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2-D ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY INVESTIGATION OF SOLID
WASTE DUMPSITE AT GONIN-GORA, KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA.
BY
ASUERIMEN MIKEB.Sc. (ABU 2008)
M.Sc./SCIEN/00821/2009-2010
BEING A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL,
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY,
ZARIA, NIGERIA.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN APPLIED
GEOPHYSICS
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.
MAY, 2014.
i
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that:
The research work presented in this thesis entitled “2-D ELECTRICAL

RESISTIVITY INVESTIGATION OF SOLID WASTE DUMPSITE AT
GONIN-GORA, KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA”,hasbeen performed by me
in the Department of Physics under the supervision ofDr. A.L. AHMED and
Dr. K.M. LAWAL.
The information derived from the literature has been duly acknowledged in
the text anda list of references provided. No part of this research thesis was
previously presented foranother degree or diploma at any university.
ASUERIMEN, Mike
--------------------------------------- ----------------------------- -------------------------
Name of student Signature Date
ii
CERTIFICATION
This research thesis entitled “2-D ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

INVESTIGATION OF SOLID WASTE DUMPSITE AT GONIN-GORA,
KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA”,by ASUERIMEN Mike meets the
regulations governing the award of degree ofMasters of Science (M.Sc.) of
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and is approved for itscontributions to
knowledge and literary presentation.
------------------------------------------- ………………………… --------------------
Chairman, Supervisory Committee Signature Date
Dr. A.L. AHMED
------------------------------------------- …………………… ………………
Member, Supervisory Committee Signature Date
Dr. K.M. LAWAL
----------------------------------------------- ---------------------- ………………
Head of Department Signature Date
Dr. U. SADIQ
------------------------------------------------ ------------------- ……………...
Dean, Postgraduate School Signature Date
Prof. A. A. JOSHUA
iii
DEDICATION
This research thesis is dedicated to the Almighty God for His guidance,
provision and all His goodness throughout the programme. This research
thesis is also dedicated to my parents MR. and MRS. ASUERIMEN.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I express my sincere thanks and appreciation to God

Almighty for His countless blessings upon me and for enabling me to achieve
this important milestone in my life.
Thanks to my supervisors,Dr. A.L. AHMED and Dr. K.M. LAWAL, I

appreciate your efforts for finding time to go through this work despite your
busy schedule.
To my parents, Mr. and Mrs. ASUERIMEN, and the entire members of my

family, I say thanks to you all for your prayers and support. I am greatly
indebted to you all.
I am also grateful to my Best friend NWOSU LILIAN, for her love, care and
encouragement during the period of my studies. I immensely appreciate you.
The efforts of the following eminent individuals are equally cherished: Dr.
Nasiru Khalid Abdullahi, Dr. C. Collins, Dr. U. Sadiq, Dr. P. Suleand Mr.
Joseph Osumeje, for their immense contributions to the success of this work.
God bless you all.
Special thanks go to my Air Traffic Controller’s (AC-56) course mates, who

encouraged me during the course of my studies and during this research. I
appreciate you all. God bless you all.
Finally, my sincere appreciation goes to Hon Tajudeen Abbas and Family,

Mrs.Okechukwu, Mr. and Mrs. Linus Nwosu,Onwube Joy, Ajele Dele Moses,
MotunrayoEkunseitan, Atebe Pius, Wonah Peters, Abraham Attama, Femi
korogo, Mr. and Mrs. Ike Nwosu, YakubuAttai Gowon, Mr.seunAdegbite,
Yusuf Bah Abubakar and most importantly, my Love LilianNwosu. You are
all wonderful. God bless you.
That a name is not mentioned here is not meant to disregard many others that
contributed in whatever form, but the omission is as a result of space
constraint, please pardon me and thank you all.
v
ABSTRACT
Leachate effluence from refuse dumpsite is an important source of soil and

groundwater pollution. Consequently, assessing the impact of Leachate is an
active area of soil and groundwater research. 2-D Electrical Resistivity imaging
survey was carried out at a dumpsite in Gonin-Gora area of Kaduna State, with
the aim of determining how accurately electrical measurements could delineate
the influx of leachate into soil and groundwater. A modern and state-of-the-art
field instrument, the ABEM Automatic LUND Imaging System (Terrameter
SAS 1000 and ES 464), produced by ABEM instrument AB, wasused to
accomplish this task. This uses multi-core cables with takeouts at 2m intervals,
having a total of 42 electrodes covering a spread of 200m. Six profiles were
covered and the data were processed to display the variations of electrical
resistivities using the RES2DINV software. Four of the profiles were inside the
dumpsite while two profiles were outside the dumpsite.Also, one Vertical
Electrical Sounding (VES) was conducted inside the dumpsite with thesame
ABEM TerrameterSAS 1000,and was interpreted using computer software
(IPI2win) which gives an automatic interpretation of the apparent resistivity
data.The results of this survey in correlation with a Borehole log of the area
revealed three layers: The topsoil, which consists ofreddish brown lateritic and
sandy clay, has resistivity values between 8Ωm and 850Ωm and its
thicknessvaries between 0.01 m to 7.00 m. The second layer is the weathered
basement, and has resistivity values between 150Ωm and 940Ωm. Its thickness
ranges between 2.00 m to 16.00 m. The resistivity of the fresh crystalline
basement which forms the third layer ranges between 820Ωm to 4000Ωm. The
2D Inversion delineated contamination plumes as low resistivity zones with
resistivity values ranging between 1Ωm and 27Ωm, from the ground surface to
vi
varying depths of 0-3 m in profile 1 and profile 4, believed to be leachate
derived from decomposed waste of higher concentrations, while profile
2,profile 3 and profile 6 delineated contamination plumes withresistivity zones
ranging between 100Ωm to 200Ωm, from the ground surface to varying depths,
believed to be leachate from decomposed wasteof lower concentrations.There
was no evidence of topsoil or groundwater contamination as revealed by the
inversion model in profile 5.The VES data revealed that the area has a shallow
aquifer of about 4m, indicating that the topsoil as shown in all the profiles
except profile 5, and the groundwater in profiles 3 and profile 6 are
contaminated.A comparison ofthe measured apparent resistivity pseudosection
and the calculated apparent resistivitypseudosection resulted in a reasonably
good agreement with the inverse model resistivity section.
The study area has a shallow depth to Basement of 1.30m and a depth to water
table of about 4m.The inverse model revealed weak zones which could be
interpreted as fractures, which aid in the migration of the leachate as shown in
profile 3 and profile 6.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
TITLE PAGEi
DECLARATIONii
CERTIFICATIONiii
DEDICATIONiv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTv
ABSTRACTvi
TABLE OF CONTENTSviii
LIST OF TABLESxi
LIST OF FIGURESxii
CHAPTER ONE1
INTRODUCTION1
1.1General overview1
1.2Location of the Study Area3
1.3Climate, Relief and Vegetation6
1.4Hydrogeology of the Study Area6
1.5Geomorphology of the Study Area7
1.6Aim and Objectives of the Study8
1.7Justification8
viii
CHAPTER TWO9
LITERATURE REVIEW9
2.1Previous Geophysical and Geological Investigations in the Study Area9
2.2 General Geology of the Study Area11
2.3 Factors controlling the risk of groundwater contamination14
2.4 Importance of Electrical Imaging 14
CHAPTER THREE16
METHODOLOGY16
3.1 Introduction16
3.2 Field-work Planning17
3.3 Choice of the Method19
3.4 Field Procedure22
3.5 Typical Resistivity values of Earth Materials24
3.6 Theory of Direct current Resistivity method28
3.7 PrinciplesandInstrumentation32
3.8 The ABEM Lund Imaging System34
CHAPTER FOUR38
FIELD RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION38
4.1 Introduction38
4.2 Data Processing39
ix
4.3 Interpretation Technique44
4.4 Geological Control44
4.5 Geologic Section from Borehole Data45
4.6 Typical Resistivity Values from Previous Works 46
4.7 Field Results49
4.7.1 PROFILE 151
4.7.2 PROFILE 2 51
4.7.3 PROFILE 3 54
4.7.4 PROFILE 4 54
4.7.5 PROFILE 5 57
4.7.6 PROFILE 6 57
4.8 Vertical Electrical Sounding Data 60
CHAPTER FIVE62
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS62
5.1 Discussion 62
5.2 Conclusions64
5.3 Recommendations 66
REFERENCES67
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Applicability of Different Resistivity and Induced Polarization

methods 15
Table 4.1:A Borehole Lithology of Gonin-Gora46
Table 4.2: Typical Resistivity values compiled from previous works46
Table 4.3: Typical Resistivity values of rock materials47
Table 4.4: Resistivity values adopted for this work 48
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Google image of the Study Area.4
Figure 1.2: Dumpsite Showing its Surface Compositions (Photograph)5
Figure 2.1: Outline Geological Map of Nigeria (modified after Ajibadeet al.,
1989)12
Figure 3.1: Google image of the dumpsite showing profile lines18
Figure 3.2: The steps used to increase the depth of investigation by (a) Wenner
array and (b) Schlumberger array 20
Figure 3.3: Arrangement of data points in the pseudosections for (a)

