7 MOST IMPORTANT TOOLS

FOR CONTINUAL
IMPROVEMENT
7 QC TOOLS

Confederation of Indian Industry

"As much as 95% of quality related problems in the
factory can be solved with seven fundamental
quantitative tools." - Kaoru Ishikawa

Where did the Basic Seven come from?

Kaoru Ishikawa
• Known for “Democratizing Statistics”

• The Basic Seven Tools made statistical analysis less

complicated for the average person

• Good Visual Aids make statistical and quality control

more comprehendible.
The Kano Model of Quality
A view of how customers REALLY view quality…

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Kano Model of Quality
Satisfied
Delighters
Customer Satisfaction Axis

More is
Better

Neutral
Must Be’s

Dissatisfied
Absent Feature Availability Axis Present
Confederation of Indian Industry
 Kano Model of Quality

Satisfied The red curve represents the MUST BE’s.

These are features that must be present in a product or
service. If it isn’t present, the customer will surely notice
Customer Satisfaction Axis

and be completely dissatisfied. On the other hand, total

presence of must be features will “only” bring the
customer’s satisfaction level to neutrality.
Neutral

Example:
What are some features when
staying at a hotel which most people
would consider MUST BE’s?
Dissatisfied
Absent Present
Availability Axis

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Kano Model of Quality
Satisfied Perhaps…
Customer Satisfaction Axis

*Clean room
*Heating/AC
*TV set
Neutral

Dissatisfied
Absent Availability Axis Present

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Kano Model of Quality
Satisfied
In our previous example of a hotel
stay, what are some features that
Customer Satisfaction Axis

can be considered as
MORE IS BETTER?

Neutral

Perhaps…

*Thickness of towels
*Number of TV stations
*Pushiness of carpeting
*Quality of bed fabrics
Dissatisfied
Absent
Confederation ofAvailability
Indian Industry Axis Present
 Kano Model of Quality
Satisfied
What are some examples in our hotel
scenario of DELIGHTERS?
Customer Satisfaction Axis

Neutral
Perhaps…

*Coffee makers in room

*Newspaper delivered to room
*Free breakfast
*Complimentary drinks 5:00 - 7:00 p.m.

Dissatisfied
Absent Availability Axis Present
Confederation of Indian Industry
 Kano Model of Quality
Some more thoughts on the Kano Model of Quality…

The Kano Model of Quality is named after the famous

Japanese scientist and market researcher, Dr. Noriaki
Kano. His model is simple, yet a true indication of the
way customers view quality.

The important thing to draw from Dr. Kano’s model is

that the model is dynamic. Over time, what is considered
a “delighter” now will soon become a “must be”.

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Kano Model of Quality
For example…

Did a customer ask for a remote control?

Did a customer ask for the Internet or PC,

for that matter?

Did a customer ask for a microwave oven?

NO, NO, NO!!

Innovative people sought the needs and problems customers
have and solved their problems by asking and doing market
research that was proactive and trying to stay AHEAD of
what the customer needs. Further, they experimented and
“tinkered” until they met that need.

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Kano Model of Quality

Back to our statement that the model is dynamic…

A remote control for a TV set was once a “delighter”.

Then, as technology improved and more features were

included on the remote control, it went through a “more
is better” phase.

Now, it is in the MUST BE stage. If you go buy a

television set today, you EXPECT a remote control
to be included with the set. If it is not, you will be
dissatisfied as well as probably not buy the set at all.

So, what may be a delighter in one of our products NOW

will be a must be some day, due to competition and customer
expectations.
Confederation of Indian Industry
 WHAT IS A PROBLEM
• A PROBLEM IS A MATTER THAT MUST
BE RESOLVED.
OR
• A PROBLEM IS A GAP BETWEEM THE
EXISTING SITUATION AND THE IDEAL
SITUATION OR OBJECTIVE.

PAGE NO – 03 OF 31
 WHAT IS A PROBLEM ?
(A) OBJECTIVE
GOOD

GAP = PROBLEM
(B)

PRESENT STATUS

-PROBLEM CAN INCREASE OR DECREASE IF (B)

GOES CLOSER TO (A), OR GOES AWAY FROM (A)
-PROBLEM CAN INCREASE OR DECREASE IF (A) IS
MOVED TOWARDS (B) OR MOVED AWAY FROM (B)
PAGE NO – 04 OF 31
 TYPES OF PROBLEM
SOLVERS
1. SELF NEGATIVE
 EACH TIME THEY FACE PROBLEM THEY
CONVINCE THEM SELVES THAT THEY
CANN’T SOLVE THIS BECAUSE OF LESS
TALENT OR SELF CONFIDENCE.
2. SOMEONE ELSE FAULT
 WHATEVER THE PROBLEM COME THEY
MAKE THEIR MIND THAT SOME OTHER
FUNCTION \ PERSON IS RESPONSIBLE.

PAGE NO – 05 OF 31
 CONT----2
3. THE OSTRICH
 THIS IS MOST COMMON TYPE AND
ALWAYS THINK THAT EXISTING
SITUATION CANNOT BE IMPROVED.
 NEVER TRY TO BREAKOUT THE
PRESENT SITUATION BUT READY TO
FOLLOW DIRECTIVES.

PAGE NO – 06 OF 31
 CONT----3
4. PROBLEM SOLVING TYPE
 SEE EACH PROBLEM AS A OPPORTUNITY
TO LEARN.
 ACT WITH SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES IN MIND.
 SET OBJECTIVES HIGHER THAN THEIR
ABILITIES.
 USE PROBLEM SOLVING ROUTE TO
BECOME A WORK PLACE LEADER.
 GROW AND MAKE OTHERS TO GROW.

PAGE NO – 07 OF 31
 Seven Problem Solving Disciplines
S Definition Observation Analysis Actions Check Standardisation Conclusion
T (Identify & define) (Investigate (Find root causes) (Establish and (Ensure (Hold Gains) (Review process
E Features) implement effectiveness) & future plans)
P remedies)
S

· To collect problems in work · To investigate · To identity all · To identity · To check the · To ensure that the · To review
P
area. the time, place, factors which important counter process and the gains of problem solving
U
type and influence measures. results of improvements are process for
R · To select and define a
symptoms of the problems and implementation held for all time in future
P priority problem. · To systematically
problem. find out root for monitoring future. improvements in
O implement
causes. extent of work and
S counter
improvements. problem solving
E measures.
process.

