54 Women 2000 and Beyond

PUBLISHED TO PROMOTE THE GOALS OF THE BEIJING DECLARATION AND THE PLATFORM FOR ACTION
December 2007
Women, gender equality

and sport
Edwina Sandys
UNITED NATIONS
Division for the Advancement of Women
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
women 2000 and beyond December 2007
Women, have a higher risk of developing than

men.6 Participation in physical activity
aids in the prevention and/or treatment
gender equality of other chronic and degenerative dis-

eases associated with aging, such as
type-2 diabetes, hypertension, arthritis,
and sport osteoporosis and cardiovascular abnor-

malities. It also helps in the manage-
ment of weight and contributes to the
formation and maintenance of healthy
bones, muscles and joints. Physical
past that sport was harmful to wom- activity can reduce the incidence of
Introduction
en’s health, particularly their repro- falls among older women.
“Bicycling has done more to ductive health. In 1896, Baron Pierre An important role of physical activ-
emancipate women than any one de Coubertin, founder of the modern ity in the life of older women lies in
thing in the world” Olympics, stated: “No matter how prolonging independence. Much of the
—Susan B. Anthony, suffragist, 1896 toughened a sportswoman may be, physical decline that was presumed an
her organism is not cut out to sustain inevitable consequence of aging is now
Women’s participation in sport has a certain shocks.” 2 Such stereotypes thought to be the result of inactivity.
long history. It is a history marked by
fuelled gender-based discrimination in While no one can guarantee that exer-
division and discrimination but also one
physical education and in recreational cise will prolong life, it can enhance
filled with major accomplishments by
and competitive sport, sporting organi- the quality of life for older women who
female athletes and important advances
zations and sport media. value their independence.7
for gender equality and the empower-
The benefits for women and girls
ment of women and girls.
with disabilities are also well estab-
Among the many remarkable lished. It has been noted that sport
achievements are those of Helene The benefits for women provides a double benefit to women
Madison of the United States of and girls of physical with disabilities by providing affirma-
America, the first woman to swim activity and sport tions of self-empowerment at both
the 100-yard freestyle in one minute personal and collective levels.8 Apart
Although many of the clinical trials
at the 1932 Olympics; Maria-Teresa from enhancing health, wellness and
and epidemiological studies in health
de Filippis of Italy, the first woman to quality of life, participation in physical
research have excluded women, the
compete in a European Grand Prix auto activity and sport develops skills such
data available suggest that women
race in 1958; Nawal El Moutawakel as teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit
derive many health benefits from an
of Morocco, the first woman from of excellence in performance and other
active lifestyle.3 The health benefits of
an Islamic nation to win an Olympic achievement-oriented behaviours that
medal for the 400-metre hurdles at women’s participation in physical activ-
women and girls with disabilities may
the 1984 Olympics; and Tegla Loroupe ity and sport are now well established.
not be exposed to in other contexts.9
of Kenya, who in 1994 became the Participation in sport and physical activ-
Participation in sport and physical
first African woman to win a major ity can prevent a myriad of noncom-
activity can also facilitate good mental
marathon.1 Women have taken up top municable diseases which account
health for women of all ages, includ-
leadership positions in sport, such as for over 60 per cent of global deaths,
ing the management of mental disor-
Presidents and Secretaries-General of 66 per cent of which occur in develop-
ders such as Alzheimer’s disease.10 It
National Olympic Committees. More ing countries.4 For girls, it can have a
can promote psychological well-being
and more women have also taken up positive impact on childhood health, as
through building self-esteem, confi-
employment opportunities in all areas well as reduce the risk of chronic dis-
dence and social integration, as well
of sport, including as coaches, manag- eases in later life.
as help reduce stress, anxiety, loneli-
ers, officials and sport journalists. For older women, it can contribute ness and depression. This is particu-
These achievements were made in to the prevention of cardiovascular dis- larly important as rates of depression
the face of numerous barriers based on eases, which account for one third of among women are almost double
gender discrimination. Women were deaths among women around the world those of men in both developed and
often perceived as being too weak for and half of all deaths among women developing countries.11 Adolescent
sport, particularly endurance sports, over 50 in developing countries.5 Physi- girls in particular are vulnerable to anxi-
such as marathons, weightlifting and cal activity also helps to reduce the ety and depressive disorders and are
cycling, and it was often argued in the effects of osteoporosis, which women significantly more likely than boys to

December 2007 women 2000 and beyond
have seriously considered suicide by ment in many different areas, including

the age of 15.12 Inequalities in the home, the community and the
In addition to improvements in
and discrimination: labour market. The current dominance
health, women and girls stand to gain
constraining of men in the world of sport makes
specific social benefits from partici-
women in sport their involvement and contributions to
The positive outcomes of sport for achieving gender equality in this area
pation in sport and physical activity.
gender equality and women’s empow- critical.
Sport provides women and girls with
erment are constrained by gender- This publication explores the power of
an alternative avenue for participation
based discrimination in all areas and at sport and physical education to advance
in the social and cultural life of their
all levels of sport and physical activity, gender equality and the empower-
communities and promotes enjoyment
fuelled by continuing stereotypes of ment of women and girls. It examines
of freedom of expression, interper-
women’s physical abilities and social persistent inequalities and challenges
sonal networks, new opportunities and roles. Women are frequently segre- to equal participation and benefits
increased self-esteem. It also expands gated involuntarily into different types for women and girls, as well as ways
opportunities for education and for the of sports, events and competitions to address them. Examples of good
development of a range of essential life specifically targeted to women. Wom- practices are provided in all areas. The
skills, including communication, leader- en’s access to positions of leadership report outlines recommendations for
ship, teamwork and negotiation. and decision-making is constrained action in the areas of research, policy
Inactive adults can rapidly improve from the local level to the international and operational activities.
their health and well-being by becom- level. The value placed on women’s
ing moderately active on a regular basis. sport is often lower, resulting in inad-
Physical activity need not be strenuous equate resources and unequal wages
The United Nations
to achieve health benefits and it is and prizes. In the media, women’s
sport is not only marginalized but also human rights and sport
never too late to gain benefits.13
often presented in a different style for development and
that reflects and reinforces gender
The benefits of women’s peace framework
participation stereotypes. Violence against women,
for sport and society exploitation and harassment in sport
are manifestations of the perceptions “The practice of physical educa-
In addition to benefits for women and of men’s dominance, physical strength tion and sport is a fundamental right
girls themselves, women’s increased and power, which are traditionally por- for all.”
involvement can promote positive trayed in male sport. —UNESCO International Charter
of Physical Education and Sport,
development in sport by providing alter- A number of critical elements have article 1
native norms, values, attitudes, know- been identified for challenging gender
ledge, capabilities and experiences. discrimination and unequal gender A rights-based understanding of sport
The contributions of women, particu- relations, and establishing an enabling and physical activity has been present
larly in leadership positions, can bring environment for gender equality and since the founding of the United Nations.
diversity and alternative approaches the empowerment of women, in many In 1948, the Universal Declaration of
different areas, including women and Human Rights set out a framework of
and expand the talent base in areas
sport. They include improving wom- rights and duties and recognized that
such as management, coaching and
en’s capabilities, through education “Everyone has the right to rest and lei-
sport journalism.
and health; increasing their access to sure . . .” (article 24); “Education shall
The participation of women and girls be directed to the full development of
and control over opportunities and
in sport challenges gender stereo- the human personality . . .” (article 26);
resources, such as employment and
types and discrimination, and can economic assets; enhancing their and “Everyone has the right to freely
therefore be a vehicle to promote gen- agency and leadership roles; protect- participate in the cultural life of the
der equality and the empowerment of ing and promoting their human rights; community . . .” (article 27).14
women and girls. In particular, women and ensuring their security, including Sport and physical activity were first
in sport leadership can shape attitudes freedom from violence. specifically recognized as a human right
towards women’s capabilities as lead- The role of men and boys in chal- in the International Charter of Physical
ers and decision-makers, especially lenging and changing unequal power Education and Sport, adopted in 1978
in traditional male domains. Women’s relations is critical. In recent years, a by the United Nations Educational,
involvement in sport can make a sig- stronger focus has developed on the Scientific and Cultural Organization
nificant contribution to public life and positive role men and boys can and do (UNESCO). The Charter states: “One of
community development. play in promoting women’s empower- the essential conditions for the effec-