Wennerarray (b) Schlumberger array21
Figure 3.4: A Typical Range of Resistivities of Geological Materials (ABEM

Instruction Manual)26
Figure 3.5: Schlumberger Electrode Array30
Figure 3.6: ABEM LUND Imaging System together with Terrameter SAS 1000
and ES 464 used for Electrical Resistivity Tomography36
xii
Figure 4.1: Arrangement of the blocks used in a model together with the datum
points in the pseudosection (RES2DINV)43
Figure 4.2: The result of 2D inversion of the Schlumberger-array data along

profile 152

profile 253

profile 355

profile 456

profile 558

profile 659
Figure 4.8: VES result from the field data61
xiii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General overview
Wastes, which are described here as materials that result from an activity or
process, but have no immediate economic value or demand and must be
discarded, have been managed in a way that contaminates water and the
environment. In this area, like in most other areas and cities, wastes are generated
daily and most of the wastes are discarded in improperly situated dumping sites
that are not engineered. The dumping site is located close to residential areas,
markets, farms, roadsides, and others. This threatens the groundwater and road
facilities, not sparing the aesthetics of such affected areas.
The importance of groundwater as a valuable source of portable water cannot be

over emphasized. Groundwater forms the most important natural resources of any
region and compliments surface sources in the provision of portable water for
domestic and industrial applications. The populace is also dependent on the
abundance, fertility and integrity of the soils for agriculture, shelter, and other
economic and industrial activities (Jatau and Ajodo, 2006). Unfortunately, the
qualities of these natural resources have been impaired by the indiscriminate
location of dumpsites without regards to the health of the people and damage to
the environment.
During the peak of the rainy season, dumpsites are covered by flood water and
this contributes to the formation of leachate (water that has percolated through
waste and contains various ions in solution). It is this contaminated liquid
(leachate) that forms a "plume" that moves outwards and downwards into the
surrounding and underlying aquifers (Carpenter et al., 2012). These plumes may
1
contain dissolved Carcinogens such as heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury,
chromium, cadmium, arsenic, etc.), volatile organic compounds (VOCs: benzene,
ethyl benzene, toluene, etc.) and less harmful ions (sodium, calcium, iron,
sulphate, chloride, etc.). A high concentration of chlorine ions in solution
(referred to as chloride), in particular, makes leachate electrically conductive.
Acids dissolved in water (indicated by pH values less than 7) release hydrogen
ions into solution which also enhances electrical conductivity.
Geoelectrical method has been found very suitable for this kind of environmental
study. This is due to the fact that generally, ionic concentration of leachate is
much higher than that of groundwater and so when the leachate enters the
aquifer, it results in a large contrast in electrical properties and the method will
identify these zones as an anomaly which enables the leachate plume to be
detected.
2
1.2 Location of the Study Area
The area under study, Gonin-gora, (Fig. 1.1) in Kaduna State, is located at
kilometer 4 Kaduna-Abuja express way and covers a total area of about 4km2.
The Area is bounded approximately byLatitude 10024’24.54”N
and10026’30.15”N and Longitude 7024’45.12”E and7028’51.22”E.The terrain is
relatively flat and accessible by road. Solid waste from surrounding industries in
the area e.g.Textile, Petrochemicals, Iron and Steel, Breweries, Fertilizer Plants,
Flour Mills, Automobile, Glass Industries, Food and Beverage, form the surface
compositions of the dumpsite (Fig. 1.2).The study area can be reached through
the federal high way of Kaduna – Abuja road.
3
Figure 1.1: Google Image of the Study Area.
4
Figure 1.2: Dumpsite showing its surface compositions (Photograph)
5
1.3 Climate and Vegetation
The area is in the Guinea Savannah climatic belt of Nigeria with distinct dry and
wet seasons. The land surface is covered by vegetation which is typical to the
Savannah grassland characterized by shrub bushes generally less than 3.0m high
and interrupted by large trees. The vegetation assumes various shades of green in
the wet season and turns brown or pale in the dry season. Normally the thick
vegetation cover helps to trap rainwater and prevent severe subsurface run-off
which usually gives rise to high erosion and gullying. The presence of large
vegetation in the area is of advantage in arresting the depletion of groundwater
and reducing the rate of evapotranspiration.Groundwater occurrence in the study
area is, not only a consequence of hydrologic and geologic events, but also of the
climatic (rainfall) conditions. Invasion of two (2) air masses are witnessed here;
the northern air mass that is dry and continental in origin, and the southern air
mass which is moist, this is known to come from the Atlantic.
1.4 Hydrogeology of the Study Area
Exploration for groundwater potential of the study area has not been fully
undertaken. Hence, information related to the magnitude and mode of formation
of the surface water is inadequate. However, in the Basement Complex the
permeability and storability of the groundwater system are dependent on
structural features such as the extent and volume of fractures together with the
thickness of weathering (Clark, 1985;Eduvie, 1998). It has also been discovered
that below the veneer of regolith, the Fresh Basement rock is highly fractured at
shallow and even at great depth. This, according to Eduvie(1998) makes the
basement complex rock, and their derivative to constitute large reservoir of
groundwater. Relative high annual rainfall (1270mm) and temperature of 32 0C in
Kaduna have resulted in the formation of deep weathered zones.Also, high
6
density of fractures has contributed tremendously to good aquifers and high
yields of boreholes (Eduvie, 1998). Geophysical investigation and borehole
drilling report have clearly established two major aquifers. These are the
Overburden weathered aquifer and the Fractured Crystalline aquifer. These
aquifers are characterized by thick overburden found within basement
depressions with maximum value of 65 m and resistivity values between 10Ωm
and 756Ωm (Abdullahiet al., 2014). The Overburden weathered aquifer holds a
great quantity of groundwater hence, most of the hand dug wells are sunk into it
for domestic water supply. At some locations, these aquifers are interconnected
and form a hydrological unit of water table surface.
1.5 Geomorphology of the Area
The main factors that affect the availability of surface water in Kaduna area are
rainfall, temperature, evapo-transpiration, runoff and seepage (Jatau,1998). The
relief of the area range between 370m and 650m (Mamman, 1992; Aboh, 2001).
The drainage system of Kaduna and environs are dominated by the numerous
tributaries to River Kaduna. The major ones include Rafin- Guza, Rigasa, Romi
and Rido. The duration of flow in these streams depends on a number of factors
which include; size of the drainage basin, the permeability of the regolith, the
size of the flood plain and the gradient of land surface. These drain off into the
Kaduna- Niger drainage system (Aboh, 2001).
7
1.6 Aim and Objectives of the Survey
The primary aim of this research is to use 2-dimensional electrical resistivity

imaging techniques to investigate leachate generation and migration paths and the
potential impact on human health and the environment.
The specific research objectives set out include:
• To determine the subsurface geoelectric formations.
. To determine the depth to water table.
• Lithology delineation of the subsurface.
• To detect and map contaminated zones.
1.7 Justification of the Study
The study area is surrounded by many Industries which include; Textiles,