· Discuss in groups work area · Observe the · Establish the · Establish the · Check the trend · Incorporate the · Review the
corrective and and the level of measures in the problem solving
problems. features of the cause effect
preventive
problem. relationship measures. the improvement operation process for
· Identify problems in inputs, against target standards future
K · Workout
outputs and the work · To collect the · Find out feasibility & improvements in
E
Y effectiveness. · Check the · Train the people
process. data and the important root work place
A · Select and Process in revised
required facts causes having
C prioritise counter standards · Analyse the
· Prioritise based on urgency,
T the highest measures. · Check & ensure
importance and control. steps followed &
I impact on the · Chalkout that no adverse · Cotinuously track
V activities, time tools used in
I problem side effects are the effectiveness
· Define the problem schedule and group to improve
T resources present in the to hold on to the
I statement. the future
E · Assign next and previous gains problem solving
S responsibility processes capacity.
· Setup control
point
· Carry out the
plan
 Systematic Problem Solving
and Deming Cycle
ACT PLAN

CHECK DO

• Plan : Setup the Objectives and Means

• Do : Put the Plan into Practice
• Check : Observe the Results and the Process
• Act : Standardise if Results are Satisfactory
otherwise Re-plan and Follow the Cycle again
Basic Steps of Problem Solving
DEFINITION

• PLAN OBSERVATION
ANALYSIS

DO ACTION

CHECK CHECK

STANDARDISATION
ACT
CONCLUSION
 Steps of Problem Solving
1. Definition – Identifying and defining the problem
2. Observation – Investing the features of the problem
3. Analysis – Finding the root causes
4. Actions – Establishing and implementing remedies
(countermeasures)
5. Check – Ensuring the effectiveness of remedies
6. Standardisation – Holding on the gains
7. Conclusion – Reviewing the problem solving process and
future plans
Problem Solving Steps
Continuous Recognize
improvement Problem
Ensure Form quality
performance improvement
ACT teams
Define
Problem
Evaluate CHECK Analyze
Solution PLAN
Problem
Determine
Possible
DO
Causes
Identify
Implement Possible
Solution Solutions
Confederation of Indian Industry
Problem Solving Process

Symptom
Recognition

Fact
Finding

Problem
Identification Follow Up
Idea
Generation

Solution
Development

Plan
Implementation
Confederation of Indian Industry
Benefits of Systematic Problem Solving Process

– It helps avoid jumping to conclusion

– Helps avoid decisions based on opinions and

feeling

– Helps the group in focusing their attention

– It provides a logic for remedies

– Sets a platform to involve all concerned

– Makes implementation simple

 Summary

– QC story and the Basic Seven Step

Problem Solving Process.

– Concept of PDCA and its adaptation to

problem solving in specific work situations.
Quality Improvement: Problem Solving

• “Problem solving, the isolation and analysis

of a problem and the development of a
permanent solution, is an integral part of the
quality-improvement process”.
– Not hit or miss, but objective and systematic
– Not directed at symptoms, but rather at root
causes

Confederation of Indian Industry

Why do we need the 7 QC tools?
• Developed By Dr. KAORU ISHIKAWA.
• Total Quality Culture is data driven: data are
impersonal; opinions are not.
• Experience is gained quickest by collecting and
analyzing data.
• The 7 QC tools provide common methods of
analysis to help problem solving teams operate
effectively.
• It helps in taking decisions faster and objectively
as ; Factual approach to decision making.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Why Statistics
• It is more economic to assess a sample of product
and use the result to predict the properties of the
whole lot.
• It leads to predictions with a high degree of
precision.

Base Population Sample Data

Taking actions
STUDY Information
Judgment

Population-Sample Model
Confederation of Indian Industry
STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL (SQC)

• When a quality control system uses statistical

techniques for inspection , testing and analysis
to control quality or to conclude whether the
quality of product is satisfying the customer
needs or to solve quality problems.
• SQC is systematic as compared to guess-work
and avoids personal bias and poor judgments.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Benefits of Statistical Quality Control(SQC)
• Efficiency: Rapid and efficient inspection at a
minimum cost.
• Reduction of scrap: Tells the causes of
excessive variation in manufacturing and tells
about potential non-conformance.
• Adherence to Specification: Specifications can
be accurately predicted and control.
• Increases output: By reduction of wastages,
effective utilization of Resources.
• Awareness: Creating awareness in organization.

Confederation of Indian Industry

BASICS STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
1.VARIATION
• Concept of Variation states that no two items will be
perfectly identical even if extreme care is taken to
make them identical in some respect.
• Variation is fact of Nature and manufacturing
processes are no exception this .
• Statistical data can be characterized as
VARIABLE DATA and ATTRIBUTE DATA.

Confederation of Indian Industry

BASICS STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
1.1 Variable Data:
• When a record is made of an actual measured
quality characteristics , such as a dimension
expressed in hundredths of mm, the quality is said to
be expressed in variables.
• It is also known as Continuous Data i.e. data which
can be measurable and can assume any value over
some interval. Examples:
-Dimension of a part measured
-Temperature in degree centigrade.
-Weight in Kg etc.
Confederation of Indian Industry
BASICS STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
1.2 Attribute Data:
• When a record shows only the number of articles
conforming and the no. of articles failing to conform
to any specified requirements.
• It is also known as Discrete Data i.e. data which
can be measurable and can assume certain distinct
values( integer values) . Examples:
-The no. of defective pieces found in a sample.
-Cracks in sheets by spots welds etc.
-Nos. of pieces got accepted based on GO-NOGO
Gauge.
Confederation of Indian Industry
Symbols and Formulae
Sample Size N = The total number of values

Mean X= X
N

Range R = Max - Min

(X – X)2
Variance V =

N-1

Standard Deviation S= V

Confederation of Indian Industry

Seven Quality Control Tools
 Check-sheet

 Pareto

 Histogram

 Control Chart

 Cause and Effect

 Scatter Plot

 Stratification

Confederation of Indian Industry

1. CHECKSHEET
 The function of a check sheet is to present
information in an efficient, graphical format.

 For problem solving data is to be captured.

 Check-sheet is a tool to capture data as per

check list.

 Check list is a tool to capture the parameter.

