UNIT 7 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS :

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEYS
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Biomes of, the World
Forests
Types of Forests
Importance of Forests
Deforestation and its Causes
Consequences of Deforestation
Social Forestry and Forest Conservation
Grasslands
Typespf Grasslands
Economic Importance
Dcserts
Desertification
Indian Deserts
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

In the previous units you have studied what our ecosystem is and what constitutes
this system. As you know the world itself is very vast, and it represepts a big
'ecosystem called biosphere . In an ecosystem there is continuous .functional *
inferaction between the living organisms and the non-living materials.' The
interrelations between organisms and environment on the land constitute "Terrestrial
Ecology". However, due to variation in the topographic features of valleys,
mountains and slopes, certain differences are bound to.occur. These differences arrs
reflected in both the material and biotic diversities. Altitudinal and latitudinal
variations cause shiftsand differences in the climatic patterns. Due to varied climate
the plant and animal life existing in different terrestrial areas diversify which result
in differentiation of biomes as segments within the large biosphere. In the present
unit we shall discuss various types of biomes. Besides, you will learn about the
importance of the forests, consequences of deforestation, chipko movement,
importance of grasslands and the phenomenon of desertification.
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to :
explain the concept of biome and identify various biomes of the world,
differentiate between the major types of terrestrial ecosystems such as grassland,
forests and deserts,
a relate the importance of forests to human welfare.
a identify the causes and consequences of deforestation,
describe the concept of social forestry and chipko movement,
describe the distribution and classification of Indian grasslands, economic and
ecological~importanceof grasslands, ecological features of Indian deserts and
understand the process of desertification,
0 understand and explain the concept of wasteland and methods of their
rehabilitation.

7.2 BIOMES OF THE WORLD

1
As you know, the land mass constitutes Tth of our planet. A large var~etyot plants
and animal communities have developed in relationi to climatic and edaphic
variations.
 Types of Ecosystems :
As one attempts at combining plant and animal distribution into one system the 1 Termstrid &?systems
classifications given earlier were found to be inadequate because plant and animal
distributions do not coincide. Another approach was to accept plant formations as
the biotic units and to associate animals with plants. This approach is fairly workable
because animal life depends on plants. These broad integrated natural biotic units
are called biomes. Thus a biome is a large community unit characterised by the kinds
of plants and animals present. Each biome consists of a distinctive composition of
plant and animal species, the climax communities in each are of uniform life form of
vegetation such as grasses or coniferous trees. It also includes stages in the
development of the community towards its final form, which may be dominated by
other life forms.
O n a local and regional scale, jommunities are considered as gradients in which the
combination of species varies as the individual species respond to environmental
gradients. O n a larger scale one can consider the terrestrial and even some aquatic
ecosystems as gradients of communities and environments on a world scale. Such .
gradients of ecosystem are ecolines.
Apart from gradual changes in vegetation other ecosystem also changes significantly.
As one goes from highly mesic and warm temperatures to xeric situations or cold
temperatures, productivity, species diversity, and the amount of biomass decreases.
There is a corresponding decline in the complexity and organisation of ecosystems,
in the size of plants, growth form and in the number o f strata in the vegetation.
The following three major biomes,recognised by ecologists as forests, grasslands a'nd
deserts occur as belts around the world (Fig. 7.1).

Mesophyt~cforest Oak-Hickoryforest Oak woodland

Fig. 7.1 r Three major types of biomes, i.e.,fmfft, grasshd-Bnd desert.

Ecasystem : Functioning and Types
7.3 FORESTS
Now let us see as to what a forest is. The word forest is derived from the Latin word
'foris' meaning outside, the reference being to village boundary fence and must have
included all uncultivated and uninhabitated land. Today a forest is any land managed
for the diverse purpose of forestry whether covered with trees, shrubs, climbers etc.
or not. The forest biomes include a complex assemblage of different kinds of biotic
communities. Optimum conditions of temperature and ground moisture responsible
for the growth of trees contribute greatly to the establishment of forest communities.
The nature of soil, climate and local topography determine the distribution of trees
and their abundance or sparseness in the forest vegetation. Forests may be evergreen
or deciduous. They are distinguished on the basis of leaf into broad-leafed or needle-
leafed coniferous forests in the case of temperate areas. Characteristics of different
types of forests arc described below.

7.3.1 Types of Forests

The forest biomes of the world have been classified into the three major categories:
coniferous forest, tropical forest and temperate forest (Fig. 7 . 3 . All these forest
biomes are generally arranged on a gradient from north to south or from high to
lower altitude. We shall discuss each category in detail.
T-.-?.,.\,
-h\,+v
--
-,*\\rn\\\\-\-\
\ -