tive exercise of human rights is that creative ways. Women play an integral level, and to promote the use of sport
everyone should be free to develop role in the achievement of every MDG, as a recognized tool in development.
and preserve his or her physical, intel- and every MDG is vital to gender equal- The Task Force report Sport as a tool
lectual, and moral powers, and that ity and women’s empowerment. for development and peace: Towards
access to physical education and sport In 2002, the Secretary-General con- achieving the United Nations Millen-
should consequently be assured and vened the United Nations Inter-Agency nium Development Goals provides an
guaranteed for all human beings.”15 Task Force on Sport for Development overview of the growing role that sport
The Convention on the Rights of the and Peace to encourage a more coher- activities play in many United Nations
Child, adopted in 1989, also supports ent approach to the use of sport-related policies and programmes and summa-
the notion of sport and physical educa- initiatives in the pursuit of development rizes the lessons learned. The report
tion as a human right. In article 29 (1), goals, particularly at the community concludes that sport programmes must
States parties agreed that the educa-
tion of the child shall be directed to “the
development of the child’s personality, Sport and the MDGs
talents and mental and physical abilities Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. Providing develop-
to their fullest potential”.16 ment opportunities will help fight poverty. The sport industry, as well as
The adoption of the United Nations the organization of large sporting events, creates opportunities for employ-
Convention on the Rights of Persons ment. Sport provides life skills essential for a productive life in society. The
with Disabilities in 2006 marked a opportunity to acquire such skills is often more limited for women, making
significant step forward in the policy their access to sport of critical importance.
framework on sport for people with Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education. Sport and physical edu-
disabilities. The Convention affirms the cation are an essential element of quality education. They promote posi-
right of persons with disabilities to par- tive values and skills that have an immediate and lasting impact on young
ticipate in mainstream and disability- people. Sport activities and physical education generally make school more
specific sporting activities at all levels attractive and improve attendance.
and to have equal access to training,
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Increas-
resources, venues and services. It also
ing access for women and girls to physical education and sport helps build
affirms the right of children with dis-
confidence and promotes stronger social integration. Involving girls in sport
abilities to have equal access to recre-
activities alongside boys can help overcome prejudice that often contributes
ation and sporting activities, including
to social vulnerability of women and girls.
those in the school system.17 The spe-
cific focus on equality between women Goals 4 and 5: Reduce child mortality and improve maternal
and men and women with disabilities health. Sport can be an effective means to provide women with a healthy
in this new Convention will benefit lifestyle as well as to convey important messages on a wide range of health
issues.
women and girls in sport.18
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Sport can
Over the past decade, there has
help engage otherwise difficult-to-reach populations and provide positive
been a growing understanding that
role models delivering prevention messages. The most vulnerable popula-
access to and participation in sport and
tions, including women and girls, are highly responsive to sport-targeted pro-
physical education is not only a right in
grammes. Sport can also effectively assist in overcoming prejudice, stigma
itself, but can also be used to promote
and discrimination.
a number of important development
goals through facilitating democratic Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability. Sport is ideal for raising
principles, promoting leadership devel- awareness about the need to preserve the environment. The interdepen-
opment, and encouraging tolerance and dency between the regular practice of outdoor sports and the protection of
respect, as well as providing access to the environment is clear.
opportunities and social networks. All Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development. Sport offers
areas of development can be influenced diverse opportunities for innovative partnerships for development and can
by sport, including health, education, be used as a tool to build and foster partnerships between developed and
employment, social inclusion, political developing nations to work towards achieving the Millennium Development
development and peace and security. Goals.
Sport has the potential to contrib- Source: Adapted from International Year of Sport and Physical Education
ute to the achievement of each of the (2005). A year of sports. Available from http://www.un.org/sport2005/a_year/
United Nations Millennium Develop- mill_goals.html
ment Goals (MDGs) in unique and

be based on the “sport for all” model, action plan serves as an initial road mentation of these commitments has
ensuring that all groups are given the map for a three-year period to expand begun in all regions, and has resulted
opportunity to participate, particularly and strengthen partnerships, sport for in real and tangible progress for gen-
those who gain additional benefits, development and peace programmes der equality and the empowerment of
such as women, persons with disabili- and projects, as well as advocacy and women and girls. However, the imple-
ties and young people.19 communications activities. The plan mentation of the frameworks continues
In 2004, the General Assembly calls for the development of a global to be constrained by gender-based dis-
adopted resolution 58/5, “Sport as a framework to strengthen a common crimination in all areas and at all levels
means to promote education, health, vision, define priorities and further raise of sport and physical education.
development and peace”, which invited awareness to promote and mainstream
Governments, the United Nations, the easily replicable sport for development
specialized agencies, where appro-
and peace policies. It also calls for pro- United Nations
moting innovative funding mechanisms intergovernmental
priate, and sport-related institutions
and voluntary arrangements, including processes
to work collectively so that sport and
the engagement of sport organizations,
physical education could present The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted
civil society, athletes and the private
opportunities for solidarity and coop- at the Fourth World Conference on
sector.
eration, in order to promote a culture Women in 1995, provides important
of peace and social and gender equal- policy recommendations on women,
ity and to advocate dialogue and har- Policy/normative gender equality and sport. The Platform
mony. It recognized the power of sport calls for the provision of accessible rec-
to contribute to human development frameworks on women,
reational and sport facilities by educa-
and proclaimed the year 2005 as the gender equality tional institutions, the establishment
International Year of Sport and Physical and sport and strengthening of gender-sensitive
Education. programmes for girls and women of
The International Year aimed to “States parties shall take all appro- all ages in education and community
facilitate better knowledge-sharing priate measures to eliminate discrim- institutions, and the creation and sup-
among different key stakeholders, raise ination against women in other areas port of programmes in the education
awareness and create the right condi- of economic and social life in order system, workplace and community
tions for the implementation of more to ensure, on a basis of equality of to make opportunities to participate
sport-based human development pro- women and men, the same rights, in in sport and physical activity available
grammes. It provided a unique oppor- particular . . . [t]he rights to partici- to girls and women of all ages, on the
tunity to use the power of sport to mo- pate in recreational activities, sports same basis as they are made available
bilize individuals, organizations and local and all aspects of cultural life.” to men and boys. 21
communities, drawing together diverse —Convention on the Elimination The Commission on the Status of
groups in a positive and supportive of All Forms of Discrimination Women, the principal global policymak-
environment. During the International against Women (article 13) ing body on gender equality, addressed
Year, over 100 international initiatives Within the established framework of sport and physical activity in its review
and thousands of local projects were human rights and sport for develop- of progress made in the implementa-
undertaken by Governments, the United ment and peace, a number of United tion of the Beijing Platform for Action.
Nations system, non-governmental Nations intergovernmental and treaty In agreed conclusions 1999/17 (I) on
organizations (NGOs) and the private body processes, as well as other inter- women and health, the Commission
sector. An unprecedented amount of national and regional processes, have called on Governments, the United
media attention was accorded to the specifically addressed some of the Nations system and civil society to
issue of sport and physical educa- critical gender equality issues in sport encourage women to practise regular
tion. The notion of “sport for all” was and physical education. Global and sport and recreational activities, which
emphasized and the principle of non- regional policy/normative frameworks have a positive impact on women’s
discrimination was upheld as a funda- on women, gender equality and sport health, well-being and fitness through-
mental human right. have been developed. out the whole life cycle, and ensure
In 2006, Secretary-General Kofi These policy/normative frameworks that women enjoy equal opportunities
Annan presented the United Nations have laid the foundation for a just and to practise sport, use sport facilities
Action Plan on Sport for Development equitable world of sport for women and and take part in competitions. 22
and Peace, which was included in his men. They have also recognized the The outcome of the five-year review
report on “Sport for Development power of sport as a catalyst for social of the implementation of the Beijing
and Peace: the way forward”. 20 The and economic development. Imple- Declaration and Platform for Action rec-

States parties to take all appropriate

Sport and the Beijing Platform for Action measures to eliminate discrimination
against women in other areas of eco-
Under the critical area of concern on education, the Platform calls for Gov- nomic and social life in order to ensure,
ernments, educational authorities and other educational and academic insti- on the basis of equality between women
tutions to provide accessible recreational and sport facilities and establish and men, the same rights, including
and strengthen gender-sensitive programmes for girls and women of all the right to participate in recreational
ages in education and community institutions and support the advancement activities, sports and all aspects of
of women in all areas of athletics and physical activity, including coaching, cultural life. 25
training and administration, and as participants at the national, regional and The Committee on the Elimination
international levels. of Discrimination against Women has
In relation to health, the Platform calls for Governments to create and also reminded States parties, in its gen-
support programmes in the education system, workplace and community eral recommendation No. 25 on tempo-
to make opportunities to participate in sport, physical activity and recreation rary special measures, that temporary
available to girls and women of all ages on the same basis as they are made special measures, such as positive
available to men and boys. action, preferential treatment or quota
In the critical area of concern on power and decision-making, the systems, should be implemented in the
Platform notes that the underrepresentation of women in decision-making areas of sports, culture and recreation.
positions in the areas of art, culture, sport, the media, education, religion The Committee further emphasized
and law have prevented women from having a significant impact on many that, where necessary, such measures
key institutions. should be directed at women subjected
In relation to the situation of the girl-child, the Platform calls for Govern- to multiple discrimination, including
ments and international and non-governmental organizations to promote the rural women. 26
full and equal participation of girls in extracurricular activities, such as sport,
drama and cultural activities.
Other international
Source: United Nations (1995). Report of the Fourth World Conference on
Women in Beijing, 4-15 September 1995. New York (United Nations publication. and regional policy
Sales No. 96.IV.13). Critical Area of Concern B, Education and training of frameworks
women, Strategic Objective B.2, para. 83 (m). See the Critical Area of Concern
C, Women and health, Strategic Objective C.2, para. 107 (f); Critical Area of Other processes have also contributed
Concern G, Women in power and decision-making, para. 183; and, Critical Area to global and regional policy frame-
of Concern L, The girl-child, Strategic Objective L.4, para. 280 (d). works on women, gender equality and
sport. International bodies that have
been particularly active in developing
ognized the need for gender equality in to promote gender equality and the such frameworks include the Interna-
sport and physical education. It called empowerment of women. 24 tional Council of Sport Science and
on Governments and regional and Physical Education, the International
international organizations, including Olympic Committee, the International
the United Nations system, to ensure United Nations Paralympic Committee and numerous
equal opportunities for women and treaty bodies groups and networks, such as the Inter-
girls in cultural, recreational and sport national Working Group on Women and
activities, as well as in participation in The Convention on the Elimination of
Sport, WomenSport International and
athletics and physical activities at the All Forms of Discrimination against the International Association of Physi-
national, regional and international lev- Women provides binding obligations cal Education for Women and Girls.
els, such as in access, training, compe- for States parties on eliminating dis-
tition, remuneration and prizes. 23 crimination against women and girls in International
The understanding that sport pro- the area of sports and physical educa- processes
grammes can be an important vehicle tion. Article 10 calls for States parties to The International Olympic Committee
for promoting gender equality has con- take all appropriate measures to elimi- (IOC) plays a central leadership role
tinued to advance, particularly since nate discrimination against women in in the world of sport, and its policies
the establishment of the International order to ensure to them equal rights set standards in international, regional
Year of Sport and Physical Education. with men in the field of education, and national sporting events and pro-
In 2006, the General Assembly, for the including ensuring the same opportuni- cedures. In 1994, it requested that
first time, specifically invited Member ties to participate actively in sports and the Olympic Charter be amended to
States to initiate sport programmes physical education. Article 13 calls for include an explicit reference to the

need for action on women and sport.

