be described as quantum computers, in
practice they are no faster than ordinary computers.
Future challenges
uantum mechanics is not some isolated corner of the

Q scientific world. It underlies almost every aspect of physics,
chemistry and even biology - from electronics to astrophysics
and from medicine to materials science As we seek to make new
advances in these areas and others, our understanding of the
quantum realm is sure to play a pivotal role. New technologies,
new energy sources and the use of quantum computing will all be
part of our quantum future.
But it's not only applications that will develop. Fundamental

question marks still remain over the meaning of some crucial
aspects of quantum mechanics. Is the wave function a real
wave or just an abstract concept? Is human consciousness
a key element in defining the quantum reality around us7 Can
we unify quantum mechanics with other theories7 Will we ever
learn the origin of the Big Bang and the true nature of the
Universe? These are big questions, but if we can crack these
quantum challenges, the rewards will be tremendous.
390 THE FUTURE OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

The observer's role
f the act of observing and measuring a wave function causes

I it to collapse, this raises a number of philosophical questions.
If something is never observed, does it exist, or does it remain
in a state of superposition? If the latter is true, then vast
expanses of the Universe in which there are no observers
would remain as uncollapsed wave functions. Most quantum
physicists disregard this avenue of thought, pointing out
that the wave function of an object is not the actual physical
object itself, but just a way of describing the object's quantum
properties. Furthermore, 'measurements' may be made simply
by interaction with other particles and radiation, causing
decoherence regardless of whether anybody is watching.
But not all physicists are ready to discount the role of the
observer. American theoretical physicist John Wheeler argued
that the Universe and the observer are mutually dependent;
one needs the other, and simply making a measurement is not
enough: a conscious mind needs to read that measurement.

Objective collapse
T he Cope nhagen interpretation is famous ly noncom mitta l on

some Important face t s of quantum mechanics. For example,
it makes no j udgement as to whethe r the wave f unction is real,
but merely treats it as a de scripti on of the proba bili stic nature
of quantum states. The many- worlds interpretation removes this
vag ueness by stating t hat the wave is real and branches off into
differ ent universes, thou gh thi s in turn r aises many new questions
These two extremes leave r oom f or other models between them,

one of whic h is objective collapse theo r y. As its name suggest s,
this treats t he wave function as a real phenomenon, with a
co llapse t hat is also objective ly real. However, once the wave
f unction has collapsed, that's the end of it; there is no 'branching
off' as in many worlds. What's more, obje ctive collapse happens
either at r and om or at a certain scale thres hold, with no special
r ole for the observer. However, critics po int to a prob lem that has
not yet been reso lve d; in ord er for energy to be conserved, a sma ll
part of the wave funct ion must some how remai n uncollapsed.

Some scientists argue that
oQjective collapse is a necessity in
order for our matter-rich Universe
to emerge from the Big Bang.
In the strictest version of the

Copenhagen interpretation, the
lack of some form of observer in
the aftermath of the Big Bang
should mean that wave functions
do not collapse and matter
remains delocalized.
Objective collapse allows

wave functions to collapse
without an observer. Matter
starts to form localized
clumps that act as seeds for
large-scale cosmic structur e.
The early Universe
R ecreating the conditions of the Big Bang seem out

of reach for any particle accelerator on Earth in the
foreseeable future. At present, our best way of understanding
the origins of the Universe is to probe the depths of space
and observe how astronomical objects were influenced by
quantum gravity in the fwst fraction of a second after the
Big Bang. This requires a better understanding of inflation,
of dark energy and of the large-scale structure of matter
in the Universe today.
The key lies in the cosmic microwave background radiation

[CMBR, see page 218). the faint glow of radio waves imprinted
with the conditions of the early Universe. The best observations
of the CMBR so far came from the European Space Agency's
Planck spacecraft (opposite) between 2009 and 2013, but
future missions to study the CMBR should be able to rule out
up to three-quarters of the potential models for inflation,
bringing us closer to understanding the early quantum Universe.