Tropical forest Subtropical forest Temperate Mixed temporate Boreal forest Tundra
deciduous forest forest
Fig. 7.2 : Types of Forests

i) Coniferous forest : Cold regions with high rainfall and strongly seasonal climates
with long winters and fairly short summers are characterised by boreal coniferous
forest which is transcontinental. For example, adjacent to Tundra regions either
at latitude or high altitude is the northern coniferous forest, which stretches
across both north America and Eurasia just south of Tundra (i.e. Canada,
Sweden, Finland and Siberia). The term taiga is applied to the northern range of
coniferous forests. This is characterised by evergreen plant species such as Spruce.
(Picea glauca), fir (Abies balsamea ) and pine trees (Pinus resinosalPinus strobus)
and by animals such as the lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, porcupine, squirrel, and
amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.
Boreal forest soils are thin podozols and are rather poor both because the
weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments and because the litter
derived from conifer needle is broken down very slowly and is not particularly
rich in nutrients. These soils are acidic and are mineral deficient. This is due to
movement of large amounts of water through the soil, without a significant
counter upward movement of evaporation, essential soluble nutrients like
calcium, nitrogen and potassium which are leached sometimes beyond the reach
of roots. This process leaves no alkaline oriented cations to encounter the organic
acids of the accumulating litter. The productivity and community stability of a
boreal forest are lower then those of any other biome.
ii) Temperate deciduous forest : The temperate forests are characterised by a
moderate climate and broad-leafed deciduous trees, which shed their leaves in
+ fall, are bare over winter and grow new foliage in the spring. These forests are
characteristic of north America, Europe, Eastern Asia, Chile, part of Australia
and Japan, with a cold winter and an annual rainfall of 75-150 cm. and a
56 temperature of 10-20°C. The precipitation may be fairly uniform throughout
 year. In Himalayas occur Temperate vegetation including piiies, fir and juniper Types of Ecosystems :
1 Terrestrial Ecosystems
trees with an undergrowth of scrubby rhododendrons at elevations of 2743-3658
metres.
Trees are quite tall about 40-50 m in height and their leaves are thin and broad.
The predominant genera of this biome are maple (Acer), beach (Faqus), oak
(Quercus), hickory (Carya), basswood (Tilia),chestnut (Castnea), and cotton
wood (Populus). In some locations, coniferous vegetation may be quite
predominant and that includes white pines (Pinus strobus), and willow (Salix).
Soils of temperate forests are podozolic and fairly deep.
The an~malsinhabiting the temperate forests are deer, beers, squirrels, gray
foxes, bobcats, wild turkey and woodpeckers. Common invertebrates include
earthworms, snails, millipedes, coleoptera and orthoptera and vertebrates like
amphibians. such as toad. salamander. cricket and frog, reptiles., such as turtle,
lizard and snake, mammals such as racoon, opossum. pig, mountain lion, etc. and
birds like horned owl, hawks, etc. The range of animal size and adaptations is
wide; the larger animals include such as deer and black deer. The dominant
carnivores are large including the wolf and mountain lion although smaller
carnivores such as fox and skunk are also common. Plants and animals of
temperate forest allow a profound seasonality in behaviour, some even hibernate
throughout the winter.

iii) Temperate evergreen forest :Many parts of the world have a mediterranian type
of climate which is characterised by warm, dry summers and cool, moist winters.
.These are commonly inhabitated by low evergreen tree$ having broad leaves. In
a woouiand, trees are essentially lacking although shrubs may range up to 3-4m
in height. Fire is an important hazardous factor in this 'ecosystem and the
adaptation of the plants enable them to regenerate quickly after being burnt. The
characteristic animals of temp-erate evergreen woodland chaparral are mule,
deer, orush rabblt, wood rat, chipmunk, lizard, etc

iv) Temperate rain forests :The temperate rain lorests are colder than any other rain
forest and exhibit a marked seasonality with regard to temperature and rainfall.
Rainfall is high, but fog may be very heavy which may actually represent a more
important source of water than rainfall itself. The biotic diversity of temperate
forests is high as compared to temperate toresr. However, the diversity of plant
and animals is much low as cchpared to their warmer counterparts. The mimalt
of temperate rain forests are similar to those of deciduous forests, but show a
somewhat high diversity.

v) Tropical rain forests :Tropical rain forests occur near the equator. Tropical rain
forests are among the most diverse communities on the earth. Both temperature
and humidity remain high and more or less uniform. The annual rainfall exceeds
200-225 cm and is generally distributed throughout the year.
The flora is highly diversified : a sq km may contain 300 different species of
trees - a diversity unparalled in any other biome. The extremely dense .
vegetation of the tropical rain forests remains vertically stratified with tall trees
often covered with vines, creepers, lianas, epiphytic orchids and bromeliads.
Under the tall trees there is a continuous evergreen carpet, the canopy layer,
some 25 to 35 metres tall. The lowest layer is an undeistory of trees, shrubs,
herbs, like ferns and palms, all of which become dense where there is a break in
the canopy. Soils of tropical rainforests are red latosols', and they may be very
thick. The high rate of leaching makes these soils virtually useless for agricultural
purposes, but if they are left undisturbed, the extremely rapid cycling of nutrients
within the litter layer which is formed due to decomposition can compensate for
the natural poverty of the soil.
The common vertebrates of tropical rain forests are the arboreal amphibian
Rhacophorus malabaricus, aquatic reptiles, -chameleons, agamids, geckos and
many species of snakes and birds, social birds being dominant, and a variety of
mammals. Nocturnal and arboreal habits are most common in many mammals
such as insectivores, leopard, jungle cats, anteaters, giant flying squirrels,
monkeys and sloths.
Ecosysfem : Functioning and Types vi) Tropical seasonal forests : Tropical seasonal forests occur in regions where total
annual rainfall is very high but segregated into pronounced wet and dry periods.
This kind of forests is found in South East Asia, central and south America,
northern Australia, western Africa and tropical islands of the pacific as well as
India. In exceedingly wet tropical seasonal forests, commonly known as monsoon
forests, the annual precipitation may be several times that of the tropical rain
forests. Teak is oftefi a major large tree in the best known tropical seasonal
forests of India (central India) and south east Asia. Bamboo is also an important
climax shrub in these areas.
vii) Subtropical rain forksts : In regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature
differences between winter and summer and broad-leaved evergreen subtropical
biome i\ found. The vegctation includes mahogany, gumbolimbo, bays, palms,
oaks, magnolias, tamarind, all laden with epiphytes (?f pineapple and orchid
families), ferns, vines and strangler fig (Ficus, aureus). Animal life ot subtropical
forest is very similar to that of tropical rainforests.