Petrochemicals, Iron and Steel, Breweries, Fertilizer Plants, Flour Mills,
Automobile, Glass Industries, Food and Beverage Industries, etc. Thus, solid,
liquid and gaseous wastes are dumped or discharged into the dumpsite (Fig. 1.2),
which could affect soil and groundwater. The citing of boreholes as the source of
potable water in this area has become a serious challenge. The challenge is
worsened by the fact that there are inadequately trained waste disposal personnel
and equipment, poor waste collection, sorting and disposal methods, and location
of this disposal site without regards to the local geology and hydrogeology of the
area (Jatauand Ajodo, 2006).
As a result of the imminent impact of solid waste on the environment, it has

become necessary to investigate the potential for the contamination of soil and
groundwater around the dumpsite.
8
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Previous Geophysical and Geological Investigations in the Study Area
Amadiet al. (2011) carried out macro and micro-structural strain measurements
on rocks of the areas covering Rijana, SabonKasarami and Wuya situated 43 km
South of Kaduna along Kaduna–Abuja Road. This was done to determine bulk
strain and to interpret correctly the degree and variability of metamorphism as
well as the extent of deformational effects on the rock types resulting from the
different tectono-metamorphic cycles. Observations of the ellipsoidal shapes of
different rock types across the area show progressive grain deformation from the
migmatite and biotite gneiss and fine grained biotite gneiss corresponding to the
west-east strain variation.
Abdullahi (2009) carried out an integrated geophysical technique in the

investigation of groundwater contamination at two waste disposal sites in Kaduna
Metropolis. The result of the research indicated three to four layers in the area
and the resistivity imaging had delineated the leachate plume in the area as low
resistivity zones (6- 33Ωm). Also, the physio-chemical analysis of water samples
from existing hand dug wells indicated contamination of the groundwater as a
result of solid waste leachate accumulation.
Alheriand Jatau (2009) carried out a geophysical survey to determine the

weathered regolith using Seismic Refraction method in some part of Kaduna
South Industrial Area. They concluded from the research that the area had three
to four layers, and that the borehole log of the study area revealed the same
geologic unit with their research.
9
Jatauet al. (2008) carried out a chemical analysis on trace metals in surface and
subsurface water in Kaduna South Industrial area. They concluded from the
research that due to the high percentage of trace metals concentration level that
exceeded the maximum contaminant level accounting for about 73.68% of the
total contaminants and the water within the area was polluted and unfit for
drinking.
Jatau and Ajodo(2006) in their preliminary geo-environmental studies of Kaduna

North Metropolis stated that some wells were slightly acidic. They stated that the
microbial analyses obtained from both ground and surface water samples
contained coli-form bacteria. They further stated that leaches from waste came
into contact with the groundwater through dilution and weathering processes.
Rahaman (1988) carried out a geological survey of some areas within the
Southern part of Kaduna, and he found out that the rocks of the area consisted
mainly of vertically dipping hornblende and biotite gneisses of variable grain
sizes and migmatites. He concluded that unlike the biotite and migmatic gneisses,
the hornblende gneisses formed generally NW – SE dissecting ridges which
werelitho-stratigraphically conformal and parallel to quartzitic ridges. The biotite
displayed alteration rims and elongated spene which occurred in accessory
quantity.
10
2.2 General Geology of the Study Area
The study area lies within the Basement Complex of Nigeria (Figure 2.1). The
Basement Complex includes all rocks older than the late Proterozoic (McCurry,
1976), and is composed mainly of Gneisses, Migmatite, Granites and some
extensive areas of Schist, Phyllites and Quartzites (Preeze and Barber,
1965;Baimba, 1978). According to McCurry (1976), the whole Basement has
undergone at least two Tectono-metamorphic cycles and consequent
metamorphism, migmatization and granitisationhave extensively modified the
rocks so that they generally occur as relict rafts and xenoliths in Migmatiteand
Granites.
11
**
**
Fall within the Basement Complex
Figure 2.1: OUTLINE GEOLOGICAL MAP OF NIGERIA (modified after

Ajibadeet al., 1989)
12
Two groups of granites are present and these are the Older Granites and the
Younger Granites. The Older Granites are widespread and often give rise to
smoothly domed hills which typically rise to about 170m above the surrounding
plains (Russ, 1957). The Younger Granites which include Granites, Syenites and
Rhyolites cover extensive areas in the Plateau province but there are also smaller
masses in Southern Kaduna, Kano and Bauchi provinces. These rocks are hard,
with low permeability and generally not water bearing. The rocks are aquifer
only when they are either weathered or fractured, otherwise they are dry or at
best contain just little amount of water (Olabodeet al., 1999). Over most of the
area underlain by the Basement Complex there is a thin discontinuous mantle of
weathered rocks, mostly pronounced where the topography is subdued. The
average thickness of the mantle is probably of the order of 15m, but in some
areas it may extend to depth of up to 60m (Russ, 1957). The actual depth of the
weathered zone depends on the length of time in which the rocks have been
exposed to surface or near surface conditions and its original minerals. The
interface between weathered and unweathered rocks is usually sharp. Weathering
tends to be particularly well developed along fissure systems, which allow deep
percolation of the weathering agents principally oxygenated water. River systems
can sometimes be a guide to fault lines and associated fissure systems because
they represent lines of weakness for erosion and weathering (Olabodeet al.,
1999).
13
2.3 Factors controlling the risk of groundwater contamination by any
Leachate:
Depth to water table, Concentration of contaminants and Permeability of

Geologic strata:
If the water table depth is high (far away below the ground surface), water will
become partially filtered as it percolate downwards through the soil. If the water
table depth is low (close to the ground surface),contaminants can enter
groundwater directly without filtration by soil.A high concentration of
contaminants in leachate will make groundwater pollution more likely. Also,
highly permeable geologic strata allow leachate to quickly percolate through
receiving little filtration along the way. Strata consisting of relatively
impermeable material such as slit and clay act as natural barrier to leachate and
thus, impede the downward percolation of leachate.
2.4 Importance of Electrical Imaging
Electrical prospecting involves the detection of the surface effects produced by

electrical current flow in the ground. A good number of electrical techniques are
available because of the large variation in the conductivity of earth materials
(rocks and minerals) describing the single property of earth material that varies
over a wide range of the area. Thus, theoretically at least the resistivity methods
are the most superior of all the electrical methods because quantitative results are
obtained using a controlled source of specific dimensions (Telford et al., 1990).
The applicability of the different resistivity methods supported by the ABEM
Terrameter SAS 1000/4000 is summarized in Table 2.1.
14
Table 2.1 Applicability of Different Resistivity and Induced Polarization
Methods.
SP= Self Potential, VES= Vertical Electrical Sounding, Imaging= Profiling

(withdifferent electrode separations) and IP= Induced Polarization, (ABEM
Terrameter SAS 1000 / SAS 4000 instruction manual, 2010).
Object of search or investigation SP VES Imaging IP
Archeological sites *
Dam safety and leakage * *
Groundwater in sedimentary areas *
Fracture zones in rock *
Groundwater in crystalline rock *
Groundwater/clay distinction *
Groundwater flow *
Ores in hard rock areas * * *
Overburden thickness *
Pollution of soil and groundwater *
Salt water invasion *
Fissures in rock *
15
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
In geoelectrical resistivity tomography (near-surface), a large number of

electrodesare inserted into the ground and a computer-based system scans the
whole array, thusrealizing a combined sounding and profiling. If the target in a
proposed survey area isnarrow and extends over a long distance (the 2D case),
the technique effectively investigates a series of depth ranges on a profile line,
resulting in a pseudosection of apparent resistivities.
Tomographic surveys normally employ arrays of electrodes on the surface of the

ground for data collection. The survey technique involves measuring a series of
constant separation traverses with the electrode separation being increased with
each successive traverse. Since increasing separation leads to information from
greater depth, the measured apparent resistivities may be plotted as a contoured
section, which reflects qualitatively the spatial variation in resistivity in the
vertical cross-section. Length of profile, depth of penetration and resolution
required determine the unit electrode spacing.
16
3.2 Field-Work Planning
The field work was accomplished between 3rd of March and 10th of March,
2013, before the start of the rainy season. This period was chosen for the field
work, to avoid disturbance by rain which would slow down the work.
Electrical resistivity imaging using Schlumberger array was used along the six
(6) profiles.A direction of S-N azimuth was employed in profiles 3and 5, and a
W-E azimuth in profiles 1, 2, 4 and 6, in the orientation of the profiles (Fig 3.1).
17
Figure 3.1: Google Image of Study Area Showing Profile Lines
18
3.3 Choice of the method
Schlumberger electrode layout was used, for the following reasons:
The smaller separation of the potential electrodes (Fig 3.2) reduces noise due to
ground current (from industrial and telluric sources) which may limit the useful
depth of penetration.It alsoprovides a better horizontal coverage (Fig 3.3),and the
maximum depth of penetration of this array is about 15% larger than the Wenner
array.
19
Figure 3.2: The steps used to increase the depth of investigation by (a)
Wenner array and (b) Schlumberger array.
20
Figure 3.3: Arrangement of data points in the pseudosections for (a) Wenner
array (b) Schlumberger array.
21
3.4 Field Procedure
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) is a method by which 2D images of