Is information destroyed?
n 1974, Ste phen Hawking made his rep utation with the discovery
I that black holes are not qu1t e as inescapab le as they may f ws t
seem. Virt ua l partic les formed on the edge of a black hol e can
producing Hawking rad iation [see page 242), red uc in g the black
hole's mass until it evaporate s comp lete ly. None of this Hawking
radi ation contains information from inside the black hole, however.
When matter fal ls into a black hole, it contain s information in the

f orm of its quantum stat es, but Hawki ng [opposit e) could see no
way for his rad iati on to conserve thi s information He ma de a bet
wi th US physic ist John Preskill that info rmation was destr oyed,
but conceded t he bet in 2004. Why? AdS/C FT correspondence
[see page 282) provid es a new description of black holes as
particle s on the boundary between our fo ur dimensions and a f1fth
dimension, from whic h our Universe is projected like a ho logram .
Th ese partic les operate by t he laws of quantum mechan ics, and so
must conserve info rmation. But exactly how information survives
a bl ack ho le remains a mystery

A varying speed of light?
A ccording to conventional physics, the speed of li ght in

M a vacuum is a constant 299,792,458 metres per second
[186,282 miles per second) wherever you are in the Universe.
So why do some scientists suspect it can change? One reason
is that, thanks to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, space
is filled with virtual particles. Photons travelling through
the vacuum of space will inevitably bump into them, and the
energ ies of the particles cou ld potentially impart a tiny effect
on the photons, slowing their speed by a hundred trillionths of
a second every metre Across billions of li ght years of space,
this cou ld build up into a detectable difference.
A varying speed of light has also been suggested as an

alternative to the burst of inflation wide ly believed to have
occurred shortly after the Big Bang [see page 214). If
fundamental constants can change, then laws of physics can
also change with them, presenting all kinds of problems for
our understanding of the Universe.

Extreme matter
U nderstanding the behaviour of matter under extreme

conditions of temperature and pressure remains a huge
challenge to physicists. Within the gas - giant planet Jupiter
(opposite), pressures 40 million times greater than those on
Earth's surface turn hydrogen into an electrically conducting
liquid, in which the quantum states of hydrogen atoms could
create matter that is both superfluid and superconducting at
the same time. Things get even stranger inside neutron stars,
where pressures can be 100 billion trillion trillion times greater
than on Earth. Some scientists speculate that neutrons could
break down into individual quarks, forming a new form of matter
that is a plasma of quarks and gluons.
Even greater pressures and temperatures, like those in the Big

Bang, are in the realm where different quantum fteld theories
become unifted (see page 262) Future particle accelerators,
capable of reaching energies of 100 trillion eV (12 times that
achievable by the LHC), will aim to probe these conditions.
40 2 THE FUTURE OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Alternatives to strings
hile strin g theory (see page 268) is still considered the

W most l1kely candidate for a viabl e theory of everyth ing,
not everyone is happy with it. The vast number of potential
so lutions offered by its equations make it incredibly hard to
falsify, since exponents of the theory can suggest any one of
10 500 potential vacuum states as an alternative to any that
are shown to be wrong. Another criti cism is that string theory
is not 'background dependent': strings vibrate in space and
through time, but don't tell us how space and time come to be.
Lee Smo lin, the inventor of loop quantum gravity (see page
266), argues that string theory eschews experimenta l
results in favour of elegant mathem atics, describing multiple
dimensions and parallel worlds without cons id ering whether
they can be tested. In 1999, Smolin and backer Mike Lazaridis
helped set up the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
in Canada, where researchers are free to investigate not just
string theory, but alternative theories of quantum gravity.

Potential theory of Quantum theory of
everything gravity, removing need
for theory of everything
Supersymmetric No supersymmetric
particles particles
10 or 11 dimensions 4 dimensions
(can incorporate more)
Continuous spacetime Quantized spacetime

Graviton particles White holes (spacetime
with spin of 2 objects where matter
swallowed by black holes
escapes)
Composition- Varying speed of light

dependent variation at highest energies
in gravity (gamma rays)
Is Copenhagen right?
he Copenhagen interpretation has dominated quantum