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Check Sheets Defined
 What is a check sheet?
 A basic tool for monitoring quality improvement
processes
 A simple data collection device
 Check Sheets Defined
Common Types
 Distribution Check Sheets
 Used to collect data in order to determine how
a variable is dispersed within an area of
possible occurrences
 Location Check Sheets
 Highlights the physical location of a
problem/defect in order to improve quality
 They may also utilize visual(schematic)
drawings of areas in order to record where
problems are occurring
 Check Sheets Defined
 Common Types, Continued
 Cause Check Sheets
 Used to keep track of how often a problem happens or
records the cause to a certain problem.
 Classification Check Sheets
 Used to keep track of the frequency of major
classifications involving the delivery of products or
services
 Creating Check Sheets
 Step One
 Identify the question
 Develop and understand the question(s) that need to be
answered before the data collection process
 Step Two
 Identify potential problem areas
 Outline the production process
 Figure out the potential processes that could be causing
defects
 Get employees involved who know the processes well
 Creating Check Sheets
 Step Three
 Tracking problems/defects
 Construct a tabular or schematic diagram in order
to track problems in production processes
 Step Four
 Recording problems/defects
 Physically record every instance that a
problem/defect is encountered
 Benefits
 Efficiency/Speed
 Systematic and Organized
 Ease of use/Simplicity
 Can be used in conjunction with other
charts and diagrams for a more in depth
analysis
CHECKSHEET

Shifts

   

Defect Type

 

 

 

Confederation of Indian Industry

CHECKSHEET

Confederation of Indian Industry

CHECKSHEET

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Check Sheets: To take down data simply and prevent inspection o mission

• Make boxes for filling in the required items • Indicate items to be checked • Decide on methods of stratification. • Fill in data
Table 1: Check sheet for “defects in camera assembly process”
Product name CS20 - 5D LN1238 Form 1 Feb. 1992
Lot number LN1239 Date
Process name No. 3 assembly line To 6 Feb. 1992
LN1240

Recorded
Measuring method 100% visual operation Measuring instrument -------- Miki Tanaka
by:

Date / day 2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6

Total
Defect Mon. Tue. Wed Thu Fri Sat

Loose screws IIII IIII IIII IIII I 33

IIII IIII IIII
Dirt in distance sensor IIII II II III 12

Exterior scratches II IIII I II III 18

IIII
Soldering defect II II I 5

Bonding defect IIII I 10

IIII
Operating defect I III I 5

Gap defect II I 3

Part lost III 3

Exterior dirt II 2

Total 18 20 20 17 16 91

Number inspected 2037 Percent age defects 4.5%

• Add totals • Make a scratch of the product to be inspected.

• Decide on items to be checked.
• Every time a defect occurs, fill in a mark of number a
corresponding location.

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Diagram type check sheet Frequency check sheet

SN Class Mean Value Tally Marks Total

1 950-955 952.5 IIII 4
2 955-960 957.5 IIII III 8
3 960-965 962.5 IIII IIII IIII 15
4 965-970 967.5 IIII IIII 10
Mark defect by 5 970-975 972.5 IIII I 6

Inspection check sheet

Part No: Process: Machine:

Sn Parameter Spec Sample No Judgement Remark
1 2 3 4 5
2. PARETO CHART
• Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) Italian economist
– 20% of the population has 80% of the wealth
• Juran used the term “vital few, trivial many”. He
noted that 20% of the quality problems caused
80% of the dollar loss.
• Pareto charts are extremely useful because they
can be used to identify those factors that have the
greatest cumulative effect on the system, and thus
screen out the less significant factors in an
analysis.

Confederation of Indian Industry

PARETO CHART
• Pareto Diagram allows the user to focus attention
on a few important factors in a process.

• They are created by plotting the cumulative

frequencies of the relative frequency data (event
count data), in descending order.

• When this is done, the most essential factors for

the analysis are graphical presentation and in an
orderly format.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Pareto Chart : For identification/ selection of major
problem or area for improvement or control. To
differentiate between vital few and trivial many problem.
Draw dots Don’t extend the
clearly line above 100
Fill in the
period when 660 N=659 97 100 100
data was 88
594 Period : mar 1~30
collected & 76
528 80

CUMULATIVE %AGE
total nos. of
cases 462 57
396 375 60
PPM

330
264 40 Decide scale so
198 that the box of
128
Make scale 132 78 20 the finished
marks on 55 diagram is
66 23
inside 0 0 approximately
1 2 3 4 5 square
TYPE OF DEFECTS

Don’t forget
Don’t forget zero
zero
 Further analysis using Pareto charts
• Major cause breakdown:
• Tallest bar is broken down into sub-causes

30

20

24
10 18
12
8
4 2
0
Late delivery Wrong product Missing parts Dam aged Wrong address Not received
container

4
8
6 4 4
2
2
0
Missing address Driver mistake Late Transportation Administrative
documentation problems delays

Missing address Driver mistake Late documentation

Transportation problems Administrative delays
PARETO CHART
70 (64)
Percent from each cause

60
50
40
30
20 (13)
(10) (6)
10
(3) (2) (2)
0

Causes of poor quality

Confederation of Indian Industry

 PARETO STEPS

Step 1. Decide what problems are to be inspected and

how to collect the data.
Step 2. Design a data tally sheet listing the items and
record their totals.
Step 3. Fill out Tally sheet and calculate total.
Step 4. List items; their individual total, total,
percentage of overall total and cumulative
Step 5. Arrange the items in the order of quality percentage.
Step 6. Mark abscissa and ordinate..
Step 7. Construct a bar diagram
Step 8. Draw the cumulative curve.
Step 9. Write any necessary item on the diagram.
 PARETO DIAGRAM

Pieces
100%
400

Percent of composition
75
No. of Defects

200
50

25
Example

S.No Defect Numbers

1 Weld Missing 26

2 Dent 11

3 Ovality 21

4 Fitment NG 16

5 Other 6

Confederation of Indian Industry

Example

Step 1: Arrange data in decreasing order

Defects in
S.No Types of Defect
Number
1 Weld Missing 26

3 Ovality 21
4 Fitment NG 16
2 Dent 11
5 Other 6

Step 2 : Sum defects in number

Ie 26+21+16+11+6 = 80
Confederation of Indian Industry
Example

Step 3: Calculate cumulative percentage

Defects
Types of
S# in Percentage
Defect
Number
1 Weld Missing 26 (26/80)=33%

3 Ovality 21 (26+21)/80=59%

4 Fitment NG 16 (26+21+16)/80=79%

2 Dent 11 (26+21+16+11)/80=93%

5 Other 6 (26+21+16+11+6)/80=100%

Total Sum 80

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Step 4 : Draw Chart

Pareto Chart
80 100% 100%

70 79% 90%
93%
80%
60
70%
59%

Cum. %age
50 60%
Numbers

40 50%

30 26 40%
33% 21 30%
20
16 11 20%
10 6
10%
0 0%
Weld Missing Ovality Fittment NG Dent Other

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Pareto Analysis – Hints
• Check various classifications and construct
many kinds of Pareto diagrams
• It is undesirable that “others” represents a
higher percentage
• It is best to draw Pareto diagrams by assigning
monetary value
• If an item is expected to be amenable to a simple
solution, it should be tackled right away even if
it is of relatively small importance
• Do not fail to make Pareto diagram by causes
EXERCISE

Confederation of Indian Industry

Exercise
Make Pareto Chart for the data given below.
Product : Spanner
Production Per day : 25000

S.No Defect Numbers

1 Cracks 298

2 Scaling 1266
3 Unfilled – 435
Cavity
4 Grinding NG 684
5 Plating NG 1372
Confederation of Indian Industry
 3. HISTOGRAM
What is a Histogram?
• Histogram is a visual tool for presenting variable
data. It organises data to describe the process
performance.
• Additionally histogram shows the amount and
pattern of the variation from the process.
• Histogram offers a snapshot in time of the process
performance.
• A histogram is a graphical summary of variation in
a set of data.
• The pictorial nature of the histogram enables us to
see patterns that are difficult to see in a table of
numbers. Confederation of Indian Industry
Histogram
 Why do We Get Variation?
Variation is essentially law of nature.