This is reflected in the current Charter, Resolution of the Second International Olympic
adopted in 2004, which states that Committee World Conference on Women and Sport
one of the roles of the Committee is to
“encourage and support the promotion The resolution, adopted in 2000, calls for a number of strategies and actions
of women in sport at all levels and in all to be taken by the International Olympic Committee, Governments and
structures with a view to implement- international organizations, including the United Nations system, such as:
ing the principle of equality of men and • Meeting the 20 per cent goal of women in decision-making by 2005;
women.”27
• Increasing scholarships and training for women athletes, coaches and
In 1995, the International Olympic other officials;
Committee established a Working • Raising awareness about the positive influence of the Convention on
Group on Women and Sport, which the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women on the
was elevated to the status of a Com- development of physical activity and sport for women and girls;
mission in 2004. The Women and Sport • Urging the Commission on the Status of Women to recognize the impor-
Commission, which meets once a year, tance of physical activity and sport to women’s and girls’ development
monitors the participation of women in at all stages of their lives;
the Olympics as well as their represen- • Raising awareness about the importance of quality physical education;
tation in decision-making. The Commis-
• Developing strategies and educational material to support physical edu-
sion organizes quadrennial IOC World
cation for girls;
Conferences on Women and Sport to
• Implementing sexual harassment policies, including codes of conduct;
assess progress made in women and
and
sport within the Olympic Movement,
• Working with the media to ensure a more accurate projection of wom-
define priority actions and increase the
en’s sport.
involvement of women.
Source: International Olympic Committee (2000). Resolution of the 2nd
The International Working Group IOC World Conference on Women and Sport. Paris, France. Available from
on Women and Sport, an indepen- http://www.olympic.org/common/asp/download_report.asp?file=en_report_
dent coordinating body of government 757.pdf&id=757
organizations, aims to be a catalyst for
the advancement and empowerment
of women and sport globally. It was
established in 1994 at the First World The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport
Conference on Women and Sport, held The Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport calls for:
in Brighton, United Kingdom, organized
• Equality in society and sport;
by the British Sports Council and sup-
• Sport facilities that meet the needs of women;
ported by the International Olympic
Committee. At this conference, the • An increase in the number of women coaches, advisers and decision-
Brighton Declaration was adopted and makers in sport;
endorsed by the 280 delegates from 82 • Education, training and development programmes that address gender
countries representing Governments, equality;
NGOs, National Olympic Committees, • Information and research on women and sport;
international and national sport fed- • Allocation of resources for sportswomen and women’s programmes;
erations, and educational and research and
institutions. • Incorporation of the promotion of gender equality and sharing of good
The Second International Working practices into governmental and non-governmental policies and pro-
Group on Women and Sport World grammes on women and sport.
Conference on Women and Sport took Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (1994). The
place in Windhoek, Namibia, in 1998. Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport. Available from http://www.iwg-
gti.org
The Windhoek Call for Action further
developed the aims of the Brighton
Declaration, calling for the promotion
of sport as a means to realize broader adopted at the Third IWG World Con- variety of actions, including information
goals in health, education and women’s ference in Montreal, Canada, in 2002, and advocacy campaigns and the inte-
human rights.28 This idea was strength- which recognized that the path to real- gration of sport into community devel-
ened in the Montreal Communiqué izing these broader goals involves a opment projects. 29 The Fourth IWG

the 2006 Doha Asian Games, and to

The Montreal Tool Kit—A Manual for Change include therein a special chapter on
women with disabilities.37
The Montreal Tool Kit was developed for the Third World Conference on
The Commonwealth Games Federa-
Women and Sport as a reference manual containing 20 tools to help women
tion also promotes the role of women
activists working to increase women’s participation in sports. The manual
in sport as participants and as decision-
includes tools on advocacy and awareness-raising, such as “Creating an
makers. Regulation 6 of its March 2006
advocacy strategy” and “Non-sexist sport commentary for media”; tools
Constitution states that the Common-
for changing organizations, such as “Terms of reference for a Women and
wealth Games retains its status as a
Sport Committee” and “Sample harassment policy”; tools for individual
leader in promoting gender equality,
development, such as “Building a case for mentoring”; and other tools for
and that future programmes in sports
action, such as “Measuring your success”.
will have a balanced participation and
Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002a). The profile for males and females. Article
Montreal Tool Kit. A legacy of 2002 World Conference. Canada: International 17 of the Constitution also states that
Working Group on Women and Sport. Available from http://www.canada2002.
org/e/toolkit/index.htm
both women and men shall contribute
at least 20 per cent or two of the repre-
sentatives on the Executive Board and
World Conference, held in May 2006 women, young people and children in on the Sports Committee and any other
in Kumamoto, Japan,30 concluded with sport (3/2000).33 committees and commissions formed
the Kumamoto Commitment to Collab- In 2002, the African Sports Confed- by the Executive Board.38
oration, which expressed participants’ eration of Disabled (ASCOD) estab-
commitment to building a collabora- lished a policy on disabled women’s
tive network in order to realize gender and girls’ participation in sport and rec- Sport as a vehicle
equality in and through sport.31 reation. The policy aims to increase the for gender equality
participation of women and girls at all
Regional
levels of sport and recreation in order and the empowerment
processes
to achieve gender equality, and calls of women and girls
Regional bodies also address gender on the Confederation and its member
equality issues in sport. For example, nations to bear the duty of advising
in 2005, the Parliamentary Assembly ”. . . [M]y trainers taught me to
Ministers of Sport on ways to meet the
of the Council of Europe passed rec- believe in myself . . . I was inspired
targets set out in the policy.34
ommendation 1701 on discrimination and learned determination and dis-
In 2001, the first Asian Conference cipline. Sports allow you to get to
against women and girls in sport. The
on Women and Sport, held in Osaka, know yourself.”
recommendation calls on the Commit-
Japan, led to the establishment of
tee of Ministers to promote women’s —Nawal El Moutawakel,
the Asian Working Group on Women
sport and women’s participation in the first Olympic gold medallist
sport; accord greater importance to and Sport (AWG). The Working Group from Morocco (1984 Olympics
developed the Asian Women and Sport —hurdles) 39
school-based physical education for
women and girls; conduct awareness- Action Plan 2001, which sought to The relationship between gender
raising among officials in sport, edu- expand equal opportunities for women equality and sport is not solely about
cation and health; support women’s and men and girls and boys in Asia to achieving equality in women’s partici-
participation in top-level sport; ensure participate fully in sport. 35 The sec- pation and treatment within sports, but
equality in terms of pay, prize money ond Asian Conference, held in Qatar it is also about promoting “sport for
and bonuses; ensure that women in 2003, adopted the “Doha Confer- gender equality”, or harnessing the
play a greater role in ruling bodies of ence Resolutions”, which encouraged potential of sport for social empower-
sports organizations; conduct an in- all parties to actively support women ment of women and girls. Sport offers
depth study of national sport policies; and sport.36 The “Yemen Challenge”, a valuable channel to strengthen wom-
ensure collection of gender-specific adopted at the third Asian Conference en’s and girls’ capabilities and provide
statistics; and increase media coverage in Yemen in 2005, emphasized the information on important social issues,
of women in sport.32 The recommen- importance of continued promotion such as health, HIV/AIDS and women’s
dation also calls for the combating of and development of women in sport rights. Women’s and girls’ participation
sexual abuse in relation to sport, which in Asia and included a request for all in sport can also challenge gender ster-
follows on from the 2000 Council of Asian Governments and National eotypes and break down entrenched
Europe resolution on the prevention Olympic Committees to formulate a discriminatory attitudes and behav-
of sexual harassment and abuse of national women and sport policy by iours. Myriam Lamare, a World Boxing