7.3.2 Importance .of Forests

In Units 17 and 18 (Block IV) of FST 1 you have already studied that forests are
renewable resources which provide us a wide variety of commodities.
For man, forests have been a source of recreation and the development of his culture
and civilisation. Apart from the source of fuelwood, they are raw materials to various
wood industries like pulp and paper,, composite wood, rayon and other man-made
fibres, matches, furniture, shuttles and sport goods. Indian forests also provide many
other minor products such as essential oils. medicinal plants, resins and turpentines,
lac and shellac, katha and catechu, bidi wrappers, tasser silk, etc.
India and other tropical countries have particularly abundant timber and heartwood
resources. Timber accounts for 95(% of all photosynthetic materials produced on the
earth and about half of the total biomass produced by a forest. Forests have great
biological importance as reservoirs of genetic diversity apart from playing an
important role-in regulating earth's climate.
Forests provide habitat, and food as well as protection to wildlife species against
extremes of climate and help in balancing carbon dioxide and oxygen of the
atmosphere. Forests enhance local precipitation and improve water holding capacity ,
of soil, regulate water cycle, maintain soil fertility by returning the nutrients to the
soil through litter. Forests check soil-erosion, landslides and reducc intensity of flood
and droughts. Fmests, being home of wildlife are important assets of aesthetic,
touristic and cultural value to the society.
Sometimes back, a movement known as 'Chipko Movement' was launched by the
village folk to save the tree from felling. Chipko Movement -the movement to hug
trees is probably the world's most well-known grassroots ecodevelopment movement.
The genesis of the Chipko Movement has both an ecological and an economic
background. The Alaknanda valley in which the movement originated was the scene
of an unprecedented flood in 1970. The tragic aftermath of this flood left a deep
impression on the hillfolk and with it, soon followed the appreciation of the vital
ecological role that forests play in their lives.
The non-violent, action-oriented Chipko Movement has greatly helped to unite the
people and focus attention on the mismanagement of forest resources. Its Gandhian
character of defending without inflicting violence has brought it considerable.
sympathy. The Chipko Movement has not only helped to preserve our biosphere but
it also inculcates social and political awareness among women and men as well.
Due to continuing deforestation we are faced with a major ecological and
socio-economic crisis. T o reverse this trend of deforestation a National Wastelands
Development Board was established in May, 1985, with the aim of b~ingingunder
productive use wastelands in the country through a massive programme of
afforestation and tree'planting. While doing so, it was aimed at restoring the
disturbed ecological balance and providing employment opportunities in rural areas.
It was thought that this would lead to development of afforestation movement.
Initially this programme was taken up with the object of bringing five million hectares
of land every year under fuelwood and fodder plantations.
--
 The first major source of fuelwood can be our farm lands, and the second major ' Types of Ecosystems :

source of fuelwood can be the vast tract of barren and wastelands amounting to nearly 1 Terrestrial Ecosystems
80 million hectares, which are idle at the moment. It includes about one million
hectares along the country's roads, rail lines, canals and drains. This entire land may
not be available for tree planting as large areas have,been encroached upon for
various purposes. Even if 15 per cent of the country's barren and wastelands can be
planted with fuelwood species, there would be 12 million hectares of land under
fuelwood plantations. These lands would yield about another 96 million tonnes of
fuelwood per annum, assuming an annual yield of eight tonnes per hectare.
Two biomass research centres set up by the Department of Science and Technology,
at the National Research Institute, Lucknow and at Kamraj University, Madurai, are
investigating to identify tree species that can give high yields in saline and alkaline
soils. For example, in the Kutch disrict of Gujarat, with a total area of 3.2million
hectares of barren and uncultivable land, energy plantations of prosopis and other
species can be easily raised.

Exploitation of our forests for commercial purposes and for food and fodder cannot
be stopped completely because of symbiotic relationship between forest and
mankind. However, c~mmercialexploitqtion can be minimised and illegal smuggling
of .forest assets can be curbed and put to an end by effective laws in this behalf.
The early forest legislation, namely, Forest Act of 1927 was aimed at preservation of
forest and eco-balancing. This legislation which had its origin in old British colonial
era looked at forest as a source of revenue and not as a decisive elements in
environmental preservation. The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 and Forest
(Conservation) Act of 1980 are steps in this direction. The objective of this Act is to
restrain the use of forest for non-forest purpose, which reveals that the law only
regulates, and does not totally prohibit forest destruction.
After studying the variou~aspects with regard to importance of forest, we will discuss
the human pressure on forests and the extent of deforestation.

7 . 3 3 Deforestation and its Causes

Indiscriminate felling of trees as a result of urbanisation, industrialisation, mining
operations, and use of wood for domestic and other purposes, have caused heavy
depletion of forests as snown in Table 7.1. India, alone is losing more than 1.5 million
hectares of good forest cover.eact1 year. If the present state of depletion is allowed
t o continue unabated,, the country will be heading towards nightmarish situation of
zero forest in about 20 years. Also all the tropical forests in the world will probably
disappear in next 50 to 75 years.