subsurface resistivity distribution are generated. Using this method, features with
electrical properties differing from those of the surrounding material may be
located and characterized in terms of electrical resistivity, geometry and depth of
burial. The electrical resistivity tomography data are collected using computer-
controlled measurement systems connected to multi-electrode arrays. The data
acquisition process is completely controlled by the computer software which
checks that all the electrodes are connected and properly grounded before
measurement starts. After adequate grounding is achieved the software scans
through the measurement protocol selected. The Schlumberger array was chosen
for this survey. The batteries of the Terrameter SAS 1000, Electrode Selector ES
464 were charged to full capacity before going to the field. Spare batteries were
also taken along. Stainless steel electrodes, cable jumpers or electrode
connectors, cable and reels, hammer, external 12 volts battery, a field umbrella, a
measuring tape, 3 ranging poles, external battery adapter e.t.c; were conveyed
together with the members of the field team to the site of this research project, for
commencement of the geophysical investigation. The two electrode cables 1 and
2 depending on the current position along the line of survey were rolled out in the
direction of the profile, with the cable reel end facing the highest coordinates.
Each cable has 21 take-outs. The Terrameter SAS 1000 and the ES 464 were
placed in the centre of the layout. The two cables were connected to the ES 464
at the centre of the cable spread. Take-out 1 and take-out 21 were made to
overlap at the cable ends and in the layout centre. The serial port of the
Terrameter was connected to the Electrode Selector. The electrodes were
connected to all the take-outs at intervals of 2m on the electrode cables using
22
cable jumpers. For a moist or soft ground, electrodes werejust pushed into the
ground by hand and then connected. However, hammering andwetting were done
on dry and hard ground. The Terrameter was then connected to an external 12
volts battery and switched on, which automatically switches on the Electrode
Selector and the system set-up which was echoed to the screen. The instrument
was set to resistivity mode and LUND Imaging System was selected. Electrode
test commenced immediately, and grounding improved for theelectrodes with
bad ground contact. The connectors were also checked for
unsatisfactoryelectrode positions. Electrodes were tested pair-wise against each
other starting from the outermost electrodes going towards the centre. The
electrode test checks if it is possible to transmit current through all electrodes.
This test takes a couple of minutes but saves time afterwards; because
programme may stop depending on poor electrode contact. Measurement may
also stop if the batteries for either the Terrameter or the Electrode Selector are
low. The programme automatically continues to measure using the two electrode
cables when the contact is satisfactory.It was ensured that measurements did not
stop during the measurement period. As measurement continued apparent
resistivity values were echoed on the screen. When measurement on each layout
was finished, the programme was stopped and the Terrameter switched off. The
cables were disconnected, wound up, and the electrodes and cable jumpers were
all collected together. The instrument was then transferred to a new profile and
the entire process repeated until all the profiles were completed. While measuring
the profiles, the positions of reference points along the lines were noted. The used
midpoints along the profiles were noted to facilitate identification of points for
further investigation. Six profiles were used.
23
3.5 Typical Resistivity Values of Earth Materials
Of all the physical properties of earth materials (rocks and minerals),

electricalresistivity shows the greatest variation. Resistivity of metallic minerals
may be as smallas 10-5Ωm, that of dry close-grained rocks like gabbro could be
as large as 107Ωm. Themaximum possible range is even greater, from native
silver, 1.6x10–8Ωm to pure sulphur1016Ωm. A conductor is usually defined as a
material of resistivity less than 10-5Ωmwhile an insulator is one having a
resistivity greater than 107Ωm, between this limit liesthe so-called semi-
conductors (Telford et al., 1990).The common minerals forming rocks and soils
have very high resistivity in a drycondition and the resistivity of rocks and soils
is therefore normally a function of theamount and quantity of water in pores and
fractures. The degree of connection between cavities is also important;
consequently the resistivity of a rock type or soil type may vary widely. The
electrical resistivity varies between different geological materials
dependingmainly on variations in water content and dissolved ions in the water.
Resistivityinvestigations can thus be used to identify zones with different
electrical properties,which can then be referred to different geological strata.
However, the variation may belimited within confined geological area and
variations in resistivity within certain soil orrock type will reflect variations in
physical properties.For example the lowest resistivities encountered for
sandstones and limestonemean that the pore spaces in the rock are saturated with
water, whereas the highest valuesrepresent strongly consolidated sedimentary
rock or dry rock above the groundwatersurface. Sand, gravel and sedimentary
rock may also have very low resistivities provided the pores in the rock are
saturated with saline water. Fresh crystalline rock is highlyresistive apart from
certain ore minerals, but weathering commonly produces highly conductive clay
24
rich saprolite. The variation in characteristics within one type ofgeological
material makes it necessary to calibrate resistivity data against
geologicdocumentation for instance, surface mapping, test pits or drilling. A
typical range of resistivities of geologic materials is shown in Figure 3.4
25
Conductivity (mS/m)
Figure 3.4: A Typical Range of Resistivities of Geological Materials (ABEM

Instruction Manual, 2010).
26
The amount of water in a material depends on the porosity, which may be divided
into primary porosity and secondary porosity. Primary porosity consists of pore
spaces between the mineral particles and occurs in soils and sedimentary rocks.
Secondary porosity consists of fractures and weathered zones, and this is the
most important porosity in crystalline rocks such as granites and gneisses.
Secondary porosity may also be important in certain sedimentary rocks such as
limestone. Even if the porosity is rather low, the electrical conduction taking
place through water filled pore spaces may reduce the resistivity of the material
drastically. The degree of water saturation will of course affect the resistivity,
thus the resistivity above the groundwater level will be higher than below if the
material is thesame. Consequently the method can be used to find the depth to
groundwater in materials where a distinct groundwater table exists. However, if
the content of fine grained material is significant, the water content above the
groundwater surface, held by hygroscopic and capillary forces may be large
enough to dominate the electrical behaviour of the material. The resistivity of
pore water is dominated by the concentration of ions in solution, the type of ions
and the temperature. The presence of clay minerals strongly affects the resistivity
of sediments and weathered rock. The clay minerals may be regarded as
electrically conductive particles which can absorb and release ions and water
molecules on its surface through an ion exchange process. Very roughly, igneous
rocks have the highest resistivity, sedimentary rocks the lowest and metamorphic
rocks intermediate. However, there is a considerable overlapping. Resistivities of
particular rock types vary with age and lithology, since the porosity of the rock
and the salinity of the contained water is affected by both. For example the
resistivity range of Precambrian volcanic is 200Ωm – 5000Ωm while for
quaternary rocks of the same kind is 10Ωm – 200Ωm (Telford et al., 1990). As
the variation in temperature of the ground is generally small, the temperature
27
influence is normally negligible. However, in geothermal applications the
variation could be significant even in permafrost regions. The mobility of ions
increases with increasing temperature as the viscosity of water is lowered. Hence,
a decrease in resistivity with increasing temperature can be observed for
materials where electrolytic conduction dominates.
3.6 Theory of Direct Current Resistivity Method
The electrical resistivity method is one of the most relevant geophysical methods
applied for groundwater studies in basement terrains. In groundwater studies for
instance, the relevance of the method is based on the usually significant
resistivity contrast between the weathered zone and/or fractured column which
contains the water and the resistive fresh bedrock. There is a considerable variety
of resistivity methods all of which employ artificial source of current which is
introduced into the ground through point electrodes or long line contacts. The
resulting potential established in the earth is measured at other electrodes in the
vicinity of the current flow. The current is noted; hence it is possible to determine
the apparent resistivity of the subsurface. In this regard, the resistivity method is
the most superior; at least theoretically, to all other electrical methods since
quantitative results can be obtained by using a controlled source of specific
dimensions (Telford et al., 1990). Direct current or an alternating current of low
frequency is used and the method is often called D.C. resistivity method. In this
method, an electric current is introduced into the ground by means of two current
electrodes, which set up a stationary current field, and because of the ohmic
potential drop, an electrical potential field is also created. This field gets distorted
in the neighbourhood of a subsurface zone of anomalous conductivity, and the
aim is to search for such anomalous zones in the electrical field with a pair of
potential electrodes. The assumption made here is that the current flow in the
28
potential measuring circuit is negligible compared with the current flow in the
ground, so that the potential electrodes themselves will have no disturbing effect
upon the electrical field (Grant and West,1965). Schlumberger array (Figure 3.5),
was adopted for the survey. A and B are point current electrodes through which
current is driven into the ground, while M and N are two potential electrodes to
record the potential distribution in the subsurface within the two current
electrodes.
29
2L
C1 P1 2b P2 C2
AM N BEarth’s surface
r1 r4
r2
r3
Figure 3.5: Schlumberger Electrode Array
30
From Ohm’s law, the current I and potential U in a metal conductor at constant
temperature are related as follows:
U=IR (3.1)
where R is the constant of proportionality termed resistance and it is measured in
ohms. The resistance R, of a conductor is related to its length L and cross
sectional area A by;
R= (3.2)
where ρ is the resistivity and it is a property of the material considered. From
equations (3.1) and (3.2),
U= (3.3)
Schlumberger array involves fixing the potential electrodes at points M and N,
and symmetrically increasing the current electrode separation AB about the
centre by displacing A and B outwardly in steps. This will increase the depth of
penetration within the separation AB. Thus the varying resistivity measured when
electrode array position is varied in an inhomogeneous medium is termed
apparent resistivity.
For simple treatment, a semi-infinite solid with uniform resistivity, ρ, is
considered. A potential gradient is measured between M and N when current
electrodes located on the surface of the equipotential surface is semi-spherical
downwards into the ground at each electrode. The surface area will then be 2πL 2,
where L is the radius of the sphere. Thus,
U = (3.4)
By deduction then, the potential at M (UM), due to the two current electrodes, is
UM= ( - ) (3.5)
Similarly, the potential at electrode N (UN) is given by
31
UN = ( - ) (3.6)
where r1, r2, r3 and r4 are as shown in Figure 3.5