Association champion from France, has

said that the punches she lands shake Women swimming into the future
the foundations of society.40
In the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia, many women and girls were not able to
swim or were not capable of climbing onto the roofs, up trees or to other
Empowering women safe areas. Women Without Borders, together with the Austrian Swim-
and girls through sport ming Association and the Austrian Life-Saving Federation, are therefore
implementing a programme to offer swimming lessons for girls and women
Sport can be an important tool for in the South Indian coastal regions. This is not only a valuable contribution
social empowerment through the skills to their future survival, but also strengthens self-confidence and develops
and values learned, such as teamwork, group identity and solidarity among the women. In addition, this unique
negotiation, leadership, communica- initiative will bring more respect and an elevated status for women within
tion and respect for others. The social their rural societies.
benefits of participation in sport are
thought to be especially important for Source: Women Without Borders. Women Swimming into the Future.
Promoting and strengthening women in the South Asian Tsunami region.
girls, given that many girls, particularly A Women Without Borders Pilot Program for Swimming Training. Available
in adolescence, have fewer oppor- from http://sport.austria.gv.at/Docs/2005/7/8/Women%20Swimming%201%
tunities than boys for social interac- 20page%20ok.doc
tion outside the home and beyond
family structures.41 Women and girls
acquire new interpersonal networks, pursuit of active spiritual practices. economic and social gains. The con-
develop a sense of identity and access The psychological benefits of physical cept starts with traditional fitness and
new opportunities, allowing them to activity, essential for a sense of positive adds psychosocial wellness strategies
become more engaged in school and embodiment, can be acquired through and the pursuit of active self-care for
community life.42 Participation in sport the enjoyment of the physical activity, body, mind and spirit. Positive embodi-
also enables women and girls to enjoy self-chosen levels of competition, and ment requires a lifestyle incorporating
freedom of expression and movement the provision of social support from the self-assertion and self-care which is
and increase their self-esteem and self- family and the community.43 the basis of a vigorous and satisfying
confidence. The concept of positive embodiment sense of one’s own body.44
It has also been argued that sport implies that women and girls have the Positive embodiment can be seen as
and physical education can serve as the a model of self-care that allows women
right and responsibility to create active,
basis for a sense of “positive embodi- to achieve a balance between caring for
healthy lifestyles to sustain vitality in
ment”. This concept goes beyond the themselves and caring for others. Most
their lives. There are psychological,
idea of physical fitness and incorpo- women prioritize the needs of others
emotional and medical benefits to
rates psychological benefits and the before their own needs, a pattern that
doing so, as well as significant broader
often leads to neglect of themselves.
As a result, women deplete their
Empowerment of Afghan women through sport resources of time and energy in the
care of others. Self-care involves the
The Afghan Women’s Network (AWN) is a network of 97 NGOs working to creation of personal time and space
empower Afghan women. They work on, among other things, breaking the for women and opportunities for posi-
restrictions on free movement of women, including through sport. The Net- tive interaction of the mind, body and
work creates opportunities for girls to participate in sport in schools and be spirit. Adoption of the physical embodi-
more physically active, and improve confidence and positive self-esteem. ment approach, with its critical con-
The Network also raises awareness among the young women about their cept of active self-care, would require
rights and their potential contributions to their families, communities and complex changes in lifestyle for many
to the nation. AWN is working in four schools in two locations: Jalalabad women.45
and Peshawar. Each school has a volleyball team and is supported by a Sport can serve as a vehicle to
coach. Matches have been played in the schools and a final match was improve women’s and girls’ leadership
held between schools at the end of 2007. A total of 48 young girls benefited roles and participation in decision-
directly from the programme. making. The acquisition of valuable
Source: Mama Cash (2007). (she’s into sports) How sports promote skills in management, negotiation and
gender-equity worldwide. Available from http://www.mamacash.org/uploads/ decision-making empowers women
File/she%20has%20news/publicaties/Shes_into_sports_18-05-07_web.pdf and girls to become leaders in all areas
of community life, as well as in the
household.

Sporting activities can be an impor-

tant forum for providing information
Empowering girls as leaders
to women and girls on sexuality and
A number of initiatives are being implemented to give girls the chance to health, including reproductive health.
be leaders, improve their confidence, increase their self-awareness and Girls’ participation in sport can generate
strengthen their capacities in terms of decision-making, critical thinking and a greater awareness and understanding
negotiating. A project in Kenya on football and peer-led health education of their bodies and its functions, as well
for rural teenage girls uses trained girl referees to officiate at all matches as a greater sense of self-ownership and
during the organization’s annual tournaments. In Zambia, the Go Sisters! respect. A study by the Women’s Sports
project aims to empower girls through sport by training them to become Foundation on sport and teen pregnancy
peer leaders, providing them with scholarships, and involving them in all in the United States found that the sense
levels of decision-making. of ownership and respect for their bod-
Source: Sports and Development Projects. Sport and Development ies developed by adolescent girls who
official website. Available from www.sportanddev.org/en/projects/index.htm; participate in sport encourages them
and International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and to delay sexual activity, thereby reduc-
Women (2005). Newsletter. November. Available from http://www.iapesgw. ing the levels of teen pregnancy. 46
org/Newsletters/IAPESGW%20Newsletter%20December%202005.doc
Research on links between sport and
In Saint Lucia, the Healthy Lifestyles Programme exposes girls to sport girls’ sexual behaviour has also been
skills through regional netball tournaments as well as through instruction conducted by the Wellesley Centers
in healthy lifestyles. Workshops build leadership among girls, with training for Women. The study showed that
in goal-setting, teamwork and decision-making skills. The Programme also the decrease in risky sexual behaviour
promotes healthy lifestyles and covers topics such as exercise, nutrition, among girls who participate in sport is
sexuality, drugs and alcohol. partly due to a delay in sexual initiation
Source: Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Secretariat. “Regional Survey and partly due to social-psychological
of Development through Sport Programmes implemented at the country level”. dynamics, such as enhanced self-
Available from http://www.caricom.org/jsp/community_organs/regionalsurvey_ confidence, a less stereotypical gender
sportsprogrammes.jsp?menu=cob
identity and/or a stronger desire to
avoid teenage pregnancy.47
As more and more women and girls menting the successes of women and The United Nations Inter-Agency
serve in leadership and decision- girl leaders in the world of sport is an Task Force on Sport for Development
making positions, their influence as important step in raising awareness and Peace found that the groups most
role models and mentors encourages and providing encouragement and sup- at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS—women
more women and girls to participate at port to other aspiring leaders. and young people, especially girls—
all levels of sport. Promoting and docu-
Reaching out
Enhancing women’s confidence to young women on
and leadership through sports in Pakistan reproductive health
The Pakistan Association of Women Sport, affiliated with the national sports A Kenyan NGO, Moving the Goal-
organization, is active in promoting women’s participation in sports in Paki- posts Kilifi, uses football practices
stan. Believing that sport provides an excellent venue for women to gain and matches as an entry point for
confidence and develop decision-making and leadership skills for future life, peer education on reproductive
the Association organizes seminars, clinics and workshops of women lead- health. The organization holds
ers in the sports field to promote a cross-cultural exchange of ideas on discussion groups with girls after
women in sports and sports decision-making. The Association also aims practice, facilitated by trained peer
to raise awareness about the development needs of Pakistan, particularly educators, on topics such as repro-
those relating to young women. ductive health, HIV/AIDS, asser-
Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in collaboration with the International Working tiveness and decision-making.
Group on Women and Sport, WomenSport International, the International
Association of Physical Education for Women and Girls, and the International Source: Sports and Development
Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (2006). Positive Embodiment: Projects. Sport and Development
Contributions of Sport, Exercise and Physical Recreation to the Life-long official website. Available from
Development of Girls and Women. (Brief prepared for the Division for the www.sportanddev.org/en/projects/
Advancement of Women). index.htm
10
were highly responsive to sports-tar- prevention and resolution of conflicts

geted initiatives.48 This is an important and in peacebuilding, as reaffirmed Reducing stress
finding since women now represent in Security Council resolution 1325.51 conditions through
half of all people living with HIV, nearly The power of sport and its inclusive physical activity among
60 per cent of all infections in Africa nature makes it a good tool to increase women in Bosnia-
and 77 per cent of new HIV infections knowledge, understanding and aware- Herzegovina
among young people in Africa.49 ness about peaceful coexistence. Sport
could be more effectively used in the Dr. Fadila Ibrahimbegovic-Gafic
Ways in which sport can contrib-
context of follow-up to Security Council from the University of Sarajevo
ute to halting the spread of HIV/AIDS
resolution 1325. assessed the initial physical and
include, for example, sports leagues
mental conditions of 70 women
and matches that provide a forum for
and conducted a physical activity
public information campaigns on pre-
Programmes using programme that aimed to reduce
vention and protection, and a safe and
sport as a vehicle stress conditions in women aged
supportive environment among teams
to promote peace, 40-55 in war-stricken areas of
and organizations to encourage open
tolerance and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The pro-
discussion about HIV/AIDS and sexual
understanding gramme succeeded not only in
behaviour.50
reducing stress but also in chang-
Sport can provide a critical space In 2003, “Sport pour la Paix” ing attitudes towards physical
to build a culture of peace in countries (“Sport for Peace”) was launched exercise and its effects on physi-
emerging from conflict. Through its in Côte d’Ivoire to bring together cal recovery.
power to bring people together across over 1,600 young people, a third Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in
boundaries, cultures and religions, it can of them girls, from different eth- collaboration with the International
promote tolerance and reconciliation. nic, political and religious groups Working Group on Women and
Women play an important role in the after years of conflict. Sport, WomenSport International,
the International Association of
Source: Schaub Reisle, Maia Physical Education for Women
(2005), “Sport as tool for peace and Girls, and the International
Raising awareness building”. In Tip Sheet. Bern: Council of Sport Science and
in the sport community Swiss Agency for Development Physical Education (2006). Posi
about HIV/AIDS tive Embodiment: Contributions
and Cooperation, SDC Conflict of Sport, Exercise and Physical
In 2004, the United Nations Prevention and Transformation Recreation to the Life-long De-
Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS Division (COPRET). Available velopment of Girls and Women.
(UNAIDS) signed a Memoran- from h ttp://www.deza.ch/de/ (Brief prepared for the Division for
Home/Themes/Conflict_pre- the Advancement of Women.)
dum of Understanding with the
International Olympic Committee vention_and_transformation/
to combine their efforts to raise Violence_prevention/ressources/
awareness about HIV/AIDS, par- resource_en_92813.pdf The promotion of education can
ticularly among the sport com- “Kicking for Reconciliation!”, also be facilitated by sport. Sports
munity. Following this initiative, a project in Rwanda by Women teams and organizations, as well as
an HIV-positive woman from Without Borders, aims to provide local, national and international compe-
South Africa, Musa Njoko, one of football training to 160 Hutu and titions, provide an excellent opportunity
the first South African women to Tutsi girls together, with a focus to provide information and knowledge
publicly disclose her HIV status, on self-confidence, self-awareness
on the importance of girls’ education.
was nominated by UNAIDS to and trauma healing, so that they
In particular, sport can be a useful tool
participate in the Olympic Torch may contribute to the establish-
Relay held in Cape Town in June to expand educational opportunities
ment of a peaceful and modern
2004. society in their country. for children who are not able to go to
school or who only attend on an irregu-
Source: Right to Play (2004). S o u r c e : W o m e n W i t h o u t
Harnessing the Power of Sport for lar basis.
Borders (2005). Rwanda: Kicking
Development and Peace. Greece: for Reconciliation! Vienna, Austria: Research on the impact of physical
Position Paper presented at the A Women Without Borders Football education on academic performance is
Athens Roundtable Forum on for Girls’ Project in Kigali. Available also emerging. The interlinkages between
14 August 2004. Available from from http://www.women-without-
http://www.sportanddev.org/data/ borders.org/projects/underway/18/ perceptual, cognitive and motor develop-
document/document/15.pdf ment are such that many argue that phys-
ical activity such as physical education
11
and sport is critical for optimal learning.