T mechanics for almost a ce ntury, but how litera lly shou ld
we take it? Niels Bohr still considered particles and atoms as
inherently deterministic, and viewed the wave function as simp ly
our best attempt to conceptualize it. This works f 1ne for when
it comes to solving standard quantum mechanical prob lems.
Exp lain ing Young's interference fringes or the orbita ls of
electrons doesn't rea lly depend on whether the wave function is
a physical th ing or an abstract idea; the maths work either way.
But dig a little deepe r into nature, and the question be comes
more important. The differenc e between a litera l wave and a
conceptual wave cou ld be an in finite arr ay of parallel universes
or the key to the secret of quantum gravity The cha llenge for
quantum physic ists over the com ing decades is to decide wh ich of
the se concepts is the correct one Depending on the answer, our
understanding not only of nature, but of our place in the Universe
[or mu ltive r se], could look very differe nt.

Glossary
Alpha particle Beta particle

A particle re leased by rad ioactive A particle released by r adioactive
decay that consists of two protons beta decay- usually an electron but,
and t wo neutrons - equivalent to t he rarely, a positron. Beta particles are
nucleus of a hel ium atom released from unstable atom ic nuclei
when a neutron transforms into a
Angular momentum proton or, more rare ly, vice versa.
A property of rotating objects
analogous to momentum, and linked Boson
to their inertia and rate of rotation A partic le with zero or whole- number
around an axis of ro tatio n 'spin.' Element ar y particles known
as gauge bosons, often created as
Atom virtua l particles, play a vital ro le in
The smallest indivisible unit of transmitting the fundamental forces
matter that displays the properties of nature between fermions
of a chemical element. Atoms have
a compact nucleus consisting of Electromagnetic radiation
positively charged protons and A natural phenomenon consisti ng
uncharged neutrons, surrounded by a of electrical and magnetic waves
cloud of negat ively charged electrons interfering wi th and reinforcing
whose number balances the number one another. It can exh ibit ve r y
of protons dif ferent properties depending
408 GLOSSARY
on its wavele ngth, frequency and Gamma radiation
energy, and trave ls in discrete energy A form of high-energy
packets called photons that display electromagnetic radiation released
both wave and particle properties by va ri ous processes such as
rad ioactive decay
Electron
A low- mass elementary particle Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
carrying negative electrical charge A re lationship stating the
Electrons are found in the orbita l impossibility of measuring two
shel ls surround ing an atomic nucleus 'complementary' quantum properties
[for example, a particle's position and
Fermion momentum) wi th perfect accuracy at
Any parti cle wi t h a half-integer spin, the same time
in clud ing all the eleme ntary matter
particles [known as quarks and Imaginary numbers
leptons J Ferm ions are governed by A system of numbers based on the
Pauli's exc lusion principle square root of -1, denoted i. Although
i does not exist as a 'rea l' number, it
Fundamental force is often requ ired to solve comp lex
One of four forces governing the equations including many of those
way that matter particles interact describing quantum physics
in nat ure. Three of the fundamenta l
force s, electromagnetism and Lepton
the weak and strong forces, are Any member of a fami ly of elementary
described by quantum physics, but particles that are not susceptible to
the fourth , gravitation, is current ly the strong nuclear force, including
only described by general relativity. electrons and neutrinos
GLOSSARY 409
Magnetic moment Planck's constant
A property determining the strength A physica l constant that helps defme
of the magnetic f1e ld created by an quantum-scale re la ti ons such as that
object, and its susceptibility to the between the frequency of a photon
influence of other magnetic f 1elds. and the energy it co ntains
Neutron Proton
An electrically neutral subatomic A heavy subatomic particle with
partic le made up of two down quarks posit ive electric charge, found in t he
and an up quark, found in the nuclei atomic nucleus and composed of t wo
of atoms. up quarks and a down quark
Orbital shell Quantum