The potential difference, ∆U, across electrodes M and N is UM– UN. If the body is
inhomogeneous like the study area, apparent resistivity (ρa) is considered,
ρa=K( (3.7)
Where ρa is apparent resistivity in ohm-metre, and
K=2π (3.8)
K is called the geometric factor whose value depends on the type of electrode
array used. For Schlumberger symmetrical array, if MN =2b and = L then,
K= (3.9)
3.7 Principles and Instrumentation
Tomography is defined as an imaging technique, which generates a cross

sectional Picture (tomogram) of an object by utilizing the object’s response to the
non-destructive, Probing energy of an external source. Electrical resistivity
tomography is a method by which 2D images of subsurface resistivity
distribution are generated (Batayneh, 2006). Electrical Resistivity Imaging
(tomography) involves measuring a series of constant separation traverses with
the electrode spacing being increased with each successive traverse. Thus, 2D
resistivity imaging requires data to be recorded with many different electrode
separations along a line. It is important to have a dense enough data to cover
laterally and in terms of electrode separations to recover complex structures in
the ground. This demands the use of automated multi-electrode data acquisition
systems to be practical. The Schlumberger spread was used for this survey.
32
The basis of the LUND Resistivity Imaging technique follows that of the normal
resistivity technique. In both cases, when a current is driven into the earth, any
variation of the subsurface resistivity will alter the current flow, which will in
turn affect the distribution of the electrical potential. Buried bodies distort the
regular pattern of current flow.
A conductive body concentrates electric current flow lines towards itself, while a
resistive body causes the current to flow around itself. The potential fields are
hence deflected and their deflections can be detected using potential electrodes at
the surface of the earth. Thus, from the measurements on the earth’s surface of
the electrical potential and the current, it is usually possible to obtain information
about the variation of the subsurface resistivity. Since sand, fine grained
sediments and bedrock are expected to exhibit large contrasts in electrical
resistivity, the electrical resistivity method should be well suited to resolving
them. When the resistivity values are correlated with differing types of geologic
materials, they can provide useful information for interpretation.
For resistivity measurement nowadays, there is a range of instrumentation from

very simple to highly sophisticated equipment with the latter including the
computer for infield data processing. The basic parts of any resistivity
instrumentation are a portable power source which is either a D.C. or a low
frequency A.C; Electrodes, preferably stainless steel electrodes and cable and
reels, meters for measuring current and voltage both of which may be combined
in a single meter reading resistance. With the development of computer-
controlled data collection and automatic data inversion, the use of computer-
controlled multi-electrode systems with automaticdata measurements and data
quality control for the data acquisition, allow a dramatic increase in field
productivity. Such is the ABEM LUND Imaging System.
33
3.8 The ABEM Lund Imaging System
The LUND Imaging System (Fig. 3.6) is a multi-electrode system for cost
effective and high resolution 2D and 3D resistivity surveys. It is an automatic
electric imaging system suited for automatic resistivity profiling and drilling. The
LUND Resistivity Imaging System consists of a basic unit, a standard resistivity
meter (ABEM Terrameter SAS1000) and a multi-channel relay matrix switch
unit called Electrode Selector ES 464. The system also has four multi-conductor
electrode cables wound on reels each with 21 take-outs, stainless steel electrodes
and cable jumpers and various connectors. The system is compatible with a
portable PC-type computer or note book (laptop). Operating power comes from
an internal 12 volts rechargeable NiCd battery pack. Data acquisition software
featuring automatic measuring process, in-field quality control of measurements,
automatic roll along, electrode cable geometry and switching sequence defined in
address and protocol files which allow the user define survey strategies and
arrays, onscreen echo of measurement progress, software for graphical and depth
interpretation including pseudosection plotting in gray scale or colour.
Model section plotting of 1D and 2D model interpretation sections in colour or

gray scale including topography, reference data and reference levels, utility
software for extraction of VES, data manipulation and conversion, graphical
output in PCX-file format etc, are also available (ABEM LUND instruction
manual, 2010).The Lund ES 464 basic system include one ES 464 field unit with
clip-on NiCd rechargeable battery pack and one communication cable from
electrode selector to Terrameter. It is light weight and has waterproof, rugged
cast Aluminium casing. The Terrameter SAS system consist of a basic unit called
the Terrameter SAS 1000 and accessories like ES 464. SAS means Signal
34
Averaging System. It is a method whereby consecutive readings are taken
automatically and the results are averaged continuously.
35
Figure 3.6: (ABEM LUND Imaging System together with Terrameter SAS
1000 and ES 464 used for Electrical Resistivity Tomography)
36
Signal Averaging System (SAS) results are more reliable than those obtained
from single-short systems. The SAS 1000 can operate in different modes, e.g.,
resistivity, self-potential and induced polarization. In all its modes it is capable of
measuring simultaneously in four channels thus making it suitable in all sorts of
resistivity surveys. The SAS 1000 is powered by a clip-on NiCd battery pack or
by an external 12 volts source, which clips conveniently onto the bottom of the
instrument. The SAS-EBA external 12 volts adapter allows the Terrameter to
utilize an external 12 volts D.C. source, e.g., a car battery (ABEM LUND
Instruction Manual, 2010).Stainless steel electrodes establish electric contact
between electronic conductors, which are long cables, to an ionic conductor
which is the ground. Electrodes generate noise, which is important only at the
potential electrodes. Noise is the fluctuating voltage that appears between a pair
of electrodes placed so close that no other natural voltages appear. But stainless
steel electrodes create less noise. Current electrodes and potential electrodes
make good contact with the ground to ensure low contact resistance and stability
respectively (ABEM LUND Instruction Manual, 2010). The cables incorporate
heavy guage conductors with excellent insulation to ensure good survey results.
The cables are expandable for deeper penetration by connecting them in series
with a cable joint. The cables have take-outs at 2m intervals along its length from
which the cables are connected to the electrodes using cable jumpers having
crocodile clips at both ends. The cables are wound on reels. Figure 3.6 shows the
basic instrumentation of the ABEM LUND Imaging System and accessories.
37
CHAPTER FOUR
FIELD RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction
In electrical resistivity tomography(ERT),prior information about unknown

parameters (such asresistivity values and depth of the layers) is of paramount
importance for inversionprocessing (Cardarelliand Fischanger, 2006).
As in all other geophysical methods, the interpretation of data from

electricalimaging involves expressing in geological terms the information
obtained from themeasured apparent resistivity data. Such an interpretation
demands, on the one hand,considerable practical experience with the method and,
on the other hand, a soundknowledge of the geology of the region under
consideration.
An automatic iterative method based on the smoothness-constrained least-