Research findings indicate that: Challenging Coaching boys into men
• Physical activity has positive effects stereotypes
and reducing As part of the Fédération Inter-
on the ability to concentrate; nationale de Football Association
• An increase in physical activity can discrimination
(FIFA) and UNICEF Unite for Chil-
lead to improvements in problem- Given that sport was traditionally a dren, Unite for Peace campaign,
solving skills and improved aca- male domain, the participation of women a manual for football coaches,
demic results; and and girls in sport challenges a multi- “Coaching Boys Into Men”, was
• There is a high correlation between tude of gender stereotypes, not only launched during the 2006 World
high standardized test scores and those related to physical ability but also Cup. In recognition that coaches
high fitness scores.52 those regarding women’s role in local can have a unique role in address-
Studies in the United States, for communities and society at large. By ing issues of violence and dis-
example, have also pointed to a posi- directly challenging and dispelling mis- crimination, particularly against
tive relationship between girls’ par- conceptions about women’s capabili- women and girls, the manual is
ticipation in sport, positive attitudes ties, integrated sport programmes help intended to help coaches talk to
towards education and higher aca- to reduce discrimination and broaden young athletes about tolerance
demic achievements. 53 Gender- the role prescribed to women.54 An and teach them that violence
sensitive programmes that suc - increase of women in leadership posi- does not equal strength.
cessfully increase girls’ participation tions in sport can also have a significant
S o u r c e : U n i t e d N a t i o n s
in sport therefore have the potential influence on social attitudes towards Children’s Fund (2006). UNICEF
to positively influence girls’ academic women’s capabilities as leaders and and FIFA partnership for 2006 FIFA
performance. decision makers. World Cup Germany highlights
peace and tolerance. United
Kingdom: UNICEF News. Available
Promoting girls’ from http://www.unicef.org.
education uk/press/news_detail_full_story.
asp?news_id=685
through sport Sport as a catalyst
A UNICEF project links sport to
for challenging gender
stereotypes Girls’ participation in sport car-
girls’ education based on the ries with it an enormous potential for
belief that sport, like education, The Population Council operates positive impact on attitudes towards
can help girls become equal a community-based programme, gender equality among the younger
players in society. On 11 Octo- “Safe Spaces to Learn, Play and generation. An analysis of the Mathare
ber 2003, Global Girls’ Football Grow”, in rural Egypt through Youth Sports Association in Kenya
Day, UNICEF country offices NGO and government partners found that although boys in the Associ-
and national associations of the that provide protected spaces, ation expressed stereotypical attitudes
Fédération Internationale de such as schools or youth centres, to the girl soccer players (for example,
Football Association (FIFA) came where girls meet for learning and that girls do not learn quickly, are fragile
together to mobilize efforts for recreation. The programme aims and give up easily), seeing girls achieve
girls’ education through the power to challenge traditional concepts success in soccer, which had previously
of sport. That same year, FIFA of gender-appropriate behaviour been a male domain, had begun to
dedicated its Women’s World by incorporating sport and recrea- reshape their notions about girls’ roles
Cup to UNICEF’s Go Girls! Edu- tion activities, along with literacy, and capabilities.55
cation for Every Child campaign. life-skills training and reproduc-
Go Girls! was seen and heard The sports arena provides an oppor-
tive health awareness.
throughout the tournament in tunity to reach out to men and boys on
Source: Brady, Martha (2005). issues related to stereotypical attitudes
a variety of ways—from sta- “Letting girls play: Using sport
dium announcements and video and gender-based discrimination and
to create safe spaces and build
screenings to match programmes social assets.” In Promoting violence. The broad participation of men
and web pages. healthy, safe, and productive and boys in sport, as both athletes and
transitions to adulthood, Brief spectators, provides a powerful forum
S o u r c e : U N I C E F. S p o r t , No. 1, May 2005. New York: for educating and informing men and
Education and Girls. Available Population Council. Available from
from http://www.unicef.org/ h ttp://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/ boys on a variety of issues, including
girlseducation/campaign_sport_ TABriefs/GFD_BRIEF1_SPORTS_ violence against women and girls, and
education_girls.html update.pdf for breaking down entrenched attitudes
and stereotypical behaviours. Male ath-
12
letes who speak out on such issues can

be particularly effective given their posi- Football teams raising awareness
tion as role models in the community. of violence against women
Role models of women in sport,
In 2005, top football teams from Barranquilla, Bogotá, Cali and Cartagena
including star women athletes, such as in Colombia supported White Ribbon Day, the International Day against
Nellie Kim (Russian Federation—gym- Violence against Women, by displaying placards in their stadiums for the
nastics), Mia Hamm (USA—soccer), campaign before their championship matches in order to raise awareness
Takahashi Naoko (Japan—marathon about all forms of violence against women.
runner), Kirsten Bruhn (Germany—
swimmer), Hortencia Maria de Fatima Source: United Nations Office of Sport for Development and Peace
(2005). United Nations Sports Bulletin, No. 4, 15 June. New York. Available
Marcari (Brazil—soccer) and Maria from http://www.un.org/sport2005/newsroom/bulletin/united_nations_sport_
Sharapova (Russian Federation—ten- bulletin_4_15_june_05.pdf
nis), also play a central role in challeng-
ing stereotypes. Nawal El Moutawakel University of Toronto, Canada,
(Morocco—hurdles) recognizes her Addressing and former Regional Coordinator
position as a role model for women, for International Council of Sport
gender Science and Physical Education,
especially Muslim women, and says North America (1999).
that her main function as a member of inequalities
the International Olympic Committee in sport In order to realize the full potential for
is “to encourage more women to par- sport as a vehicle for gender equality
ticipate in sport worldwide.”56 Serena and the empowerment of women and
“It is heartening that so many pub-
Williams, motivated by her participa- girls, gender inequality in sport must be
lic and voluntary sports and physi-
tion in the United Nations Global Youth addressed. The prevalence of gender-
cal education organizations have
Leadership Summit, held in New York based discrimination in sport mirrors
embraced the challenge of gender
from 29 to 31 October 2006, under- traditional gender stereotypes and rein-
equality. It means that more and
took a mission to Ghana and Senegal forces gender inequalities. Opportuni-
more girls and women may receive
to highlight the role of sport, youth, ties for women and girls to participate
the same benefits which boys and
and empowerment of women and in sport may be restricted. Even when
men have enjoyed for years, and
girls in achieving the MDGs.57 participation is allowed, the dynam-
their fair share of the social resources
ics of gender relations and notions of
The potential for sport to contribute available . . . It is not enough simply
masculinity and femininity may result in
to the social, economic and political to extend the programs which males
have enjoyed to females. Given the gender segregation in different types of
empowerment of women and girls
differences in needs, interests and sport and physical education. Inequali-
is clear and has been recognized by
circumstances, and the diversity of ties also exist in access to resources,
Governments, the United Nations
the female population, it will require wages and financial incentives and in
system, NGOs and other actors. The
careful ‘needs based’ planning and media representation of women ath-
task ahead is to act on this recogni-
innovative programming.” letes and women’s sport. The lack of
tion and bring the benefits of sport
women and girls in decision-making
and physical education to women and —Professor Bruce Kidd, Dean of the Faculty and leadership positions, as well as
girls throughout the world. of Physical Education and Health,
exploitation, harassment and violence
against women and girls, is also preva-
lent in sport and the commercial sport-
Promoting role models in South America
ing industry.
and the Caribbean
The Women and Sport Working Group in Guyana, established under the Min-
istry of Culture, Youth and Sports, promoted women role models in sport dur-
ing Guyana’s 2001 International Women’s Day celebrations. They organized a Access
“Female Cavalcade of Sport”, which showcased females in 15 different sports and participation
with approximately 300 athletes taking part. The Working Group also produced
Although restrictions on women’s and
a television programme of highlights of women in sport at all levels.
girls’ access to and participation in sport
Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). Women have been present throughout history,
and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available from http:// gradual progress has been achieved. In
www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america.htm
1900, the first 19 women competed in
the modern Olympic Games in Paris in
13
way for women to qualify for the PBA