A region surrounding an atomic The minimum possible amount of
nu cleus, in which electrons ar e foun d a particular property that may be
The size of an orbital determines the involved in a physical interacti on
energy of electro ns found there Certain phenomena, such as the
energies of light waves and of
Pauli's exclusion principle electrons in an atom, are inherently
A law that pr events fermion particles 'quantized' on t he smallest scale.
f rom occupying identical "states" in a Quantum physics describes t he strange
system, and is ther efore responsible and sometimes counteri ntuitive
for much of the st ruct ure of matt er behaviour that arises as a re su lt
Photon Quark
A discrete packet of electromagnetic An elementary particle found in six
energy that can display wavel ike, as different 'flavours', responsible for
well as particl elike, behaviour most of the mass in matter
410 GLOSSARY
Spectral lines a qua ntum system producing a
Lines in a spec t rum of light with parti cular r es ult
specif ic wave lengths, caused by the
em ission or absorption of light as Vector
electro ns move between orbi tal A mathematical object with both a
shel ls and energy leve ls within atoms magnitude and a specified directi on
Many quantum properties are
Spin described in vect or terms.
A pr ope r ty of subatomic particles,
Virtual particle
analogous t o ang ular momentum in
A parti cl e t hat spon t aneously comes
lar ger objec t s, which affect s many
into existence an d exists for an
aspects of the ir behaviour
extremely short time as a res ult of
Heise nber g's unce rtaint y principle as
Wave function
it app lies t o t ime and energy. Virtual
A descri ption of th e quantum state particles are produced as particle-
of a system, ofte n denoted by an t iparti cle pairs, and act as gauge
the Greek letter '4 (ps i) The wave bosons t ra nsmitting the fu ndamental
fu nction describes t he probabil ity force s of nature.
of a meas urement performed on
Scientific notation:
This book inevitably deals wit h some very large and very small numbers. To
simplify their presentation, sc ientifi c not ation is used where approp r iate,
with number s presented in the form ax lOb (that is, a times 10 to t he
powe r of b) Hence 3 x 10 6 = 3,000,000 (3 followe d by six zeroes] In this
system, negative va lues of b indicate multiplication by 1/lOb, so f or
example 3 x 10-6 = 3 x 0.000001 = 0.000003
GLOSSARY 411
Index
AdS/CFT correspondence Boltzmann bra ins 324 146, 156, 178, 180, 286,
282, 398 Born, Max 188, 150 292, 304, 306, 394, 406
aether 10, 16 Born rule 150 corpuscular theory 12, 14
algorithms, quantum Bose-Einstein correspondence principle
382, 388 condensates 112, 114, 206, 208
alpha decay 128, 130, 168 350 cosm1c microwave
anthropic princ iple 302 bosons 112, 114, 120, 126, background radiation
antimatter 164, 166 136, 274, 350 (CMBR) 218, 396
app li cations, quantum brain 364, 366 cosmolog ical constant
326-68 brane theory 280, 300 232, 282
atomic clocks 340 Coulomb barrier 130, 168,
atomic structure 42, 44, Calabi-Yau space 278 170
46, 58 - 60 carbon dating 346 cryptography, quantum
Casimir effect 136 342, 344
baryons 110, 124 cathode rays 30 cyclical universes 300
Bell's theorem 308 chemistry, quantum 354
beta decay 126, 128, 132 chirality 104, 126 dark energy 230, 232, 248,
Big Bang 214, 216, 224, 230, clocks, quantum 340 282
250 , 280, 300, complementarity 182 dark matter 98
396, 402 Compton scattering 36 de Brog lie wavelength 38,
'B ig Crunch' 248, 250, 300 computing, quantum 40 , 46
biological compasses 358 370-88 decoherence, quantum
biology, quantum 356 conformal field theories 176, 376, 378, 384
black body radiation 24, 26, [CFTs) 282 degeneracy, quantum 72,
28, 34 consciousness, quantum 236, 238
black holes 240, 242, 398 364, 366 determinism 312, 368
Bohr, Niels 44, 54, 178, 182, Copenhagen dice, playing 304
206, 406 interpretation 54, 144, Dirac equation 164
412 INDEX
Dirac, Paul 164, 194, 200 entropy 22, 320, 324 ground-state electrons
Doppler effect 228 EPR paradox 306, 308 68, 74
dots, quantum 348, 378 error correction, quantum Guth, Alan 224, 226
double - slit experiment 12, 384
14, 154, 200, 208, 322 Everett, Hugh 286, 292 hadrons 94, 116
expanding Universe 214, Hamiltonian operator 196,
E=mc 2 equation 50, 228 , 230 , 234 198, 204, 210
160, 216 extreme matter 402 harmonic osci ll ators,
eigenfunctions 198, 204 eyes 362 quantum 158, 210
Einstein, Albert 28, 32, 34, Hawking radiation 242,
48, 50 , 52 , 114, 146, 160, Faraday, Michael 398
304, 306 , 310, 314 18, 106 Heisenberg, Werner 46, 52,
electric charge 100 fermions 110, 274 172, 188