Table 7.1 Diversion of Forest Land for Non-forest Purposes

Year Losr of Forest land (hectares)

1980 Nil
1981 2,672.04
1982 3;246.54
1983 5,702.01
1984 7,837.59
1985 10.608.07
1986 11,963.11
1987 73,780.50
1988 18,765.35
1989 20,365.05

India is'losing forests at an extremely rapid rate. The data released in mid 1984 by
the National Remotk Sensing Agency (NRSA) shov& that India lost 1.3 million
hectarks of forests every year in the approximateiy seven year period between 1972-75
to 1980-82.
The NRSA study classifies the forest cover into tllree categones (Table 7.2) : closed
forests, open or degraded forests and mangrove forests. Closed forests diminished
Emsystem : Functioning and Types from 14.12 per cent to 10.96 per cent, degraded forests increased from 2.67 per cent
to 3.06 per cent and mangrove forests decreased from 0.099 per cent to 0.081 per
cent. Thus, during the two periods india lost 10.4 million hectares of closed forests
and 63,000 hectares of mangroves and 1.29 million hectares of closed forests got
converted into degraded forests.

Table 7.2 Vital Forest Statistics

Type of Forests 1972-75 1980-82

Forest cover (million hectare)

Closed forests (million hectare)
Open forests (million hectare)
Mangrove forests (million hectare)
Forest cover (% of total land area)

The problem of deforestation is one of the main environmental problems facing the
country. There are various reasons attributed to this phenomenon of deforestation.
The indiscriminate deforestation)^ agricultural practices, land mining, road
construction, etc., which result not only in an immediate loweriqg of ground water
level, but also In long-term dim~nishingot ramfall. Forests recycle moisture back into
their immediate atmosphere by transpiration where it again precipitates as rain. Due
to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is broken and water is lost through rapid run
off. Forests are also necessary to check the floods and soil erosion and are important
for wildlife, human recreation, ftesh air and water sheds.
Much of the mining activity in India is being carried out in forest regions. The obvious
result is deforestation and erosion. Underground mining also significantly denudes
forests because timber is used for supporting the roofs of mine galleries. In Goa,
mining leases are spread over 43 per cent of.the forest area. Because mining leases
do nbt bind the mine owners to undertake any soil conservation measures o r refill
the worked over mines, a larie number of abandoned mines are lying in bad shape
and are under extensive gully erosion.

7.3.4 Consequences of Deforestation

' T h e destrucbon of natural vegetation cover callyes the loss of top soil. It is virtually
irreplaceable and takes nature, 1OOO years to build 2.5 cm. of topsoil. 12000 million
tonnes of India's top soil is washing down the rivers every year, skimming 15 cm. of
soil off 1,000 lakh hectares due to deforestation and run off. The country loses
300-500 lakh tdnnes of foodgrains every year as a result of soil erosion. The entire
Himalayan ecosystem is threatened with severe imbalances as snow-lines have
thinned and perennial springs have dried up. Rajasthan's alreafly poor land is getting
further degraded, turning large portion of the state into wasteland. Chronic drought
conditions occur in areas like Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh where they were
unknown. '
Deforestation results not only in an immediate lowering nfg~oundwaterlevels but
also in long-term lowering of raintall. Forests recycle molsture back into their
immediate atmosphere by transpiration where it again falls as rain. Due to
deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is broken and water is lost rapidly as run off.