squaresmethod; known as RES2DINV was used. This rapid 2D resistivity
inversion routineconsiderably sharpens up the image, places the structures at
approximately their correctdepths and provides acceptable estimates of their true
resistivities. In this work, all theavailable geological information on the project
area was taken into consideration toconstrain the interpretations. Also in
interpreting the data, each layer of rock type wasassumed to be homogeneous and
isotropic.
38
4.2 Data Processing
The raw field data were processed using RES2DINV (Lokeand Barker, 1996).
This is a computer programme that automatically determines a two-dimensional
(2D) resistivity model for the subsurface for the data obtained from electrical
survey. It is a window based programme. This method is based on the following
equation
(JTJ + uF)d= JTg……………………………………………………………4.1
WhereF = fxfxT + fzfzT
fx = horizontal flatness filter
fz = vertical flatness filter
J = matrix of partial derivatives
u = damping factor
d = model perturbation factor
g = discrepancy vector
The forward problem is solved through a finite difference algorithm, whose main
features are a versatile user-defined discretization of the domain and a new
approach to the solution of the inverse Fourier transform. The forward modelling
subroutine is used to calculate the apparent resistivity values. The inverse
procedure is based on an iterative smoothness-constrained least-squares
algorithm. This computer programme uses a smoothness constrained non-linear
least-squares optimization inversion technique to convert measured apparent
39
resistivity values to true resistivity values and plot them in cross-sections. The
inversion process removes geometrical effects from the pseudosection and
produces an image of true depth and true formation resistivity. One advantage of
thismethod is that the damping factor and flatness filter can be adjusted to suit
different types of data. The programme creates a resistivity cross-section,
calculates the apparent resistivities for that cross-section, and compares the
calculated apparent resistivities with the measured apparent resistivities. The
iteration continues until a combined smoothness constrained objective function is
minimized. The depth of investigation cannot be determined by simple
calculations and it depends on the acquisition geometry, the conductivity
structures and data errors (Oldenburg and Li, 1999). However, they have
demonstrated through various modelling exercises that there is a loss of
reliability in the inverted resistivity values at the bottom and ends of resistivity
images where the resistivity values are least constrained by the data.
A common method for presentation of 2D resistivity data is the drawing of

pseudosections. A pseudosection is made by plotting the data points in a diagram,
using the length axis for the distance along the surveying line and the depth axis
for the electrode separations (ABEM LUND Instruction Manual, 2010). The
distance for the electrode configuration midpoint is thus plotted against the
electrode separation for each measured data point, letting the latter reflect the
measurement depth. The corresponding apparent resistivities for the plotted
points are then used to contour the variation in apparent resistivity along the
surveying line. The pseudosection thus obtained reflects the variation of
resistivity in the ground in a qualitative way, and approximate structures and
depths to layer interfaces may be estimated. It should be noted that the
pseudosection is simply a 2D equivalent of the plotted field data points in a linear
40
depth scale. In this context, drawing of pseudosections needscomputer assistance
to be practicable due to the large amount of data. The PSEUDO.EXE and
ERIGRAPH.EXE software have been developed for automatic drawing of
pseudosections in grey scales or colours, using linear interpolation between data
points(ABEM LUND Instruction Manual, 2010). Linear interpolation involves
no smoothing of data, and hence gives a good indication of the data quality.
Twelve different colours or grey levels are used for plotting data. Each data point
used for drawing the pseudosection is indicated in the section by a dot.
Presenting DC-resistivity data in colour plots may be disputable as the data do
not contain any spectral information. However, presenting D.C. resistivity data in
colour plots makes it easier to see the variations in resistivity. This is important
because,small changes in resistivity in one part of a long profile may be
significant even if there isa very large variation along the profile. The selection of
resistivity interval limit is ofmajor importance when presenting data, as the
perception of the plotted data is strongly controlled by the colours. A suitable
selection of limits enhances the geological variation while unsuitable selection of
limits may hide important information or enhance irrelevant features. A
geological reference was used to optimize the data presentation. The programme
(ABEM LUND Instruction Manual, 2010) was developed for plotting DC
resistivity data measured with a multi-electrode array, implying electrode
spacings are always an integer multiple of the smallest electrode spacing used.
Furthermore, profile distance coordinates are assumed to fall into the same
positions as data for the smallest electrode spacings or halfway between them.
For long profiles the data matrix used for the interpolation routine will not be
sufficient for plotting the whole profile at once. In cases where the data do not fit,
it is automatically divided into small enough portions for the interpolation
routine, and plotted one portion after the other in the same section. In this way
41
there is no limit to the number of data points in the direction along the profile.
There is however, a limit to the number of data points in the depth direction,
which depends on the array size specified before compiling the programme, but
for DC-resistivity data the number of different electrode spacings is normally
very limited.
The 2D model used by the programme divides the subsurface into a number of
rectangular blocks, to determine the resistivity of the rectangular blocks that will
provide an apparent resistivity pseudosection that agrees with the actual
measurements. For the Wenner and Schlumberger arrays, the thickness of the
first layer of blocks is set at half times the electrode spacing. The arrangement of
the blocks is loosely tied to the distribution of the data points in the
pseudosection. The distribution and the size of the blocks are automatically
generated by the programme, so that the number of blocks, usually do not exceed
the number of data points. The depth of the bottom row is set to be approximately
equal to the equivalent depth of investigation of the data points with the largest
electrode spacing. This arrangement is shown in Figure 4.1(a), (b).
42
Figure 4.1(a), (b): Arrangement of the blocks used in a model together with
the datum points in the pseudosection (RES2DINV).
43
4.3 Interpretation Technique
For Interpreting the resistivity data consists of two steps: a physical interpretation
of the measured data, resulting in a physical model, and a geological
interpretation of the resulting physical parameters.
The large-scale data were interpreted with the state-of-the-art interpretation

technique, called the 2D smoothed damped least squares inversion algorithm.
The results obtained based on 2D inversion of field data and borehole
information, were interpreted to determine lithology of the area and the
contaminated zone. In interpreting LUND Imaging data, Computer assistance is
needed due to the large amount of data collected from the field. The
PSEUDO.EXE and ERIGRAPH.EXE software for instance are developed
forautomatic drawing of pseudosections in grey scales or colour, using linear
interpolating between data points. Third party software packages for resistivity
data processing can also be used for advanced interpretation. One example of
such a programme is RES2DINV.EXE, which performs smoothness constrained
inversion (automatic model interpretation) using finite difference forward
modelling and quasi-Newton techniques (Lokeand Barker, 1996).
4.4 Geological Control
A good knowledge and use of the geology of an area is very important for any
meaningful interpretation of any geophysical data. Therefore, in this work,
information obtained from previous works and borehole log within the area of
survey were taken into consideration in the course of interpretation.
44
4.5 Geologic Section from Borehole Data
Boreholes are a necessary and reliable source of primary data, and electrical
resistivity imaging interpretations provide secondary information. Although
borehole data provides a good sample for a six-inch diameter vertical cylindrical
volume, it can be a poor representation of the several square metres surrounding
the borehole. Alternatively, electrical resistivity imaging provides block averages
of resistivity. Also, borehole data can be a more expensive data acquisition
method when compared to an ERI survey.
The 2D inversion results of the survey were correlated with a borehole log of
Gonin-Gora (Table 4.1) obtained from the National Water Resources Institute
(NWRI) 2002, Mando, in Kaduna State. The log shows an overburden made up
of two layers, 8m thick. The first layer is composed of reddish brown lateritic
clay topsoil 0-2m thick. The second layer is made up of a brownish sandy clay
material about 6m thick. The weathered basement lies immediately beneath the
overburden with thickness of about 17m and extends to a depth of 25m. The fresh
crystalline basement rock is encountered at a depth of 25 m and is believed to
extend continuously downward from this depth.
45
Table 4.1: A Borehole Lithology of Gonin-Gora, obtained from NWRI,
Mando, Kaduna (2002).
Soil and Rock type Depth

Topsoil, Reddish brown lateritic clay. 0-2m
Fine partly silt, brownish sandy clay. 2-8m
Weathered basement: Gravel, 8-25m
brownish fine to medium grained
sand, clay, quartz and feldspar
Fresh crystalline basement rock 25m-∞
4.6 Typical Resistivity values from Previous Works

Resistivity values obtained from previous works(Table 4.2 and 4.3), who worked
in different basement areas of Kaduna State, were used to correlate the results of
the present survey.
Table 4.2: Typical Resistivity values compiled from previous works