Output quality characteristics depends upon the

input parameters.

It is impossible to keep input parameters

constant. There will be always variation in the
input parameters. Since there is variation in the
input parameters, there is also variation in the
output characteristics
 Law of Nature
In nature there is always variation. Take
case measurement of the following:

height of adult male in a city.

 weight of 15 years old boy in a town.
weight of bars 5 meter long 25 mm dia.
volume in 300 cc soft drink bottle.
number of minutes required to fill an invoice.
Case when Data Does Not Show Variation
There could be two reasons when data do not
show variation:

a) Measuring devices are insensitive to spot

variation.

b) Too much rounding off the data while

recording.
 Insensitive Measuring Device
If the measuring device is not sensitive,
enough to respond to small changes in
value of the quality characteristics,
variation will not be reflected in the data.
For example:

Weighing gold chains by using weighing

scale used for vegetables.
Too Much Rounding Off During Recording
It could also be possible that too much
rounding off might have been carried while
recording the measurements.

This normally happens when the column in

data recording sheet is not wide enough to
record all the decimal places of
measurements. Because of paucity of the
space, workmen round off observations on
their own.
 Definition of Histogram

A histogram is a graphical
summary of variation in a set
of data.
 Data Table - Weight of Bars in kg.

476 513 480 486 508 502 542 489 490 500

507 469 514 537 500 500 479 523 491 500

509 520 474 498 500 478 524 483 503 502

516 489 496 500 487 520 497 490 492 513

500 504 526 502 508 501 528 503 510 512
 Picturisation of Data
N=50
Bar Weight
16
14
12
Frequency

10
8
6
4
2
0

470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540

kg
 Key Concept of Histogram

Data always have variation

Variation have pattern

Patterns can be seen easily when

summarized pictorially
 Presentation of Distribution
Histogram is represented by a curve. The curve is
known ‘Frequency Distribution’
 Study of Histogram

While studying histogram look for its

Location of mean of the process

Spread of the process

Shape of the process

 Location of the Process
Process A Process B

Location of Location of
process A Process B

Quality Characteristics
 Spread of the Process
Process B

Process A

Spread of process B
Spread of Process A
 Shape of the Process
Normal
Distribution
Skewed
Distribution

Quality Characteristics
Constructing Histogram
Basic Elements for Construction of
Histogram
For constructing the histogram we
need to know the following:
 Lowest value of the data set
 Highest value of the data set
 Approximate number of cells histogram
have
 Cell width
 Lower cell boundary of first cell
Finding Lowest & Largest Value in
Data Set
If the number of observations in the data set is
small, then finding smallest and largest value is
not a problem.

However, if the number of observations is large,

then we require an easier way to get smallest
value and largest value in the data set. This
can be achieved by grouping the data in rows,
columns and then scanning.
Organizing Data in Rows & Columns
Step - 1
Organise the data in a group of 5 or 10

1 2 3 4 5
3.56 3.46 3.48 3.42 3.43
3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47
3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38
3.41 3.37 3.49 3.45 3.44
3.50 3.49 3.46 3.46 3.42
 Construction of Histogram

Step - 2
Generate 2 more columns to record
Smallest value in each row in column ‘S’

Largest value in each row in column ‘L’

Addition of Column ‘S’ & Column ‘L’

1 2 3 4 5 S L
3.56 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.42 3.42 3.56
3.43 3.53 3.49 3.44 3.50 3.43 3.53
3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47 3.47 3.56
3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38 3.38 3.56
3.41 3.37 3.49 3.45 3.44 3.37 3.49
 Construction of Histogram
Step-3
Scan column ‘S’ to find smallest value in
that column, S. S is overall smallest value
in the data set.

Scan column ‘L’ to find largest value in

that column, L. L is overall largest value in
the data set
 Scanning of Columns ‘S’ & ‘L’
1 2 3 4 5 S L
3.56 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.42 3.42 3.56
3.43 3.53 3.49 3.44 3.50 3.43 3.53
3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47 3.47 3.56
3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38 3.38 3.56
3.41 3.37 3.49 3.45 3.44 3.37 3.49

Overall smallest reading = 3.37

Overall largest reading = 3.56

 Range of the Data Set
Step-4
Find range of the data
Range of data = Largest value - smallest value

In our case
Range R = L - S
= 3.56 - 3.37
= 0.19
 Initial Number of Cells in Histogram
Step-5
Decide the initial number of cells, say K,
a histogram shall have.

Number of cells a histogram can have,

depends upon the number of observations
N, histogram is representing. There are
three methods to decide initial number of
cells.
Note: The number of cells, K initially chosen may change when
histogram is finally made
Table for Choosing Number of Cells
Method No. 1

Number of observation Number of cells

(N) (K)
Under 50 5 to 7

50 - 100 6 to 10

101 - 250 7 to 12

More than 250 10 to 20

Alternative Methods for Deciding No.
of Cells
Method No. 2
Number of cells, K = 1 + 2.33 Log 10
N

Method No 3
Number of cells, K = N
 Temporary Cell Width
Step-6
Find temporary cell width, TCW

Range (R)
TCW =
Number of cells chosen (K)
0.19
=
7
= 0.0271423
Rounding of Temporary Cell Width

Temporary cell width, TCW needs rounding off.

 For ease of plotting

For getting distinct cell boundary

 Construction of Histogram

Step - 6
Round off TCW to get class width

Rounding off of TCW, should be in the

multiple of 1 or 3 or 5 of least count.

The multiple should be nearer to TCW

 Least Count of the Data
1 2 3 4 5
3.56 3.46 3.48 3.42 3.43
3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47
3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38
3.41 3.37 3.49 3.45 3.44
3.50 3.49 3.46 3.46 3.42

Least count of the data is 0.01

 Procedure for Getting Class Width
In our case least count of the data,
LC is 0.01
and TCW = 0.0271428

If multiple factor, M is 1 then we have

M  LC = 1 x 0.01 = 0.01
This multiple is not nearer to TCW

If multiple factor is 3 then we have

M x LC = 3 x 0.01 = 0.03
This multiple is nearer to TCW

Hence class width, CW = 0.03

Round off CL= (Range+LC)/No’s of cells=(0.19+0.01)/7

=0.028571 = 0.03
 Class Boundaries
Step - 7
Determine class boundaries

Class boundaries are necessary for

making tally sheet. Frequency obtained in
tally sheet is utilized for making
histogram.
Class boundaries should be distinct
 Distinct Class Boundaries
Distinct class boundaries are the one, on
which no individual data lies.