7.3.5 Social Forestry and Forest Conservation

Social forestry is a term used by the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 to
denote tree-raising programmes to supply firewood, fodder, small timber and minor
forest produce to rural populations. Social forestry programmes have mainly three
components; -a) farm forestry, encouraging farmerq to ~ l a ntrees
t on their nwn farm.
by distributing tree or subsidised seedlings, b) wood lots planted by the tolest
departments for the needs of the community, especially along roadside, canal banks
and other such public lands, and c ) community wood lots planted by the communities
themselves on community lands, to be shared equally by them.
Social forestry .programmes have been launched by several states to promote
afforestatiqn 9essentially non-forest lands that is, on private farms and village
 Types of Ecosystems :
comtnons. Several state governments in our country have stepped up thier own 1 Terreslrial Ecosystems
afforestation efforts and are also planning to hand over large tracts of degraded
government forests lands to industrial firms for afforestation.
Since 1976, social forestry programmes have been taken up in Bastar, Madhya
Pradesh. Derelict patches of forests near villages are being rehabilitated by planting
fruit and other economically valuable species. In 1983 a new approach to social
torestry was taken up in Bastar, 4s well as in other parts of Madhya Pradesh. Under'
the Hitagrahi scheme, the 60 poorest families of a village were selected, and each
given a hectare of derelict land for growing fruit trees. The forest department
provides saplings, fencing and any other required materials. Thus the incentive given
to the landless farmers by the forest department has brought about tremendous
increase in social forestry.
I
Certain forest conservation and management processes have to be employed in the
forests to maintain them. To get the desired quality of timber or pulp for paper
I
industry, monoculture forests of fast growing trees such as poplars, ~ e r t a i nconifer,
teak and eucalyptus have been cultivated by man. Existing forests are strongly
manipulated in 0rde.r to increase their yield of desired benefits. It includes weeding
(the elimination of species which might compete with the seedlings of the desired
species), thinning (eradication of individuals of the same species) and brashing
1 (removal of leafless lower branches especially in cpnifers). Chemical technology may
be applied to forestry to control insect parasit&,dnd pathogenic fungi. Forest
Management also includes the controlling of forest fire. Silviculture is a branch of
forestry which is concerned with the establishment, development, care and
reproduction of monocultures of-valuable timber trees such as teak, sal, sheesham.
kel etc.
Ecosptem :Funchhg and Types
7.4 GRASSLANDS
The grassland 6iome is found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, not enough
to support a forest, but more than. that of a true desert. Typical grasslands are
vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates. In India, they
are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India's grasslands are mainly
composed of steppes and savannas. Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy
and saline soil; in western Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid, average rainfall
is less than 200 mm a year with a dry season of 10 to 11 months, and a large variation
in rainfall. he soil is always exposed, sometimes rocky but more often sandy with
fixed or mobile dunes. Forage is available only during the brief wet season. The grass
layer is sparse and consists mainly of annual grass species.
In the centrpl and eastern parts of Rajasthan, where the rainfall is about 500 mm per
year and the dry season is of six to eight months, dry savanna grazing ecosystems
have deve1bped. The light shade cast by the sparse population of trees like Prosopis
cineraria favours the growth of the grasses which in the best-watered areas can reach
up to a Height .of 100 cm to 120 cm.
The majbr difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in the steppe
is provided.only during the brief wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely
from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also from th'e smaller
amount of regrowth in the dry season.
Under heavy grazing pressure, the quality of grasslands also deteriorates rapidly. In
arid to semi-arid tracts, active growth of vegetation is triggered each year by the
advent of the monSoon during June or early July. The biomass increases to its peak
value around September to October. Fruiting is completed by September and
subsequently the plants dry up: 'In subtropical parts of northern India which receive
winter rains, there is usually a second flux of growth in December and January.

7.4.1 Types of Grasslands

(Erasslands exist in both temperate and tropical regions where rainfall is relatively
low or uneven. Based on climatic conditions there are six types of grasslands found
in the different regions of the Indian subcontinent (Fig.7.3). Here we will discuss only
four major types of grasslands.

SEHIMA-DICHAN

DICHAN -CENC.-LASI.

PHRAG.-SACCH -IMP

i THEM.-ARUND.
I
I

6 MIXED ZONE OF 1 8 3

Fig. 7.3 : Types of grazing land

 y of p~cosistems:
1) The Sehima-dichanthium type covers the whole of peninsular India (dry subhurnid ~
1 Termtrial Ecosystems
zone except Nilgiri). The thorny bushes of the savanska range land, are Acacia
catechu, Mimosa rubicaulis, Zizyphus and sometimes fleshy Euphorbia, along
with low trees of Anogeissus latifolia, Soymida febrifuga and other deciduous
species. The floristic list includes 24 perennial grasses and 129 other herbaceous
species of which 56 are legumes. Sehima is more prevalent on gravel and the
cover may be 27%. Dichanthium flourishes on level soils and may cover 80% of
the ground.
2) The Dichanthium-cenchrus-lasitrrus type (semi-arid zone) extends to the northern
portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh,
Delhi and Punjab. The topography is broken up by hill spurs and sand dunes.
Eleven perennial grasses: 45 other herbaceous species (including 19 of the
leguminosae) are listed. T o this list may be added shrubby, growth of Acacia
senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora
oloides and zizyphus Nummularia which make the savanna rangeland look like
scrub.
3) The Phragmities-sacchrum-imperata type (moist subhumid zone) covers the
~ a n alluvial
~ a plain in Northern India. The topography is level, low lying and
ill-drained. There are 19 principal grass species and 56 other herbaceous ones
including 16 legumes. Bothriochloa pertusa, Cypodon dactylon and Dichanthium
annulatum are found in transition zones. The common trees and shrubs are
Acacia arabica, ~hogeissus,latifolia, Butea monosperma, Phoenic sylvestris and
Zizyphus nummularia. Some of these are replaced by Borassus sp in the palm
savannas especially near Sunderbans.
4) The Themeda - Arundinella grass cover extends to the humid montane regions
and moist sub-humid axeas of Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. The savanna is derived
from the humid forests.on account of shifting cultivation and sheep grazing.
7.4.2 Economic Importance
After the land, people and cattle, the second major component of the grazlng
ecosystem is the vegetation. Its herbaceobs layer and non-ligneous ojgans of the
woody shrubs and trees constitute the fodder. The richness of the fodder depends
upon its chemical constituents especially protein and minerals like phosphorus,
potassium and calcium, lignin, silica, etc. The young and g e e n succulent shoots of
grasses and forbs of the leguminosae family, constituting the ground cover or the
lower stratum of grazing land, provide the best choice for grazing material.
I n d a teems with animals of all shapes and sizes from the lumbering black buffaloes
to the ever nervous sheeps and there are millions of them. India with just a fortieth
of the total land area of the world supports more than half of its buffaloes, 15 per
cent of its cattles, 15 per cent of its goats and 4 per cent its sheeps. The livestock
wealth plays aerucia/,role in Indian life; it is a major source of fuel, draught power,
nutrition and raw material for village industries. ,But this huge mass of livestock needs
fodder for sustenance while there is not enough of it. Only about 13 million hectares
in the country are classified as permanent grazing lands. On top of it, they exist in a
highly degraded state. The animals scrounge,for whatever they can get on millions of
hectares of fallow and uncultivated land and unkltivable wastelands, as well 36
million hectares of tropical forest lands. In all, almost all accessible vegetation in
more than half the total land area of the country is grazed by livestock -which snap
up almost everything except non-palatable weeds.
Grassland biomes are important to maintain the crop of many dbmesticated and wild
herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer,
zebra, etc. which provide food, milk, wool, hide or transportation to man.
In India, most of the grasslands represent the serial stages in succession and they are
not maintained by grazing and fire. However, they would develop into forest
communities. A team of scientists at Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research
Institute, Jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur, is mainly
entrusted with such responsibility. Some species are more palatable to the -
livestock and are very sensitive to grazing and thus overgrazing usually results in their
disappearance from the area. Now some unpalatable weeds and shrubs start to grow
and turn the area into man-made desert.
Overgrazing has certain other ecological effects -the mulch cover of the soil reduces
microc~imatebecomes more dry andis'readily invaded by xerophytic plants. D u e to
absence of humus cover, mineral soil surface is heavily trampled when wetness
produces puddling of the surface layer, which in turmeduces the i~filtrationof watei
into the soil and accelerates its run off, producing drought. These changes contribute
to the reduction or the rate of energy flow, and the disruption of the stratification
and periodicity of the primary producers results in a breakdown of the
biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon and nitrogen. Water and wind erosion
completely breakdown a very dry grassland microclimate. Further, intensive grazing
results in increaged areas of bare soil, which creates a new habitat for burrowing .
animals such as mice, jack-rabbits, gophers, prairie dogs, locusts etc., which render
large areas of forage lands sterile.
In the management of grasslands, fir,e plays an important role. .Under moist
conditions fire favours grass over trees whereas in dry conditions fire is often
necessary to maintain grasslands against the invasion of desert shrubs. Burning of
Cynodon daotylon increases forage yields.
Thus you can realise the importance of the grassland and now after having read about
this biome you would like to know what desert biome is and wftere it-occurs? But
-.before that you try SAQ.