Sports legislation for women Tour and, in 2006, Kelly Kulick became
in Hungary the first woman to qualify for a season-
long exemption.62
The “Law of Sports”, enacted by the Hungarian Parliament in December
Although some physical barriers to
2000, ensured equal opportunities for men and women and for boys and
women’s participation in sport are com-
girls to choose and participate in sport, contribute to the development of
mon across the world, including a wide-
leadership in sport and enjoy funding to execute different sport programmes.
spread lack of appropriate facilities and
It also required all sporting organizations, foundations, federations and com-
resources, it is also important to rec-
mittees to raise the participation of women to 10 per cent by November
ognize that participation varies across
2001, 20 per cent by November 2002, 30 per cent by November 2003 and
time and space and many constraints
35 per cent by November 2004.
are context-specific. For example, par-
Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). ticular restrictions on women’s mobility
Women and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available in some countries can make it difficult
from http://www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america.
htm
for them to take part in events held in
public spaces.
Sport clothing has been a constant
just three sports—tennis, golf and cro- area of controversy and resistance to
quet.58 By the 2004 Olympic Games women’s participation in sport. In 1931,
The International Lili de Álvarez (Spain) shocked social
in Athens, women competed in 26 out Olympic Committee’s
of 28 sports and represented 40.7 per propriety by playing Wimbledon in
Women and Sport shorts instead of the long dresses that
cent of the total number of athletes, Trophy
setting a historical record for women’s women tennis players were expected
participation in the Olympic Games.59 The International Olympic Com- to wear. Sporting accessories have tra-
Such progress has been spurred on by mittee’s Women and Sport ditionally been designed for use by men
women athletes, as well as Govern- Trophy, introduced in 2000, is
ments and civil society organizations awarded annually to promote
that have advocated for gender equal- the advancement of women in Pakistan
ity in sport and sought to address the sport and recognize outstanding mini-marathon
many physical and social barriers to the achievement and contributions overcomes obstacles
full participation of women and girls. made to develop, encourage facing women
and strengthen the participation
The Human Rights Commission
Physical barriers of women and girls at all levels
of Pakistan and the Joint Action
to the participation in the sports world. The world
Committee for People’s Rights
of women and girls in sport trophy for 2006 was awarded to
organized a symbolic mini-
Argentinean tennis player Gabriela
Women continue to be discriminated marathon on 21 May 2005 in
Sabatini. In addition, five regional
against in official regulations of interna- Pakistan to challenge arbitrary
trophies were presented: Alber-
tional competitions and rules of major curbs on women’s public par-
tine Barbosa Andrade (Senegal/
sporting facilities. The Augusta National ticipation in sport and to highlight
Africa—cycling), Ch a r m a i n e
Golf Club in the United States, which rising violence against women.
Crooks (Canada/Americas —
hosts the annual Masters Tournament, About 500 mostly middle-aged
sprinting), Elisa Lee (Korea/
continues to uphold its men-only men and women jogged through
Asia—table tennis), Dominique
membership policy. This has led to a police-lined street of Lahore,
Petit (France/Europe—volleyball)
strong opposition by national wom- just a week after police had used
and Lorraine Mar (Fiji/Oceania–
en’s organizations and women’s rights force to halt the first attempt at a
badminton/tennis).
activists.60 Progress is, however, being mixed-sex race.
Source: Gabriela Sabatini, win-
made in other institutions. For example, Source: United Nations Office
ner of the world IOC Women and
the 250-year-old Royal & Ancient Club of Sport for Development and Peace
Sport Trophy. In official website of (2005). United Nations Sports
in Scotland, considered the world’s
the Olympic Movement. Available Bulletin, No. 4, 15 June. New York.
leading authority on golf, lifted a long-
from http://www.olympic.org/uk/ Available from http://www.un.org/
standing ban on women playing at the sport2005/newsroom/bulletin/
organisation/missions/women/
Open Championship in 2005.61 Also, in united_nations_sport_bulletin_4_
full_story_uk.asp?id=1748
2004, the United States Professional 15_june_05.pdf
Bowlers Association (PBA) opened the
14
and, for example, it was not until 1996

that Spalding Sports introduced the first Clothing and girls’
baseball glove specifically designed for participation in sport
a woman’s hand.63 The issue of cloth-
ing can also be a constraint where “Play Soccer”, an NGO that offers football programmes for girls and boys
socio-economic conditions mean that in Zambia, recognized that a lack of clothing was prohibiting some children
women and girls are unable to afford from participating. The programme provided shorts that children, especially
appropriate sporting attire. girls, could wear during games, thereby enabling girls to move from specta-
tors to active participants.
Sporting attire may present a partic-
ular problem for Muslim women when Source: Meier, Marianne (2005). Gender Equity, Sport and Development.
dress codes prohibit them from wearing Geneva, Switzerland: Swiss Academy for Development.
Western-style sport clothes. This issue
is a concern not only for local commu- Sarah Hillyer, coach of the American Stereotypical attitudes
nity sports, but also for Muslim women team, the games have been successful towards women
participating in international events. For in providing a venue for Muslim women and girls in sport
example, the Algerian Hassiba Boul- to celebrate self-expression and develop Social constraints are a further impedi-
merka, who won the 1,500 metres self-confidence. 67 In non-Muslim ment to access to and participation
in the 1992 Olympic Games wearing countries, it can be difficult for Muslim in sport and physical education by
shorts, was forced into exile following women to participate in sport because women and girls. Some constraints are
the Games because of death threats.64 of the lack of segregated facilities.68 similar throughout the world, such as
On the other hand, Iranian women The physical barriers to the partici- the perception that women’s physical
competed in kayaking in the hijab at the pation of women and girls in sport can capabilities are inferior and the unequal
1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta.65 To be overcome with a gender-sensitive sharing of household work and child-
provide suitable conditions for the par- approach to the redesign of existing care responsibilities which imposes
ticipation of women in sporting activi- facilities, the planning of new infra- constraints on women’s involvement in
ties in compliance with Islamic codes, structure, and the rules and regulations community activities, including sport.
the Women Islamic Games, organized of sporting events and institutions. For A common social constraint is the
by the Islamic Federation of Women example, the schedule of activities stereotyping of sport as “masculine”
Sport, were created.66 According to held in a community sports hall can or “feminine”, which affects both
be changed to allow women and girls male and female participation, and can
access at convenient times. When a be difficult to overcome. Men can be
Sports clothes new sport complex is built, it can be branded as “effeminate” if they abstain
for Muslim women designed as a space that encourages from sporting activities, and women are
women and girls to participate, for often channelled into “aesthetic” sports,
Women playing volleyball at a
example, by providing separate chang- such as gymnastics and ice-skating,
camp for displaced Somalis in
ing facilities. In addition, policies can where traits perceived as “female” are
Kenya have encountered consid-
be developed that ensure that existing exhibited. Accepted norms of behav-
erable pressure from their com-
facilities emphasize sport for all and iour that expect women to be “ladylike”
munity because of dress codes.
explicitly welcome women and girls.69 and demure excludes women in some
In response, the Office of the
United Nations High Commis-
sioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has
worked with Nike and other pri- Building sports
vate companies to design sport- infrastructure for women in Ecuador
ing apparel that is comfortable In 2000, the Ecuadorian Olympic Committee opened the Juan Antonio
and practical for sport but which Samaranch Women’s Sports Centre—a sport centre exclusively for
keeps within the dress code women—which offers courses in table tennis, volleyball, basketball and
acceptable to communities. aerobic gymnastics. The Centre is named after the former President of
S o u r c e : U N H C R ( 2 0 0 5 ) . the International Olympic Committee (IOC), in recognition of his commit-
Designers on a mission: dressing ment to the participation of women in the Olympic Games and his role as
refugee girls for sports. Available the first IOC President to name a woman to the Executive Board.
from http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/
texis/vtx/news/opendoc.htm?tbl= Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). Women
NEWS&page=home&id=42cbed and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available from http://
364 www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america.htm
15
Ice hockey for women and girls in the Himalayas The Commission
A recent film, Thin Ice, documents the efforts of women and girls in the
on Women and Sports
Himalayas to play ice hockey. Since ice hockey was traditionally a male
in Ecuador
sport, women and girls were not encouraged to participate. Women cre- The Commission on Women and
ated their own women’s ice hockey team which brings together girls from Sports, established by the Ecua-
different groups and backgrounds. The women and girls make their own ice dorian Olympic Committee in
courts and skates. They have successfully challenged many stereotypes 1998, tries to influence social atti-
around this sport. tudes by promoting educational
Source: Håkan Berthas, Frederik Gertten & Margarete Jangard (2007). Thin activities on the role of women
Ice, a film by WG Film/Sveriges Television. Sweden. and their situation in sport. The
Commission’s activities include:
contexts from participation in sporting ciation champion from France, dispels • Providing special funds to
activities that exhibit traditional male the myths surrounding women’s partic- promote sport for women;
characteristics, especially contact sports ipation in “painful” sports. On Interna- • Offering information courses
(such as rugby) and “painful” sports tional Women’s Day 2006, she stated, to discuss the future of
(such as boxing).70 When women and “A woman who can box is a woman women in sport;
girls do engage in such sports, they can who can fight—at once capable of giv- • Organizing conferences and
be labelled with negative traits, such as ing life and of defending it, in the true other events to increase wom-
being “manly” or “unfeminine”. sense of the word. I am strong and en’s participation in sport;
Sport provides opportunities for feminine, vulnerable and active.”72 • Creating regional and local
addressing discrimination faced by Stereotypes can greatly affect the networks that encourage
particular groups of women and girls. attitudes of men towards women and women to participate in sport;
Women and girls with disabilities, for their role in sport. The attitudes of and
example, are frequently subject to mul- parents are particularly important for • Undertaking research and col-
tiple forms of discrimination. A prevail- promoting girls’ participation in sport. lecting data on women and
ing code of silence71 may result in fears While some fathers strongly resist their sport in order to monitor and
of homophobia, preventing women and daughter’s participation, others are maintain progress.
girls from participating fully in sport and gradually accepting it, such as Rajku- Source: International Working
achieving positive benefits. mar Singh, a poor farmer in the Indian Group on Women and Sport
Some leading sport figures are state of Bihar, who admitted: “Initially, (2002). Women and Sport
Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn,
challenging such traditional notions of I had a lot of doubts. But today I feel
Germany. Available from http://
what it means to be a woman athlete. proud of being father to two national www.canada2002.org/e/progress/
Myriam Lamare, a World Boxing Asso- football-playing daughters . . .”73 worldwide/chapter3_america.htm
Studying attitudes towards women The attitudes of women and girls