With the distinct class boundary the data

will enter in a particular cell only.
Nomenclature of Cell Boundaries
Let LCB(1), LCB(2), … are the lower cell
boundaries of cell no.1, cell No. 2….
respectively.

Let UCB(1), UCB(2), … are the upper cell

boundaries of cell no.1, cell No. 2….
respectively.
 Elements of Histogram

Upper
Lower
cell boundary
cell boundary
of cell no. 2
of cell no. 2

Upper Lower
cell boundary cell boundary
of cell no. 1 of cell no. 3
Cell
No. 2
Lower Cell Upper
cell boundary Cell No. 3 cell boundary
of cell no. 1 No. 1 of cell no. 3

CW CW CW

Continuous Scale
 Calculation of Cell Boundaries
If we know the lower cell boundary of cell
No.1, LCB(1), and class width, CW we can
find other cell boundaries as follows:

UCB(1) = LCB(1) + CW
LCB(2) = UCB(1)
UCB(2) = LCB(2) + CW
LCB(3) = UCB(2)

and so on
Getting Lower Cell Boundary of Cell No.1
Choose a starting value A, which is
slightly lower or equal to smallest
value, S. Value of S in our case is
3.37
We can take A = 3.37

LCB = A - ( CW / 2 )
= 3.37 - ( 0.03 / 2 )
= 3.355
 Getting Cell Boundaries
UCB(1) = LCB(1) + CW
= 3.355 + 0.03 = 3.385
LCB(2) = UCB (1) = 3.385
UCB(2) = LCB(2) + CW
= 3.385 + 0.03 = 3.415
Continue finding cell boundaries, till a
particular upper cell boundary is greater
than the largest value of data set.
 Filling of Frequency Column
Count the number of tally marks in each cell and
enter the count in ‘Frequency’ column
Mid Tally
SN Cell Boundary Frequency
Value Marks
1 3.355 - 3.385 3.37 2
2 3.385 - 3.415 3.40 2
3 3.415 - 3.444 3.43 3
4 3.445 - 3.475 3.46 4
5 3.475 - 3.505 3.49 8
6 3.505 – 3.535 3.52 4
7 3.535 - 3.565 3.55 2
Drawing Histogram

Draw vertical axis

Draw horizontal axis

 Drawing Histogram
9
8 Label vertical axis from zero to a multiple of 1, 2 or
5 to accommodate the largest frequency
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3 Label horizontal axis with mid values of the cells,
and indicate the dimension of quality characteristics
2
1
0

3.37 3.40 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.52 3.55

mm
 Drawing Histogram
9

8
7
Frequency

6
5
Leave one cell
4 width space from
3 vertical axis

2
1
0

3.37 3.40 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.52 3.55

mm
 Drawing Histogram

Draw bars to represent frequency in each

cell. Height of bars is equal to number of
data in each cell.
Title the chart.
Indicate total number of observations
 Drawing Histogram
9 Metal Thickness
8 N=25
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

3.37 3.40 3.43 3.46 3.49 3.52 3.55

mm
Assessing process capability
Design Tolerance VS Process Spread
LSL USL
16
Design Tolerance
Process Spread
Frequency

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
kg
 Assessing Process Capability
Process capability is a comparison between
design tolerance and spread of the process.

Whenever design tolerance is more than

process spread, then the process is
capable.

Whenever design tolerance is less than the

spread of the process, then the process is
not capable.
 Assessing Process Capability
LSL USL

47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
kg
Process is not capable
Need to reduce the variability
 Assessing Process Capability
USL
LSL

47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
kg
Process is just capable
Acceptable now but slightest change will make it
unacceptable. Need to reduce the variability
 Assessing Process Capability
LSL USL

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
kg
Process is capable

Process is acceptable even if things change slightly.

 Assessing Process Capability
LSL USL

47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
kg
At the moment process is not capable
Unacceptable. Need to re-centre the process
and reduce the variability
While studying histogram
look for its

• Location of mean of the process

• Spread of the process

• Shape of the process

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Types of Histogram

General Type Comb Type Positively Skew Type

Left-hand Plateau Type Twin Peak Type Isolated Peak

Precipice Type Type

Confederation of Indian Industry

 4. Control Charts

UCL
UWL
Statistics

Target

LWL
LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample Number
 Introduction
Quality control charts, are graphs on which the
quality of the product is plotted as manufacturing or
servicing is actually proceeding.

By enabling corrective actions to be taken at the

earliest possible moment and avoiding
unnecessary corrections, the charts help to ensure
the manufacture of uniform product or providing
consistent services which complies with the
specification.
 Confidence While Control Charting

Control charting enables everyone to make

decision and to know the degree of confidence
with which the decisions are made. There may be
some margin of error. No technique, even 100%
automated inspection, can guarantee the validity
of the result; there is always some room to doubt.
 Control Charts
Statistically based control chart is a device
intended to be used

- at the point of operation

- by the operator of that process
- to asses the current situation
- by taking sample and plotting sample result

To enable the operator to decide about the

process.
 What Control Chart Does?
It graphically, represents the output of the
process.
And
Uses statistical limits and patterns of plot,
for decision making
 Analogy to Traffic Signal
A control chart is like a traffic signal, the operation
of which is based on evidence from samples
taken at random intervals.

A green signal - Process be allowed to

continue without adjustment
A yellow signal - Wait and watch
trouble is possible
A red signal - Process has wandered
Investigate and adjust
 Analogy to Traffic Signal
Stop
Investigate/Adjust

Go
No action on Process

Wait and Watch

 Decision About The Process
Go
To let the process continue to run without any
adjustment.

This means only common causes are

present.

Wait and watch

Be careful and seek for more information

This is the case where presence of trouble is

possible
 Decision About the Process
Stop
Take action ( Investigate/Adjust )

This means that there is practically no doubt a

special cause has crept in the system. Process
has wandered and corrective actions must be
taken, otherwise defective items will be
produced.
 Why Control Chart?
To ensure
that the output of the process is-

Normal
Expression Among Quality Professionals
You cannot efficiently inspect quality into a
product, after it has left the process.