(Baimba, 1978and Okwueze, 1978).
Soil and Rock typeResistivity (Ωm)
Clay –fresh water 30-70
Dry clay 40-100
Weathered basement 50-100
Laterite 200-400
Slightly weathered basement 200-500
Dry sand 500-1000
Fresh basement (crystalline) >1000
46
Table 4.3: Typical Resistivity values of rock materials afterEduvie, 1998;
Dan-Hassan and Olurunfemi, 1999;Aboh, 2001; Reynolds, 2003.
Soil and Rock typeResistivity range (Ωm)

Unconsolidated Wet Clay 20
Clay (very clay) 50-150
Clayey sand soil 30-60
Sandy soil with clay 60-100
Sand and Gravel 30-225
Lateritic soil 120-750
Laterite 800-1500
Unsaturated landfill 30-100
Saturated landfill 15-30
Fresh groundwater 10-100
Weathered biotite granite 50-100
Weathered granite (low biotite) 50-140
Fractured Basement rock 400-900
Granite 100(wet)-106(dry)
47
Table 4.4:Resistivity values adopted for this work
Soil and Rock type Resistivity range (Ωm)
Dry clay 40 – 80
Laterite 200 – 500
Unsaturated landfill 90–200
Saturated landfill 1 – 30
Weathered Basement 100 – 950
Fresh Basement 800 – 4000
48
4.7 Field Results
Two-dimensional electrical resistivitysurveying can form a powerful tool

forenvironmental and engineering applications includinghydrogeological
mapping. In combination with a limited number of drilling referencepoints, with
locations based on the resistivity results, reliable models of the subsurfacecan be
created (Dahlin, 1996). The field data (pseudosections) are inverted to
producemodels representing subsurface electrical resistivities. In cases where
resistivity contrastis gradual, smooth inversion is more suitable, while when there
is a sharp variation in resistivity contrast, block inversion is preferable
(CardarelliandFischanger, 2006).
Mathematical parameters, such as damping factors and the smoothness matrix

werechecked and changed appropriately. Furthermore, modifying the inversion
results bychanging the starting model appears to be the best way to obtain the
valid physical resultsfrom the inversion.
The optimization method basically tries to reduce the difference between

thecalculated and measured apparent resistivity values by adjusting the resistivity
of themodel blocks. An initial (starting) model, which is generated automatically
by the programme, is then modified to reduce the differences between the model
response and themeasured data. A measure of this difference is given by the
Root-Mean-Square (RMS)error. This process continues iteratively until the RMS
49
error is reduced to an acceptablelimit. However, the model with the lowest
possible RMS error is usually chosen, but cansometimes show large and
unrealistic variations in the model resistivity values and mightnot be the best
model from a geological perspective. The most prudent approach is tochoose the
model at the iteration after which the RMS error does not change
significantly(RES2DINV; Batayneh, 2006).
The 2D electrical images along the profiles and their interpretations are discussed
inthis section. A total of six profiles were taken for this survey. Profiles 3 and 5
were South-North trending while profiles 1, 2, 4 and 6 were West-East trending.
The inversion result for each profile (figures 4.2 to 4.7) shows the images of the
pseudosections (geoelectric sections) obtained fromthe processed data.
The results show three distinct images for each profile. The upperimage is a plot
of the measured (observed) apparent resistivity pseudosection. Themiddle image
is the calculated apparent resistivity pseudosection and thelower image is the true
resistivity model obtained after a definite number ofiterations of the inversion
programme.
50
4.7.1 PROFILE 1
Figure 4.2 shows the resistivity inversion results (iteration 3, 5.9% total average
RMS error) for profile 1. Thus, indicating that,good fit between the measured and
calculated apparent resistivity data were achieved. The Apparent resistivity (in
ohm-metre, Ωm) is plotted against pseudo-depth (in metre).The Profile is located
at the Northern end inside the dumpsite (Fig. 3.1) and it is 126m long, and runs in
the West to East direction. Low resistivity zones (<27Ωm) were isolated near the
surface with depth between 0m to 3m which indicates contamination of the
topsoil. In this profile the depth to the bedrock is shallow, about 4m and extends
from x= 4m to 60m along the profile. Colour variations in the basement rock are
indication of contacts between different rocks which can be interpreted as
fractures. The red colour indicate the weathered basement with resistivity value
(<600Ωm). The purple colour with resistivity value (>1000Ωm) is interpreted as
the fresh basement.
4.7.2 PROFILE 2
RMS error) for profile 2. Thus, indicating that, good fit between the measured
and calculated apparent resistivity data were achieved. The Apparent resistivity
(in ohm-metre, Ωm) is plotted against pseudo-depth (in metre).This Profile is
located 50m away from profile 1 outside the dumpsite (Fig. 3.1). This Profile
51
runs in the West to East direction and it is 84m long.The materials in this profile
are very resistive as shown by their resistivity values. The low resistivity (<
200Ωm) zone, indicates the presence of leachates from the surface to a depth of
3m, which could be interpreted as topsoil contamination. The depth to the
bedrock is also shallow, which is about 4m. The red and purple colour is the fresh
basement as shown with resistivity values (>2000Ωm).
Figure 4.2: Result of 2D inversion of the Schlumberger-array data along

profile 1. The upper image is the observed data plotted as a Pseudosection, the middle image
52
is the calculated Pseudosection and the lower image is the inverse model showing true depth
and true formation resistivity.

profile 2.The upper image is the observed data plotted as a Pseudosection, the middle image
53
4.7.3 PROFILE 3
and calculated apparent resistivity data were achieved.This Profile is located at
the Eastern end of the dumpsite (Fig. 3.1) and runs in the South to North
direction of length 84m. Materials here, are very resistive as shown by the
resistivity values (>1800Ωm) of red and purple colour. The low resistivity end (<
200Ωm) could be attributed to contamination of the groundwater as a result of
invasion of the leachate from x=40m to 44m at 16m depth. The migration of the
leachate could be as a result of fractures (contacts between rocks of different
materials) or unconsolidated materials (sand or gravel).
4.7.4PROFILE 4
and calculated apparent resistivity data were achieved.This Profile is located at
the Southern end of the dumpsite (Fig. 3.1) and runs in the West to East
direction. This Profile is also 84m long and is parallel to Profile 1.There is
evidence of contamination of the topsoil as shown by low resistivity value
54
(<25Ωm) which occur between x= 52m to x=62m and from the ground surface to
a depth of 3m. There is probably the presence of Clay which is impeding the
downward movement of the leachates from West to East of the study area. This
profile shows a partially weathered basement as indicated by the low resistivity
value(<800Ωm).The colour scaling changing from deep blue to light blue also
reflects the changes in the concentration of the leachates as it seeps down due to
filtration by the sediments.
55
56
4.7.5 PROFILE 5
and calculated apparent resistivity data were achieved.The Profile is located at
the Western end of the dumpsite (Fig. 3.1) and runs in the South to North
direction. This Profile is also 84m long and is parallel to Profile 3. There is no
evidence of contamination of the topsoil or groundwater as shown by the
inversion model.The model shows a shallow depth to bedrock of 3m with
resistivity value (>1000Ωm)
4.7.6 PROFILE 6
and calculated apparent resistivity data were achieved.This Profile is located
outside the dumpsite (Fig. 3.1) at the Southern end and runs in the West to East
direction parallel to profile 4. Low resistivity zones (<200Ωm) are evident
throughout the whole profile indicating contamination of the topsoil and
57
underground water. The light to deep blue colour along the profile indicates
varying degree of concentration of the leachate. This profile displays materials
that are unconsolidated (sand, gravel and fractured rocks). There is migration of
the leachate which is believed to be due to fractures or unconsolidated subsurface
material.
58
59
4.8 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) Data:
60
One vertical electrical sounding (VES) employing the Schlumberger electrode
array was conducted with maximum electrode spacing of 100 m. ABEM SAS
1000 Terrameter was used to acquire the data and the result was interpreted by
IP12 win software. The interpreted VES data measured inside the dumpsite
showed a Type A curve of three layers (Fig. 4.8). The first layer of resistivity 8
Ωm with 1.37m thickness and depth is the topsoil. The layer with resistivity of
336Ωm, with thickness and depth of 2.67 m and 4.04m respectively, indicates the
weathered basement and the layer with resistivity of 990Ωm whose depth and
thickness could not be determined indicates the fresh crystalline basement. The
interpreted VES data showed the first layer as contamination plume as low
resistivity zones with resistivity value of 8Ωm from the ground surface to a depth
of 1.37m, indicating that the topsoil is contaminated. The VES also showed that
the depth to water table around the dumpsite is about 4m. The results are
presented in terms of layer numbers (N), resistivities (p), thicknesses (h) and
depths (d) of the geoelectric section for the VES position (Figure 4.8).
61
istivity (Ωm)
Where, N is the layer number,
ρ is the layer resistivity in Ωm,