and girls in sport in India towards sport can also be restrictive.
Women and girls may not have devel-
A study was carried out in rural and urban India by the Indira Gandhi Insti- oped an understanding of the intrinsic
tute of Physical Education and Sports Sciences on the attitudes of parents, value of sport and its contribution to
teachers and coaches towards female participation in sport. The findings personal development and well-being,
indicated that policies are needed at the local level to support and protect or of their rights and potential in this
women’s participation in sport and, in particular, efforts are required to area. Women and girls may also have
remove misconceptions related to women’s participation in sport and the internalized many negative percep-
impact of sport on women’s health. tions of women and sport. Advocates
Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in collaboration with the International Working are trying to change this perception,
Group on Women and Sport, WomenSport International, the International including Anita DeFrantz, Chairperson
Association of Physical Education for Women and Girls, and the International of the International Olympic Commit-
Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (2006). Positive Embodiment:
Contributions of Sport, Exercise and Physical Recreation to the Life-long tee’s Women and Sport Commission,
Development of Girls and Women. (Brief prepared for the Division for the who promotes the idea that “sport is
Advancement of Women.) a birthright [and] belongs to all human
beings”.74
16
This type of practice is also common

Raising awareness of sports and women at the community level. A study on
in local communities a youth and sport initiative by the
Mathare Youth Sports Association
In Lithuania, the National Women and Sport Association used athletic festivals in Kenya found that boys were given
to raise awareness about women and sport, and established women’s sport- priority in access to opportunities and
ing days that demonstrate women’s willingness and ability to coordinate resources, such as preferred schedules
sporting competitions and ceremonies. In West Bengal, local community- and playing fields. To address such prac-
based NGOs developed a project to raise awareness of community sport tices, a gender-sensitive analysis of all
and health development through local campaigns and training for women.
areas of an organization’s activities and
The project also involved developing basic infrastructure for girls in com-
operations can help to identify deeply
munity sport—such as playgrounds and gyms—and building a database on
entrenched attitudes and behaviours
community sport for girls.
that discriminate against women and
Source: International Working Group on Women and Sport (2002). Women girls.
and Sport Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn, Germany. Available from http://
www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_america.htm Stereotypical attitudes towards
the value of women’s sport also fuel
inequality in wages, prizes and other
Historical attitudes and the absence tion of physical resources for women’s financial incentives. For example, the
of gender stereotypes in sport have sport. Resources are often less or of average salary in the United States
been recognized as an important factor a lower standard than those provided Women’s National Basketball Associa-
in the remarkable success of Chinese to their male counterparts and, when tion (WNBA) is only 2 per cent of the
women athletes in international com- resources such as equipment or play- all-male National Basketball Associa-
petitions. Such attitudes are reflected ing fields are shared, men’s teams tion’s (NBA) average.77 Furthermore,
in the prioritization of elite women’s are often given priority. For example, although many international competi-
sport by the Chinese Government. At the men’s and women’s singles finals tions have achieved equality in prize
the same time, however, women are at the Wimbledon Tennis Champion- monies, including the French, Austral-
underrepresented in sport administra- ships are both supposed to be held on ian, Wimbledon and US Tennis Opens,
Centre Court, the centrepiece of the others continue to offer different
tion, coaching and other decision-
championships. When, however, post- rewards for men and women. In 2007,
making positions in China.75
ponements due to weather or other
Stereotypical attitudes towards for the first time, Wimbledon offered
factors result in the matches being
women and girls and traditional gender equal prize money for the men’s and
played simultaneously, the women’s
roles are also prevalent in the organiza- women’s singles winner.78
match will invariably be relocated to
tional cultures of sporting bodies—the No. 1 Court. This is rationalized as part Commercial endorsements and
norms, values, power dynamics and of Wimbledon’s efforts to “have the sponsorships are also an important part
practices that underlie the way such most attractive matches played on the of a professional athlete’s salary and
bodies and institutions do their work. courts with the most spectator accom- career development. In general, it is
This often results in unequal alloca- modation”.76 an area where women receive far less
support than their male counterparts,
but there are some examples of female
Changing gender norms and stereotypes athletes breaking ground. The Russian
tennis star Maria Sharapova has signed
The Mathare Youth Sports Association in Kenya initially followed gender deals with Nike, Canon and Motorola
norms in the division of labour for organizational tasks, for example, by mak-
and is worth an estimated US$ 18.2
ing girls responsible for washing the football shirts and looking after younger
million, making her the world’s best-
children, while the boys handled the sport equipment and did maintenance
compensated female athlete.79 This
chores. Following a series of gender-training workshops, the organization
trend is reflected in the Forbes 2006
made concerted efforts to redefine the responsibilities of girls and boys and
list of top-earning athletes, which has
to share tasks equally.
five women placed in the top 25.80 As
Source: Brady, Martha (2005). Letting girls play: Using sport to create safe more women athletes obtain such
spaces and build social assets. In Promoting healthy, safe, and productive
transitions to adulthood, Brief No. 1, May 2005. New York: Population
high-paying endorsements, greater
Council. Available from http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/TABriefs/GFD_BRIEF1_ recognition of women athletes as
SPORTS_update.pdf major-league players is likely to fol-
low.
17
Wimbledon 2005 Prize Money Summary (GB£) Sport for older women
2006 2005 Increase 2004 Increase The Egyptian Government pro-
Gentlemen’s Singles winner £655,000 £630,000 4% £602,500 4.6% moted older women’s participa-
tion in sport and physical activity
Ladies’ Singles winner £625,000 £600,000 4% £560,500 7.0%
by establishing 37 sports centres
Gentlemen’s Doubles winners £220,690 £218,500 1% £215,000 1.4%
for women over 35 years of age.
Ladies’ Doubles winners £205,280 £203,250 1% £200,000 1.6% In each centre, around 150 women
Mixed Doubles winners £90,000 £90,000 — £90,000 — play basketball, volleyball, table
tennis and other forms of recrea-
Source: 2007 Wimbledon Prize Money. Wimbledon, The Official Website. tional activities. In China, many
Available from http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/about/guide/prizemoney.html older women visit local parks
to participate in group exercise,
ranging from t’ai chi to ballroom
Sport and physical education Women face specific challenges dancing. Through these activities
throughout the life cycle to access and participate in sport and they can improve their health and
physical activity throughout the differ- fitness at the same time as they
Despite all the evidence on the benefits
ent stages of the life cycle. While it is build social networks. These net-
of an active lifestyle, including physical
increasingly understood in many parts works are increasingly important
education and sport, for women and
of the world that older women must due to shifts in demographics
girls, the percentage of women who
engage in physical education and sport and family structures—tradition-
describe themselves as physically
in order to add “years to life” and “life ally, older people used to live with
active remains low. As powerful as the
to years”, many older women continue their children, whereas today,
rationales and motivation for physical
to live sedentary lifestyles. Strategies to over 23 per cent of the elderly
activity may be, the barriers faced by
address this must identify and address live alone.
women can be overwhelming. These
can include traditional perceptions that the particular barriers older women face Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in
sweating and defined musculature and must tailor programmes to their collaboration with the International
are inappropriate for women; the lack specific needs and priorities.82 For older Working Group on Women and
Sport, WomenSport International,
of culturally relevant role models; the women, a lack of knowledge on the
t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l As s o c i a t i o n
scarcity of facilities offering women- benefits of sport and physical activity o f P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n f o r
friendly equipment and programmes; is a significant barrier to increased par- Women and Girls, and the
the lack of free time due to work and ticipation, as are stereotypical attitudes International Council of Sport
family responsibilities; worries about towards older persons, inadequate Science and Physical Education
(2006). Positive Embodiment:
safety; and shame and embarrassment community infrastructure and sport pro- Contributions of Sport, Exercise
about present appearance and capabili- grammes, and illnesses and conditions and Physical Recreation to the
ties.81 that affect movement and agility. Life-long Development of Girls
and Women (brief prepared for
the Division for the Advancement
of Women); and “China’s break-
Promoting participation in sport in Malaysia dancing grandmother”. In BBC
News. 10 April 2005. Available
The Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation in Malaysia is an NGO estab- from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
lished in 1995 to pursue the empowerment of women through sport and asia-pacific/4424789.stm
physical activities. The Foundation has established, together with the Min-
istry of Sport, the biannual National Women’s Games (2005 and 2007). For women of childbearing age, there
Participants in the 2nd National Women’s Games competed in 12 sports. are particular issues surrounding preg-
A total of 5,000 athletes and officials attended. Through the well-managed nancy and childbirth. During a National
programme of the Foundation, women of all ages and from all walks of life Sport and Pregnancy Forum in Australia
have the possibility to participate in a wide range of activities, ranging from in 2001, it was noted that the benefits
sport for all activities to high-performance sports. In addition, the Founda- of staying active and continuing sport
tion organizes women’s coaching training throughout the country, and many at some level throughout pregnancy
women have obtained paid positions as coaches. outweigh the potential risks. Experts
Source: Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation in Malaysia. Website. also noted that there are several clear
Available from http://www.wsffm.com/index.php steps sporting organizations can take to
minimize any risk of liability, for exam-
18
ple, by alerting pregnant sportswomen