Post mortem is undesirable

 Why Control Chart?
It helps in finding
is there any change in location of process
mean in real time
Process with Process with
mean at less Process with
mean at more
than target mean at Target
than target

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
 Why Control Chart?
It helps in finding
Is there any change in the spread of the process
in real time?
Spread due
Larger spread due
to common causes
to special causes

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
 Why Control Chart?
To keep the cost of production minimum
Since the control chart is maintained in real time,
and gives us a signal that some special cause has
crept into the system, we can take timely action.
Timely action enables us to prevent
manufacturing of defective. Manufacturing
defective items is non value added activity; it adds
to the cost of manufacturing, therefore must be
avoided.
By maintaining control chart we avoid 100%
inspection, and thus save cost of verification.
 Why Control Chart?
Decision in regards to production process

Control chart helps in determining whether we

should :
- let the process to continue without adjustment
- seek more information
- stop the process for investigation/adjustment.
 Whether Output is Normal?
Both histogram and control chart can tell us
whether the output is normal? However,
Histogram views the process as history ,
as the entire output together.
Control chart views the process in real time,
at different time intervals as the process
progresses.
 Control Chart
• 1. What is a Control Chart ?
• The quality of a product manufactured in a
process is inevitably accompanied by dispersion.
Various Causes of such dispersion exist and they
can be classified into the following two types.

1 Chance
Dispersion by chance is unavoidable and
inevitably occurs in a process, even if the
operation is carried out using standardized raw
materials and methods. It is impossible to avoid
the chance cause technically and economically at
present.
 Control Chart
2.0 Assignable
Dispersion from an assignable cause is unusual
and meaningful in that it is avoidable and cannot
be overlooked eg. Neglecting various standards
or application of improper standards.
In order to control a process it is necessary to
eliminate assignable causes and take action to
prevent their recurrence, while tolerating
dispersion by chance.
 Control Chart
Data Types
1. Attribute data: Has only two possible outcomes

Yes / No, Go / No Go, Either/Or, Pass/ Fail or Good/ Bad

2. Variable data: can be either discrete or continuous,

2.1 Discrete data is measured in units, and is countable.

For example: Number of people ; 5 of items passing test ; Number of

calls arriving etc.

2.2 Continuous data can assume any numerical value and is

dependant on sensitivity of the measuring device.
Page 17 of 62
A control chart was first used in 1924 by W.A.
Shewhart, who belonged to the Bell Telephone
Laboratories, with a view to classifying an
abnormal process by distinguishing variations
due to chance from those due to assignable
causes.

Fig. Examples of Control Charts

Upper control
Limit
Central line

Lower control
Limit
Control chart for controlled state
 Control chart for uncontrolled state
To make a control chart it is necessary to classify
the process by type of raw materials, machine
and line and further to classify these data into
small groups such as time or shift.
There are various types of control chart,
according to the characteristic values or purpose.
However, in any type of control chart the control
limit is calculated by the formula :
(average value) ± 3 x (standard deviation)
Therefore such a chart is called a three sigma
control chart.
• The bounds of the control chart are marked
by upper and lower control limits that are
calculated by applying statistical formulas to
data from the process.
• Data points that fall outside these bounds
represent variations due to special causes,
which can typically be found and eliminated.
• On the other hand, improvements in common
cause variation require fundamental changes
in the process.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Control Chart
24
UCL = 23.35
21
Number of defects

18 c = 12.67

15

12

6
LCL = 1.99
3

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number
Confederation of Indian Industry
 Control Limits
Upper Control Limit

Target
3 x sd of means

Lower Control Limit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sample Number
Confederation of Indian Industry
Types of Control Charts

Control Charts

Variables Attributes

X – R Chart p Chart
X – s Chart np Chart
C Chart
u Chart

Confederation of Indian Industry

Variable Control Charts Attribute Control Charts

o defect prevention o defect detection

and o a screening device to
process initiate variables
improvement control charting
o more expensive to o cheaper to construct
construct and and maintain
maintain o cannot tell cause of
o can tell reason for defect
process behavior o need large n (>100)
o smaller n (1-10)
needed

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Selecting a Control Chart
Start
Measurable Countable
Variables Data DATA TYPE Attributes Data

n=1 Sample Defects Defectives

Size, n or
Defects?

X-bar MR Yes Constant No

Chart ‘n’

Defectives
n>1 c or u u
Chart Chart

Range, S.D,
if n<10 if n>10 Yes No
Range or Constant
S.D ‘n’

X-bar - X-bar - np or p p
R Chart s Chart Chart Chart

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Control Chart
Purpose

• In all production processes, we need to monitor the

extent to which
• our products meet specifications.
• In the most general terms, there are two "enemies" of
product quality:
• deviations from target specifications, and
• excessive variability around target specifications.

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Basic Steps for Control Charts
Step No. 1
Identify quality characteristics of product or process that
affects “fitness for use”.
Maintaining control chart is an expensive activity. Control
charts should be maintained only for critical quality
characteristics. Design of Experiments is one of the good
source to find the critical quality characteristics of the
process.
Step No . 2
Design the sampling plan and decide method of its
measurement.
At this step we decide, how many units will be in a sample
and how frequently the samples will be taken by the operator.
 Basic Steps for Control Charts
Step No. 3
Take samples at different intervals and plot statistics of the
sample measurements on control chart.
Mean, range, standard deviation etc are the statistics of
measurements of a sample. On a mean control chart, we
plot the mean of sample and on a range control chart, we
plot the range of the sample.
Step No. 4
Take corrective action - when a signal for significant change
in process characteristic is received.
Here we use OCAP (Out of Control Action Plan) to
investigate, as why a significant change in the process has
occurred and then take corrective action as suggested in
OCAP, to bring the process under control.
 Summary of Control Chart
Techniques
In ‘Control Chart Technique’ we have

Quality characteristics
Sampling procedure
Plotting of statistics
Corrective action
 Types of Charts

Variable control charts are :-

• X bar – R Chart
• Run Chart
Attribute control Charts are :-
• P Chart
• C chart
• U Chart

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Types of Charts

Variable control charts are :-

• X bar – R Chart
• Run Chart

Confederation of Indian Industry

 X bar – R Chart

An Xbar & R Control Chart is one that shows both the

mean value ( X ), and the range ( R ). The Xbar portion of
the chart mainly shows any changes in the mean value of
the process, while the R portion shows any changes in the
dispersion of the process. This chart is particularly useful in
that it shows changes in mean value and dispersion of the
process at the same time, making it a very effective
method for checking abnormalities within the process

Confederation of Indian Industry

 X bar – R Chart
Formula’s Used
X bar Chart

Center Line = X

R Chart

Center Line = R

Confederation of Indian Industry

 X bar – R Chart
Example
PART NAME: SPACER FRAME CROSS MEMBER

SPECIFIC: 65.8±0.2

SNO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 65.84 65.88 65.86 65.86 65.9 65.84 65.88 65.88 65.92 65.92