h is the layer thickness in metre
Electrode spacing (m) d is the depth to the interface in metre.
Figure 4.8 VES result for the field data
CHAPTER FIVE
62
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Discussion
The models obtained from 2D inversion of the field data using different starting
models mainly showed that the inversion algorithm was stable. After that,
comparison ofthe measured apparent resistivity pseudosection and the calculated
apparent resistivity pseudosection resulted in a reasonably good agreement with
the inverse model resistivitysection. As a result, this demonstrates the stability of
the 2D inversion algorithm that cangive reliable models. The results of this
survey revealed three layers: the topsoil, which consists ofreddish brown lateritic
and sandy clay, has resistivity values between 8Ωm and 850Ωm and its
thicknessvaries between 0.01m to 7.00m. The second layer, is the weathered
basement, and has resistivity values between 150Ωm and 940Ωm. Its thickness
ranges between 2.0 m to 16.0m. The resistivity of the fresh crystalline basement
which forms the third layer ranges between 820Ωm to 4000Ωm. The 2D
Inversion delineated contamination plumes as zones with low resistivity values
ranging between 1Ωm and 27Ωm, from the ground surface to varying depths of
0-3 m in profile 1 and profile 4, believed to be leachate derived from decomposed
waste of higher concentrations, while profile 2, profile 3 and profile 6 delineated
contamination plumes with resistivity zones ranging between 100Ωm to 200Ωm,
from the ground surface to varying depths, believed to be leachate from
decomposed waste of lower concentrations. There was no evidence of topsoil or
groundwater contamination in profile 5 as revealed by the inversion model.The
interpretation of the VES data revealed the first layer as contamination plume
with resistivity value of 8Ωm from the ground surface to a depth of 1.37m,
63
indicating that the topsoil was contaminated. The interpretation of the VES data
also revealed that the depth to water table around the dumpsite is about 4m,
indicating that the groundwater as shown in profiles 3 and 6, were contaminated.
5.2Conclusions
64
Geoelectrical imaging has been useful in mapping resistivity variations at Gonin -
Gora refuse dumpsite. Leachate could be inferred from the inverse model sections
as well as the VES data: Results suggest leachate migration into the subsurface as
well as its ingress into the surrounding soils. This result is supported by a vertical
electric sounding made at the dumpsite, previous resistivity data and a Borehole
Log of the Area.The study area is mostly characterized by three (3) layered
geologic sections which include the Topsoil, Weathered basement and Fresh
basement. The 2D Inversion delineated contamination plumes as low resistivity
zones with resistivity values ranging between 1Ωm and 27Ωm, from the ground
surface to varying depths of 0-3 m in profile 1 and profile 4, believed to be
leachate derived from decomposed waste of higher concentrations, while profile
2, profile 3 and profile 6 delineated contamination plumes with resistivity zones
ranging between 100Ωm to 200Ωm, from the ground surface to varying depths,
believed to be leachate from decomposed waste of lower concentrations. The
inversion also revealed weak zones which can be interpreted as fractures, which
aid in the migration of the leachate as shown in profile 3 and profile 6. There was
no evidence of topsoil or groundwater contamination as revealed by the inversion
model in profile 5. The VES data revealed that the area has a shallow aquifer of
about 4m, indicating that the groundwater in profiles 3 and profile 6 were
contaminated.The conductivity value of the subsurface materials is believed to
facilitate the movement of the leachate near and below the surface. The movement
of leachate constitutes a threat to the groundwater system and especially surface
water in the area since the area has a shallow aquifer and therefore, sinking
boreholes around the dumpsite is dangerous.The biological and chemical
constituents of these pollutants are unknown. This however, calls for more
detailed integrated studies involving geochemistry, drilling of monitory boreholes,
65
and chemical analysis of water samples. These will actually ascertain the nature of
these pollutants around thedumpsite.
The study area has a shallow depth to Basement of 1.30m and a depth to water
table of about 4m. The inverse model revealed weak zones which could be
interpreted as fractures, which aid in the migration of the leachate as shown in
profile 3 and profile 6.
5.3 Recommendations
66
Based on the result of this research work, the following are recommended:
a) In order to obtain an overall picture of the leachate plume, an integrated

approach employing the Seismic method, Vertical Electrical Sounding, induced
Polarization and Electromagnetic method should be applied at the dumpsite.
b) Physio-Chemical analysis of water samples should be made inorder to

determine the chemical constituent of the contaminated water.
c)Time-lapse resistivity technique, whichis, measurement takenat leasttwice in a

year spaced over a long period of time at the same grid point, should be applied
in order to determine the rate of migration of the leachate.
d) Detailed geophysical survey should be conducted before the construction of

any facility for dumping of domestic and industrial refuse. The result of the
detailed geophysical studies will reveal subsurface structures that will be
responsible for hydraulic contact between the leachate and the ground.
e) The populace should be sensitized on the danger of drinking leachate

contaminated groundwater.
f) Government should as a matter of national priority discourage the practice of

citing open dumps most especially in residential areas. This will go a long way in
preserving the abundant natural groundwater as well as safeguarding the health of
the nation, thereby preventing waste of public funds on health.
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2-D ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY INVESTIGATION OF SOLID

WASTE DUMPSITE AT GONIN-GORA, KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA.

ASUERIMEN MIKEB.Sc. (ABU 2008)

BEING A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL,

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN APPLIED

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.

I hereby declare that:

The research work presented in this thesis entitled “2-D ELECTRICAL

Name of student Signature Date

This research thesis entitled “2-D ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

------------------------------------------- ………………………… --------------------

Chairman, Supervisory Committee Signature Date

Dr. A.L. AHMED

------------------------------------------- …………………… ………………

Member, Supervisory Committee Signature Date

Dr. K.M. LAWAL

----------------------------------------------- ---------------------- ………………

Head of Department Signature Date

------------------------------------------------ ------------------- ……………...

Dean, Postgraduate School Signature Date

First and foremost, I express my sincere thanks and appreciation to God

Thanks to my supervisors,Dr. A.L. AHMED and Dr. K.M. LAWAL, I

To my parents, Mr. and Mrs. ASUERIMEN, and the entire members of my

Special thanks go to my Air Traffic Controller’s (AC-56) course mates, who

Finally, my sincere appreciation goes to Hon Tajudeen Abbas and Family,

Leachate effluence from refuse dumpsite is an important source of soil and

2.1Previous Geophysical and Geological Investigations in the Study Area9

2.2 General Geology of the Study Area11

2.3 Factors controlling the risk of groundwater contamination14

2.4 Importance of Electrical Imaging 14

3.2 Field-work Planning17

3.3 Choice of the Method19

3.4 Field Procedure22

3.5 Typical Resistivity values of Earth Materials24

3.6 Theory of Direct current Resistivity method28

3.8 The ABEM Lund Imaging System34

FIELD RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION38

4.2 Data Processing39

4.4 Geological Control44

4.5 Geologic Section from Borehole Data45

4.6 Typical Resistivity Values from Previous Works 46

4.7 Field Results49

4.7.1 PROFILE 151

4.8 Vertical Electrical Sounding Data 60

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS62

Table 2.1: Applicability of Different Resistivity and Induced Polarization

Table 4.1:A Borehole Lithology of Gonin-Gora46

Table 4.2: Typical Resistivity values compiled from previous works46

Table 4.3: Typical Resistivity values of rock materials47

Table 4.4: Resistivity values adopted for this work 48

Figure 1.1: Google image of the Study Area.4

Figure 1.2: Dumpsite Showing its Surface Compositions (Photograph)5

Figure 3.1: Google image of the dumpsite showing profile lines18

Figure 3.3: Arrangement of data points in the pseudosections for (a)

Figure 3.4: A Typical Range of Resistivities of Geological Materials (ABEM

Figure 3.5: Schlumberger Electrode Array30

Figure 4.2: The result of 2D inversion of the Schlumberger-array data along