electromagnetic force Feynman diagrams Heisenberg's uncertainty
18, 20, 122, 254, 258 , 202, 258 principle 52, 140, 172, 174,
264, 272 Feynman, Richard 200 182, 242, 254, 262, 304,
electron tunnelling flash drives 336 312, 320, 324, 400
microscope 330 Fraunhofer lines 78 hidden variables 308
electronics 334 free will 368 Higgs boson 88, 118, 120
electron(s) 30, 34, 44, 46, future of quantum phys ics higher dimensions 276
58 , 60 - 80 , 100, 104, 106, 390-406 Hilbert space 192, 194
108, 174 horizon problem 222, 224
diffraction 40 galaxies, ori gins of 220 Hubble, Edwin 228
energy levels 64-6 gamma decay 134 Hund's rules 74, 76
excited 68, 74, 134 general re lativity 48, 206 , Huygens, Christiaan 10, 16
forbidden transitions 83 240 , 252, 262
shel ls 60, 62, 68, 70 , 76 gluons 94, 112, 136 inflation 224, 226, 246, 250,
subshells 62, 70 grand unified theory (GUT) 290, 300, 400
electroweak theory 264 244, 270 inflationary multiverse 290
emission lines 80 graviton 262
energy, conservation of 82 gravity, quantum 240, Klein-Gordon equation
entanglement, quantum 248, 250, 252, 262, 162, 164
306, 308, 310 , 312, 314, 266, 272
316, 320, 376 Lamb shift 138
INDEX 413
Large Hadron Collider Michelson-Morley Penrose, Roger 364
(LHC) 116, 118, 166, experiment 16 perturbation theory 210
284, 386 momentum, conservation photoelectric effect
lasers 328, 344 of 82 32, 34
leptons 96, 110 Mozi satellite 344 photons 32, 34, 36, 122,
light emitting diodes mu ltiverses 286 - 302 136, 138, 174, 258, 362,
(LEOs) 338 400
light, speed of 314, 400 neutrinos 96, 98, 100 photosynthesis, quantum
limits of the quantum neutron stars 234, 236, 360
realm 208 238, 386, 402 Planck epoch 270 , 272, 274
logic gates, quantum 380, neutrons 42, 58, 100, Planck, Max 24, 26, 28,
382, 384 126, 132 32, 34
loop quantum gravity Newton, Isaac 10, 12 Planck relation 44
(LOG) 266, 284, 404 nucleus, atomic 58, 60 Planck constant 28, 38, 66
positrons 100, 166
magnetic moment 102, objective co ll apse theory probabilities, quantum
106, 108 394 148, 150
magn etic resonan ce observable Universe 288 probability wave function
imaging (MRI) 174, 332 observer's role 392 144
many-worlds operators, quantum 196, protons 42, 58, 100, 132,
interpretation 54, 144, 198, 204 332
286, 292, 294, 296, decay of 244
298, 394 parity 104
mass-energy equivalence particle angu lar quanta 28
48, 50 momentum 102 quantum chromodynamics
mathematics, quantum particle physics 88 - 140 (OCD) 94, 260
184 - 210 particle theory 12, 14, quantum electrodynamics
matrix/matrix mechanics 36, 38 (OED) 258
186, 188, 190, 194 path integral formulation quantum field theory (OFT)
Maxwell, James Clerk 18 200 254, 402
Maxwell's equations 20 Pau li's exclusion princip le quantum fluctuations 216
memory stick 336 76, 94, 110, 236, 238, quantum mechanical
mesons 112, 124 260 , 348 atom 46
quantum number s 62, 152
414 INDEX
quantum states 152, 156 Standard Model 88, 90 tunnelling, quantum
quantum suicide 294, 296 Stark effect 210 130, 148, 168, 170, 174,
quark stars 238 stars 24, 234-8 330, 356
quarks 58, 90, 92 , 94, 110, death of 234 ultraviolet catastrophe
124, 132, 260 string theory 192, 268 , 26, 32
qubits 370, 372, 376, 274, 276 , 278, 284, uncollapsible wave
378, 384 290, 404 function 286, 292, 296,
quintessence 232 strong force 124, 260, 392, 394
272 Un ive rse 212 - 50, 396
radioactivity 128, 130, 132, superconductivity 352 fates of the 248
134, 346 superfluids 350
radiometric dating 346 supernovae 230, 234 vacuum decay 246
relativity 48 , 160, 162, 206, superpositions, quantum vacuum energy 140, 232
214, 240, 252, 262, 314 154, 176, 178 virtual particles 136, 140,
Rutherford, Ernest 42, 44 superstrings 106, 278 174, 214, 216, 242, 254,
Rydberg constant 66 supersymmetry 118, 274, 398, 400
276, 284 vision, quantum 362
Schrodinger's cat 178, 180, symmetry 256
294, 296 symmetry breaking 272 wave function 142 - 82,
Schrod inger's wave 190, 200, 204, 286, 292,
equation 70, 156, 162, Tegmark, Max 288, 290 392, 394, 406
188, 190, 194, 198, 204, telecommunications 344 wave-particle duality 38,
210 , 254 teleportation, quantum 40, 42, 46, 142, 188, 208
simulations, quantum 386 316 - 18 wave theory 10, 12, 14, 16,
Solvay Conference 'theory of everyth ing' 192, 18, 20, 38
(1927) 52 252-84, 404 weak force 126, 264, 272
special relativity 48, 160, thermodynamics 22, 82
162, 314 Thomson, J.J. 30, 42 Young, Thomas 14, 16, 146
spectroscopy 44, 56 time, quantum 320-4
spin, quantum 62, 86, 102, time runn ing backwards Zeeman effect 62, 86
104, 106, 110, 332 322
spin-orbit interactions transformation theory 194
108
INDEX 415
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--- '~