2 65.88 65.86 65.88 65.88 65.84 65.9 65.9 65.9 65.9 65.88

3 65.82 65.9 65.86 65.88 65.86 65.86 65.9 65.86 65.92 65.88

4 65.9 65.84 65.84 65.84 65.88 65.88 65.86 65.82 65.88 65.86

5 65.88 65.86 65.9 65.86 65.86 65.86 65.88 65.84 65.88 65.84

Average X (x) 65.864 65.868 65.868 65.864 65.868 65.868 65.884 65.86 65.9 65.876

Range 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.08

Confederation of Indian Industry

 X bar – R Chart

X = Average (Average X) = Average X

=658.72/10 = 65.872

R = Average (Range)
=0.6/10 = 0.06

Confederation of Indian Industry

 X bar – R Chart
For X bar Chart
UCL = 65.872 + 0.590x0.06
= 65.907
Center Line = X X =65.87

LCL = 65.872 - 0.590x0.06

= 65.836

R Chart
UCL = 0.06x2.110 = 0.1266

Center Line = R R = 0.06

LCL = 0.06x0 = 0

Confederation of Indian Industry

 X bar Chart

65.92
65.91 UCL = 65.905
65.9
65.89
65.88
X bar

65.87 X = 65.87
65.86
65.85
65.84
LCL = 65.836
65.83
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Confederation of Indian Industry

 R Chart

0.14

0.12
UCL = 0.126

0.1
Range

0.08

0.06 R = 0.06
0.04

0.02
LCL = 0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Coefficients for x-R Charts

Size of Sub-group X-Chart R Chart R Chart R Chart

n A2 D3 D4 d2
2 1.880 - 3.267 1.128
3 1.023 - 2.575 1.693
4 0.729 - 2.282 2.059
5 0.590 - 2.110 2.326
6 0.483 - 2.004 2.534

Confederation of Indian Industry

 X bar – R Chart
Exercise

PART NAME: PIPE COMP. STRG. HEAD-KTEA

SPECIFIC: 8+0 /-0.2

SNO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 7.9 7.98 8 8.1 7.85 7.84 7.91 7.98 7.85 7.84

2 7.84 7.84 7.84 7.94 7.97 7.94 7.94 7.98 7.84 7.94

3 7.96 7.94 7.88 7.82 7.88 8.1 7.85 7.84 7.91 7.98

4 7.84 7.84 7.94 7.97 7.94 7.84 7.91 7.98 7.85 7.84

5 7.94 7.97 7.94 7.94 7.98 8.1 7.85 7.84 7.91 7.98

Confederation of Indian Industry

Attribute Charts:

• p Chart Fraction Defective

• c Chart No. of Defects on a fixed sized Product
• u Chart No. of Defects on a varying sized product
p Chart

Control charts dealing with the proportion or fraction

of defective product are called p chart (for proportion).

p Chart
Formula’s Used

‘p’ is the fraction defective in a lot or population

‘n’ is the number of lot

p Chart
Example
S.No. Date Total Quantity Defective Qty.
Produce
1 1st Jan 07 990 87
2 2nd Jan 07 1000 93
3 3rd Jan 07 1110 189
4 4th Jan 07 980 126
5 5th Jan 07 1000 109
6 6th Jan 07 1100 102
7 8th Jan 07 910 145
8 9th Jan 07 1080 90
9 10th Jan 07 985 81
p Chart
Step 1: Calculate Fraction Defective
S.No Date Total Quantity Defective Qty. Fraction Defective
Produce
1 1st Jan 07 990 87 87/990 =0.088
2 2nd Jan 07 1000 93 93/1000 =0.093
3 3rd Jan 07 1110 189 189/1110 =0.170
4 4th Jan 07 980 126 126/980 =0.129
5 5th Jan 07 1000 109 109/1000 =0.109
6 6th Jan 07 1100 102 102/1100 =0.093
7 8th Jan 07 910 145 145/910 =0.159
8 9th Jan 07 1080 90 90/1080 =0.083
9 10th Jan 07 985 81 81/985 =0.82
Total 9155 1022 1.006
p Chart
Step 2: Calculate UCL & LCL

P = 1.006 / 9 =0.112

UCL = 0.112 + 3 0.112(1-

0.112)/9 = 0.422

LCL = 0.112 – 3 0.112(1-

0.112)/9 = - 0.203

=0
p Chart
Step 3: Draw Chart

0.450
0.400 UCL =
0.350 0.422
Fraction Defective

0.300
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100 P=
0.050
0.112
0.000
LCL = 0
c Chart

C Chart is used where each item inspected may have

several nonconformities and each nonconformity is counted,

and sample size is constant.

c Chart
Formula’s Used

Center line c = c /n

UCL = c + 3 * c

LCL = c - 3 * c

Where ‘c’ is the number of nonconformities in each sample

‘n’ is the number of lot

c Chart
Example
Lot Number Number of pinholes Lot Number Number of pinholes
1 8 11 6
2 9 12 4
3 5 13 7
4 8 14 6
5 5 15 14
6 9 16 6
7 9 17 4
8 11 18 11
9 8 19 7
10 7 20 8
Total 152
c Chart
Step 1: Calculate UCL & LCL

Center line c = c /n c = 152/20 = 7.6

UCL = c + 3 * c UCL = 7.6 + 3 * 7.6 = 15.85

LCL = c - 3 * c LCL = 7.6 - 3 * 7.6 = -0.65

=0
c Chart
Step 2: Draw Chart

18
16
14
UCL =
No. of Pinholes

12 15.85
10
8
6
c=
4 7.6
2
0
LCL =
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0
u Chart

A u-chart is an attributes control chart used with data

collected in subgroups of varying sizes

u Chart
Formula’s Used

Center line u = u /n

UCL = u + 3 * u /N

LCL = u - 3 * u /N

Where ‘u’ is the number of nonconformities in each sample

‘n’ is the number of items in the sample

‘N’ is the average sample size

u Chart
Example
S. No. No. of parts Inspected Number of Nonconformities
1 200 5
2 80 7
3 100 3
4 300 15
5 120 4
6 90 6
7 250 10
8 50 1
9 100 6
10 70 2
Total 1360 59
 u Chart
Step 1: Calculate u
S. No. No. of parts Inspected Number of Nonconformities U = B/A
(A) (B)
1 200 5 0.025
2 80 7 0.088
3 100 3 0.030
4 300 15 0.050
5 120 4 0.033
6 90 6 0.067
7 250 10 0.040
8 50 1 0.020
9 100 6 0.060
10 70 2 0.029
Total 1360 59
u Chart
Step 2: Calculate UCL & LCL

N = 1360 / 10 = 1360

Center line u = u /n u = 59/1360 = 0.043

UCL = u + 3 * u /N UCL = 0.043 + 3 0.043/136 = 0.097

LCL = u - 3 * u /N LCL = 0.043 - 3 0.043/136 = -0.011

=0
u Chart
Step 3: Draw Chart

0.12

0.1
UCL =
0.08
0.097
0.06
u

0.04
u=
0.02
0.04
0 3 =
LCL
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
 5. CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

• Show the relationships between a problem

and its possible causes.
• Developed by Kaoru Ishikawa (1953)
• Also known as …
– Fishbone diagrams
– Ishikawa diagrams

Confederation of Indian Industry

Cause and Effect Diagram
• Used to associate multiple possible causes with a
single effect.