SAQ 4
Write answer of the following questions in the space provided.
1) Where does t.he grissland' biome occur?

2) Where do dry savanna grazing ecosysteins develop?

3) State the one major difference between steppes and savanna.

4) How does overgrazing affect ecology of that area?

-7.5 DESERTS
Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall, or sometimes
in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed in the annual
cycle. Lack of rain in the mid latitude is often due to stable high pressure zones;
deserts in temperate regions often lie in "rain shadows", that is, where high
mountains block off moisture from the seas. These areas thus receive meagre rainfall.
Along with low rainfall there are fluctuations in temperature. The climate of these
biomes is mbdified by altitude and latitude. At high altitudes and at greater distance
from the equator the deserts are cold hot as in other places. Deserts are found in
Australia, Arabia, Turkestan and Argentina. Thar desert in Western India and
Pakistan, Gobi desert of Mongolia, South Africa, Iran are also well known deserts.
The perennial plant species like creosote bush (covillea),inesquite organ cactus, Types of Ecosystems :
1 TemsMal Ecosystems
fetrocactus are scattered throughout the desert biomes. In shallow depressed areas
with salt deposits (sarcobatus), geesewood, seepwood and salt grasses are common.
The annuals wherever present germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short
rainy season, and not in summer and winter. This is an adaption to desert condition.
Animals such as reptiles and some insects are adapted to aeserts, because their
impervious integuments 'and dry excretions enable them to get along on the small
amount of water. Mammals as a groyp are poorly adapted to deserts but some species
have become secondarily adapted. A few species of nocturnal rodents, for example,
excrete very concentrated urine and do not use water fdr temperature regulation, and
can live in the desert without drinking water. Other animals such as camel must drink
periodically but are physiologically adapted to withstand tissue dehydration for
appreciably long periods of time.
Because water is the dominant iimiting factor, the productivity of a given desert is
almost directly dependent on the rainfall. Where soils are suitable, irrigation can
convert deserts into some of our most productive agricultural land. Whether
productivity is continuous or is only a tcpporary 'bloom' depends on how well man
is able to stabilise biogeochemical cycles and energy flow at the increased irrigation
rates. As the large volume of water passes through the irrigation system, salts may
be left behind that will gradually accumulate over the years until they become '
limiting, unless meansaf akoiding this difficulty a& devised.

7.5.1 Desertification
What is deseqification? It is 'the diminution or destructionof the biological potential
of the land which can ultimately lead to desert like conditions'. In arid and semiarid
regions, where restoration sf the'fragile ecosystem is very slow, mining adds
significantly to other desertification pressures.
Seven thousand years ago the Thar desert received abundant rainfall, hosted shrubs
and trees including the jamun, was crisscrossedwith rivers and lakes and was home
of a thriving civilisation. Today, however, it is a barren desert. There have been
expressed feark that the Thar is spreading. But the main problem facedby this desert
area which stretches across parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana, is
desertification in areas khere there was some vegetation.
Recognised as a worldwide envi~onmentalproblem, desertification threatens the
future of about 628 milli~npeople around the world. 'An areadtwicethe size of
Canada -or 20 million sq km -is in imminent danger of being turned into a desert.
The cause of this process is not climatic changes, droughts, etc. but human actions.
Increase in population and lack of alternative employment opportunities have left the
people living in the Thar with no choice but to continue grazing cattle evenZin its
inhospitable conditiobs. The Thar desert has seen unprecedented growth qn it$
population in the last 70 years -from 3.57 million in 1901to 10.24 millioi w 1 @ I :
A commensurate rise in the cattle population has put unbearable prebsurc on the
restricted grazing area that exjsts in the desert. In 20 yearsthe cattle population shot
up.from 10.27 million in 1951 to 16.44 million in 1971. Additionally there has been
an increase of 25.3% in the net sown area between 1951-71, therefore, decreasing
tne grazing lands. Development activities such as road building, urbanisation, canal
and rail track construction have increased leading to a further spread of the desert.
Deforestation - in this case the felling of few trees that exist for fuel - has also
added to the overall thrust of the desert.