T he world of quantum physics is an amazing place, where

Quantum physics pushes us to the boundary of what we know

The true meaning of quantum physics may be still up for debate,

Quantum physics is science, not magic. Yet what it can do

uantum physics describes the science of the very smal l,

It took scientists a long time to accept this bizarre idea, and

8 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

uantum theory has its roots in a f1erce and long-running

Of course, waves [ranging from tidal waves in water to sound

10 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Diffraction after parallel waves Interference pattern between

nfluential English physicist Isaac Newton proposed a model

Newton's model became the leading theory of light, but it

12 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

You ng's experiment invo lves shinin g su nl ig ht through a barrier

14 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Barrier with two Diffracted waves

Th eory held t hat the aether was stationary in space, so Earth's

16 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

If the a ether existed, then changes to the speed of

f light really is a wave, then it seems reasonable to ask: what

In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of induction,

18 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

The flow of electric current (a stream of negatively charged electron

T o exp lain electro mag netism f ully, James Clerk Maxwe ll

Maxwell's th ird equation describes how interactions between

20 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

The f1rst law of thermodynamics explains how energy is

The second law, meanwhile, essentia lly describes how heat wi ll

22 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

T he study of the ways in whi ch objects emit electromag netic

A star is often co nsidered the closest thing in nature to a

24 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Infrared Red Violet Ultraviolet

Workin g to resolve the problem, aro und 1900 German

26 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

onfronted with the prob lem of exp lai ni ng black body

Planck realized there was a relatio n between the energy and

28 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

A t around the same time that scientists were homing in

A cathode is a heated electrode that generates a beam

30 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Coils produce changing

Positively charged anode

Negatively charged cathode

T he phot oelectric ef fect was cruc ial to both t he co nception and

Einst ei n rea lized that t he ph ot oe lectri c eff ect co uld be

32 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Photoelectric material (e.g.

A Ibert Ei nstein's study of the photoelectric effect led him to

Th is opened up a complete ly new approach to t he photoelectric

34 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

.... ...... .... ....

n 1923, American physicist Arthur Compton demonstrated

Compton related the process to billiard balls one ball hits

36 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS

Scattered photon with

B y the early 1920s, the evidence that light had properties