• Given a particular effect, the diagram is

constructed to identify and organize possible
causes for it.

• The primary branch represents the effect (the

quality characteristic that is intended to be
improved and controlled) and is typically labelled
on the right side of the diagram.
Confederation of Indian Industry
Cause and Effect Diagram
• Each major branch of the diagram corresponds to
a major cause (or class of causes) that directly
relates to the effect.

• Minor branches correspond to more detailed

causal factors.

• This type of diagram is useful in any analysis, as it

illustrates the relationship between cause and
effect in a rational manner.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Cause and Effect skeleton

Materials Procedures

Quality
Problem

People Equipment

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Fishbone Diagram
Measurement Human Machines

Faulty testing equipment Poor supervision Out of adjustment

Incorrect specifications Lack of concentration Tooling problems

Improper methods Inadequate training Old / worn

Quality
Inaccurate Problem
temperature
control Defective from vendor Poor process
design
Ineffective quality
Dust and Not to specifications management
Dirt
Material- Deficiencies
handling problems in product
design

Environment Materials Process

Confederation of Indian Industry

Fishbone Diagram

Confederation of Indian Industry

Cause and effect diagrams
• Advantages
– making the diagram is educational in itself
– diagram demonstrates knowledge of problem
solving team
– diagram results in active searches for causes
– diagram is a guide for data collection

Confederation of Indian Industry

Cause and effect diagrams

To construct the skeleton, remember:

• For manufacturing - the 4 M’s
man, method, machine, material
• For service applications
equipment, policies, procedures, people

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Typical causes for non conformance/
defects
Machine factors

• Inadequate process capability

• Incorrectly designed tooling
• Worn tools, jigs or dies
• Poor maintenance
• Equipment effected by environmental factors such as heat,
humidity etc.

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Typical causes for non conformance/
defects
Material factors

• Use of untested materials

• Mix-up of materials

• Substandard material accepted on concession because of non-

availability of correct material

• Inconsistency in specifications on the part of vendors

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Typical causes for non conformance/
defects
Men factors

• Incorrect knowledge of setting up machines

• Careless operator and inadequate supervision

• Undue rush by the operator to achieve quality targets

• Lack of understanding of drawing instructions relating to a process

• Operator does not possess requisite skill for operating machines

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Typical causes for non conformance/
defects
Method factors

• Inadequate process controls

• Non availability of proper test equipments
• Test equipment out of calibration
• Vague inspection/ testing instructions
• Inspectors do not possess the necessary skill

Confederation of Indian Industry

 Cause & Effect diagram
Example

METHOD MEN

EXCESSIVE PAPER / BOTTOM PANEL

SIDE WALL TEMP SEEPAGE FITMENT

LOW SHOT WEIGHT

TAPE MISSING

VOIDS
CHEMICAL
IMPROPER POL/CP MIXING
TEMP POURING HOLE
CHEMICAL MISMATCH
IMPROPER P/I RATIO PRESSURE
DAMAGED PE
M/C ALARMS SHEETS.

MACHINE MATERIAL

Confederation of Indian Industry

6. SCATTER PLOT
• Scatter diagrams are graphical tools that attempt
to show the influence that one variable has on
another.
• A common diagram of this type usually displays
points representing the observed value of one
variable corresponding to the value of another
variable.
• A scatter diagram shows the relationship between
independent variable (cause) and dependent
variable (effect).

Confederation of Indian Industry

Characteristics of Independent Variable
• It should be measurable on a continuous
scale.

• It should have a logical relationship with the

dependent variable.

• Changes in level of independent variable

should cause changes in level of dependent
variable.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Typical Relationship We Normally Like
to Study

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

• Moisture contents Elongation of thread

• Wax purity Hardness of lipstick

• Roller Pressure Paper thickness

• Charge weight Range of bullet

• Number of users Response time

Confederation of Indian Industry

Typical
Y Relationship
Length of bar

X
Pull Speed
Confederation of Indian Industry
 Y Typical
Relationship
Stamina

X
Life (Age)
Confederation of Indian Industry
Table - Humidity Vs Voltage
Voltage
Humidity %
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
10 40 43 41 42 40
20 46 43 46 46 44
30 45 43 43 44 43
40 49 45 48 49 46
50 51 47 50 51 49
60 54 51 51 52 53
70 54 52 51 55 53
80 57 55 54 58 58
90 59 57 56 59 57
100 60 58 57 58 58
Confederation of Indian Industry
 Scatter Plot
60
55
50
Voltage

45
40
35

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity
Confederation of Indian Industry
7. STRATIFICATION
• It is the process of segregating or regrouping the
data on the basis of certain characteristics ( e.g.
machine wise, operator wise etc.) for identifying
the influence factors (i.e. identifying contributory
causes to the problems being handled)
• Data on Customer Complaints may be
segregated by
a) Nature of Complaints: defective products,
Delayed delivery etc.
b) Department Responsible: Production, Design,
Quality etc.

Confederation of Indian Industry

Benefits of Stratification
• Separate Data into groups.

• Draw meaningful and correct inferences from

the data.

• Diagnose and Localize problems i.e. establish

clear relationship between cause and effect.

• Identify the influencing factors, thereby making it

easier to solve the problems.

Confederation of Indian Industry

 % Defectives Stratified supplierwise

30
20
Defective
%

25
s

10 15
10 5
0
A B C D
Suppliers

Confederation of Indian Industry

 % Accidents Stratified Shopwise

40
30
% Accidents

20
30 25
10 15 20
10
0
Machinesho

Gear shop
Press shop

Others
Welding
shop
p

Shops

Confederation of Indian Industry

THANKS
EXCERCISE

X bar – R Chart
PART NAME: PIPE COMP. STRG. HEAD-KTEA
SPECIFIC: 8+0 /-0.2

SNO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 7.9 7.98 8 8.1 7.85 7.84 7.91 7.98 7.85 7.84

2 7.84 7.84 7.84 7.94 7.97 7.94 7.94 7.98 7.84 7.94

3 7.96 7.94 7.88 7.82 7.88 8.1 7.85 7.84 7.91 7.98

4 7.84 7.84 7.94 7.97 7.94 7.84 7.91 7.98 7.85 7.84

5 7.94 7.97 7.94 7.94 7.98 8.1 7.85 7.84 7.91 7.98
Exercise
Make Pareto Chart for the data given below.
Product : Spanner
Production Per day : 25000

S.No Defect Numbers

1 Cracks 298

2 Scaling 1266
3 Unfilled – 435
Cavity
4 Grinding NG 684
5 Plating NG 1372