According to studies conducted by the Central Arid Zone Research Institute

(CAZRI) in Jodhpur, 9,290 sq km or 4.35% of western Rajasthan has already been
desertified and a furthei 76.15% on 1,62,900 sq. km is vulnerable to desertification.
The Thar desert already covers 3,17,000 sq. km and supports a population of 19
million, a density of 61 persons per sq. km compared to three persons per sq. km in
arid regions elsewhere in the world -making it probably the most densely populated
desert in the world.
Unless swiftconservation measures are taken and proper employment oppor,tunitia
are found for the local people, the increasing density of the human and cattle
population in this desert area will inexorably lead to further desertification.
Functioning and ~ y p e s 7.5.2 Indian Deserts
The Indian desert forms the east end of the greatest desert district of the world,
extending from the Atlantic coast of Africa including the Sahara, part of Arabia,
South Persia and Baluchistan. The climate of this region is characterised by excessive
drought, the rainfall being scanty and irregular. The winter rains of northern India
rarely penetrate into the region, and there is thus only rainy season. The cold season
starts from about the middle of November to the middle of arch. This season is
characterised by extreme variations of temperature and the temperature is frequently
below freezing point at night. During April, May and June the heat is intense, trying
and scorching winds prevail with great dessicating action being frequent. The relative
humidity of the atmosphere is always low.
A considerable portion of Western Rajasthan is covered by blown sand chiefly
consisting of well-ground quartz grains, but also flakes of horn blonde and felspar,
as well as fragments of the local rocks. In addition, grains of carbonate of lime have
been found, some of which are casts of minute foraminifera, proving that some of
the sand, at least, has been carried by the wind from the distant hills in Kutch. The
action of the wind on the sand results in the formation of dunes of yariqils shapes
(Fig7.4). Where a dune is advancing, its leeward slopes are invariably steep and
without v'egetation, if the motion is rapid enough. Another characteristic action of
the wind on the surface of the sand is the sorting of the sand particles, resulting in
the formation of wind ripples. Where these ripples are formed they have constant
forward motion as long as the wind is strong enough. Under such circumstances,
germination of seeds is impossible.

Fig. 7.4 : Formation of sand dunes of various shapes

Now it is clear that the climate of Indian desert is hostile to all vegetation, only plants
possessing special adaptations being able to establish themselves. These adaptations
are in general of two types, having two distinct objects in view : to enable the plant
to obtain water, and to retain it when obtained. The bulk of the vegetation consists
of a kind of scrub made up of shrubs and perennial herbs, capable of great drought
resistance. There are a few trees and theseare stunted and generally thorny or prickly,
thus protecting themselves against plant feeding animals. Of the latter, there are vast
herds of camels, cattles, sheep and goats, forming the chief wealth of the rural
population, and appearing to thrive in spite of the arid nature of the desert.
The proper desert plants may be divided into two main groups. Those depending
directlv rlnon rain 2nd thwe depending on the presence of subterranean water.
The first group consists of two types: the 'ephernerals' and the .rain perennials'. The
ephernerals arc delicate annuals, apparently free from any xerophilous adaptations,
having slender stems and root-systems and often .large flowers. They appear almost Types of Ecosystems : '
1 Terrestrial Eeosystems
imhediately after rain, develop flowers and fruits in an incredibly short time, and die
as soon as the surface layer of the soil dries up. The rain perennials are visible above
the ground only during the rainy season, but have a perennial underground stem.
Bulbous monocotyledons of which Dipcadi erythroeum is a representative from this
region, and also various cyperaceae grow. By far the largest number of indigenous.
plants are capable of absorbing water from deep below the surface of the ground by
means of a well-developed root system, the main part of which generally consists of
a slender, woody tap root of extraordinary length. Generally, various other
xerophilous adaptations are resorted to such as reduced leaves, thick hairy growth,
succulence, coatings of wax, thick cuticle, protected stomata, etc., all having for their
object a reduction of transpiration. The plants belonging to this category are more
or less woody perennials. A few annuals occur, however, such as the rare Monsonia
heliotropiodes.
Among reptiles there occur two species of testudines (Loricata), 18 species of lizards,
and 18 species of snakes, of the lizards, some species like Calotes versicolor,
Uromastix dardwickii are predatory on the desert locust inhabiting localised areas in
Thar desert. Among predominant predatory birds are two species of the vultures,
namely, Gyps bengalensis and the white vulture, Neophron.
The mammalian fauna of Indian deserts includes many species, some of which are
rat-tailed bat, long5r hedgehog, Indian hairy-footed gerbil, wild boar, jungle cats,
panthers, etc
E e o s ~ : ~ d T y p s
7.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt that :
Biomes are recognisable community units formed as a result of interaction of
regional climates with regional substrate. Some of the biomes are recognised as
forest biome, desert biome, grassland biome.
Grassland biome is found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm every year. Grassland
biomes are important to maintain the crop of many domesticated and wild
herbivores such as horse, buffaloes, camels, deers, zebras, which provide food,
milk; wool, leather, transportation to man.
Forests occupy approximately 40% of the land. The forest biomes are classified'as
coniferous forest, temperate deciduous forest, temperate evergreen woodland
forest, temperate rain forest, tropical rain forest, tropical seasonal forest,
iub-tropical forest etc.
The data released by NRSA in 1984 s h ~ w e dthat India'lost 1.3 million hectares of
forest every year.
Social forestry is a tree-rais~ngprogramme to supply firewood, fodder, small
timber and minor forest produce to rural population.
The Chipko Movement-the movement to hug trees is a grassroot
eco-development movement.
Desert biomes occupy 17OI0 of land occurring in the regions with annual rainfall of
less than 25 cm.
Desertification the process of the diminution o r destruction of the biological
potential of land that can ultimately lead to desert like conditions.

7.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS '

1) Describe a biome and state the changes brought about by destruction of forest
biome in global ecology.

.........................................................................................................
2) Explain the ways in which the social forestry benefits ~ r a masses.
l

.........................................................................................................

3) State the ways through which deforestation can be checked.

4) What do you understand by 'Chipko Movement'? State your opinion with regard
to contribution it has made in checking the felling of the trees.

5) State why maintenance of grassland biome is essential in our country.

 Types of Ecmy-m : ,

1 Ternstrid Ecosystems
.........................................................................................................
6) Describe how the Thar deserts have been formed.

7.8 ANSWERS

i A biome is a large community unit characterised by the kinds of plants and

animals present.
ii)\ l'he terrestnal and even some aquatic ecosystems are considered as gradients
of communities and environments on a world scale. Such gradients of
ecosystems are called ecolines.
iii) There are three major types of biomes such as forests, grasslands and desem.

SAQ 2
i) Biotic communities
ii) Deciduous
I iii) Equator
iv) Economic background
v). Forest and mankind
vi) Closed forests, openeordegraded forests and mangrove forests
vii) Run oft

SAQ 3
i) ', The destruction of forest cover causes (a) loss of top soil, (b) soil erosion, '
(c) perennial springs to have dried up. (d) chronic drought conditions.
(e) lowering ground water levels and in long-term lowering of rainrall,
(f) disruption of natural cycle, (g) floods, etc.
ii) Social {orestry.isa.tree raising programmes'to supply firewoo$, fodder, small
timber and minor forest produce tb rural populations.
SAQ 4
1) The grassland biome occurs where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, not
enough to support forest.
2) In places where the rainfall is about 500 mm per year and the dry season is of
6 8 months dry savanna grazing ecosystems develop.
3) The major difference between steppes 2na savanna is that all the forage in the
steppe is provided only d y n g the brief wet season whereas in the savanna
forage is largely from grasses that grow only during the wet season but also
from the smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.
4) Overgrazing causes reduction of the mulch cover, microclimate becomes dry
and is readily invaded by xerophytic plants. Besides, due f o absence of humid
cover, mineral soil surface is heavily trainpled when root produces puddling
of the surface layer, which in turn reduces the infiltration of water into the soil
and accelerates its run off, causing drought.

SAQ 5
i) c
ii) b
! iii) d
iv) c
I) i \;i- bionie refer t o answer I of SAQ 1 . T h c destruction of natural cover causes
the loss of t o p soil. T h c entirc Himalayan ecosystem is threatened due t o thinning
of snow lines and drying up of springs. Because of deforestation the natural reuse
cycle is broken and water is lost rapidly through run off. Deforestation causes
floods. soil erosion and changes thc climate. Thus deforestation can change
global ecology.
2 ) Thc main aim of the social forestry is t o supply firewood. fodder. small timber
and minor forest produce to rural populations. Social forestry programmes have
mainly three components. (a) farm forestry t o encourage farmers t o plant trees
on their own farms (b) woodlots planted by the forest departments for the needs
of'the community particularly along road side, canal banks and other such lands
(c) community woodlots planted by the communities themselves o n community
land to be shared equally by them.
3) Deforestation can be checked by enacting effective laws and gearing up
awareness among masses. Chipko Movement is as a result of mass awareness
towards environment.
4) T h e movement t o hug trees is a grassroot ecodevelopment 'movement. You have
t o write your opinion whether this movement has significantly checked the
deforestation o r it has been mere slogan.
5 ) India teems with animals. T h e livestock wealth plays a crucial role in Indian life.
But this huge mass of livestock needs fodder for sustenance. Therefore, grassland
biomes are important t o maintain crop of many domestic and wild herbivores
such as horse. mule. ass, cow, sheep, goat. buffalo,camel.etc. D u e t o overgrazing
microclimate becomes dry, reduces t h e infiltration of water into the soil and
accelerates its run off: producing drought.
6) Seven thousand years ago, Thar desert received abundant rainfall. hosted shrubs
and trees including J a m u n , was crisscrossed with rivers and lakes. Today it is a
barren desert. T h e cause of this desertification is not climatic changes, drought.
etc. but human actions which include deforestation. overgrazing by cattles, etc.