that there are possible risks involved Maternity rights for Poland’s sportswomen
in their participation and in obtaining
appropriate releases and/or indemni- Recognizing that the overwhelming majority of sportswomen abandoned
ties if they should choose to continue further involvement in sport after giving birth to a child, Poland introduced an
to participate. In most circumstances, anti-discrimination provision in the Qualified Sports Act in 2005. The provi-
Australia’s Sex Discrimination Act 1984 sion ensures that sportswomen receive a sport stipend in the full amount
effectively means that sporting admin- for the duration of their pregnancy and half the amount of the stipend for six
istrators cannot ban the continued par- months following childbirth.
ticipation of pregnant sportswomen. Source: Introductory statement by Mrs. Joanna Kluzik-Rostkowska, Under-
Nevertheless, in most countries, preg- Secretary of State in the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy of the Republic
nancy and childbirth often mean that of Poland to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women, thirty-seventh session, 16 January 2007.
women do not continue to compete in
professional sport.83
The relationship between sport and eral density and a higher risk for oste- • Create girls-only spaces that are
the body raises particular issues for ado- oporosis. This pattern of disordered safe from both physical and emo-
lescents and young women. In some eating, disrupted menstrual cycles and tional dangers and provide girls with
cultural settings, the onset of menstrua- osteoporosis is known as the “female an arena for self-expression that is
tion can be a barrier to adolescent girls’ athlete triad”.88 not hindered by male domination or
school attendance and, similarly, girls’ The female athlete triad is an issue authority.
participation in sport and physical educa- that the International Olympic Com- • Seek parental and community per-
tion. In sub-Saharan Africa, researchers mittee Medical Commission’s Work- mission for girls’ participation prior
have documented that lack of sanitary ing Group on Women in Sport has to launching a programme, which
products, clean, girls-only latrines and examined closely. They noted that it is will enhance girls’ ability to take
water for washing hands results in a the responsibility of team physicians part.
significant number of girls not attending to ensure the health and safety of ath- • Enlist female coaches, referees and
school.84 Estimates by UNICEF show letes by educating athletes, coaches trainers. Developing a talent pool of
that one in 10 school-age African girls and parents about the issue; recogniz- female leaders is an urgent need in
either skips school during menstruation ing symptoms of eating disorders; pre- most developing countries.
or drops out entirely because of lack of venting activities that place pressure • Identify a few key health issues that
sanitation.85 on athletes to lose weight; and provid- need to be addressed, and tailor a
The heavy focus on the body in ing adequate treatment for conditions simple health education programme
sport, including in the context of the associated with the triad. 89 Wom- around them.91
sexualized promotion of female ath- enSport International has also been For high school and collegiate girls
letes, may lead to poor body image, active in this area and has appointed and young women in the United States,
particularly among adolescent girls.86 a task force to educate athletes and the enactment of Title IX in 1972, a
The pressure to meet unrealistic those responsible for their welfare federal law that prohibits sex discrimi-
about the dangers of the triad. 90 nation in education programmes and
weight or body fat levels can result
in excessive dieting that may in turn Sport programmes should also take activities at any federally funded edu-
lead to serious eating disorders such into consideration the specific needs of cational institution, has had significant
as anorexia nervosa or bulimia ner- girls. Lessons learned from a series of impact on girls’ participation in sport.
vosa. The number of females who sporting activities piloted by the Popu- Despite a rapid increase of girls in
exhibit restrictive eating behaviour, lation Council suggest that successfully high school sport after the passage of
which does not necessarily meet the designing a girls’ sport programme Title IX, the percentage of girl athletes
strict criteria for bulimia or anorexia, requires a number of specific actions: has been increasing very slowly since
is estimated to range from between • Adopt a “girl-centred” approach. the late 1970s: in 1978, girls made up
15 and 62 per cent, depending on Learn directly from girls about their approximately 32 per cent of athletes,
the sport. 87 Disordered eating can needs and interests and seek their rising only 5 percentage points—to
affect the health and performance of input in the design and scope of 37 per cent—by 1993. If this trend
an athlete in various ways, including programmes. Recognition of girls’ continues, it will take until the year
low energy and disrupted menstrual work burden and time constraints is 2033 to achieve parity. 92 At the col-
cycles, which can lead to a decrease required and serious consideration lege level, women make up 54 per
in endogenous oestrogen and other must be given to ways to address cent of students but only 43 per cent
hormones, resulting in low bone min- these problems. of athletes. Men’s college athletics
19
also continue to receive more money

than women’s in scholarships, recruit- Title IX and gender equality in sport
ing, head-coach salaries and operating
expenses. 93 Although the law states Title IX requires that women be provided an equitable opportunity to partici-
that schools in violation of Title IX will pate in sport; that female athletes receive athletic scholarships proportional
lose their federal funding, this has to their participation; and that female athletes receive equal treatment, for
never happened since the law came example in the provision of equipment and supplies, scheduling of games
into force. Instead, Title IX compli- and practice times, coaching, practice and competitive facilities, access to
ance has been driven by lawsuits and tutoring, publicity and promotions, and recruitment of student athletes. Title
threats of lawsuits. 94 IX has also increased the salaries of coaches for women’s teams.
Such actions are behind recent rul- Source: The National Collegiate Athletic Association. Official website.
ings across the United States that Available from http://www1.ncaa.org/membership/ed_outreach/gender_equity/
faq.html
require school cheerleading squads to
support girls teams on an equal basis
with the boys teams. The rulings have, by a lack of facilities, such as changing should be provided for all teachers; and
however, received a mixed reaction. rooms for girls.97 adequate resources allocated.
Some cheerleaders are not enthusias- In addition to policies that support
tic about cheering for the girls teams, Sport and women
the right to physical education, there with disabilities
often because the need to comply with is a need to ensure that policies and
the ruling has increased their workload programmes on school-based physical Participation of disabled women and
and they are no longer sent to away- education fully incorporate gender per- girls in physical education and sport has
games. Some members of girls’ sport spectives. For example, in addition to increased in recent years but neverthe-
teams have also been unhappy about promoting an increase in participation less remains lower than participation by
the ruling, noting that they do not by girls and young women, traditional non-disabled women and girls. Limited
need or want cheerleaders during their stereotypes and gender-based segre- access to resources and activities leads
games.95 gation in sport and physical education in many countries to significant health
should be discouraged. Both boys and disparities between women and girls
Physical education girls need to be encouraged to move with disabilities and those without. A
in schools beyond the traditional classification of recent study in the United States indi-
For all girls and young women, access different types of sports as male (such cates that 93 per cent of women with
to physical education in schools can as rugby) or female (such as netball), physical disabilities report engaging in
play an important role in promoting and to pursue a diverse range of physi- no physical activity, compared with 43
their participation in sport. During the cal activity. To achieve this, policies and per cent of women without disabilities.
1970s, 1980s and 1990s, physical programmes should be established to The study also reported that the preva-
education in schools worldwide was raise awareness among students, par- lence of chronic health conditions such
subject to decreasing curricula time, ents and staff; the number of women as arthritis, diabetes and high blood
reduced financial, physical and human physical education teachers should be pressure was 3 to 4 times higher in
resources, and a low subject status. increased; gender-sensitive training people with disabilities.98 Recreational
Since the Berlin Physical Education
World Summit in November 1999, there
have been significant improvements Basketball for girls in Afghanistan
in school-based physical education in The project “Basketball for Girls” was established in Afghanistan in 2001 to
developed countries, but unfortunately introduce and monitor basketball as an educational leisure activity for girls’
little change in developing countries.96 schools. In commemoration of the International Year of Sport and Physi-
The inclusion of physical education cal Education, the Sports Division of the Austrian Federal Chancellery, in
in official curricula does not necessarily partnership with the NGO Women Without Borders, implemented sport
promote physical activity among girls, programmes as a tool for development cooperation by providing courts,
as the physical education provided may uniforms and equipment to two girls’ schools in Kabul. A Women Without
be heavily biased towards boys in terms Borders training handbook and sport empowerment brochure was tested
of types of activity, teaching styles and and used, with 500 girls given the chance to practise basketball skills, com-
accessible resources. For example, pete in matches and train in teams.
physical education in some countries Source: United Nations (2006). Sport for a Better World: Report on the
is optional for girls and many choose International Year of Sport and Physical Education 2005, Geneva.
not to take part, a situation exacerbated
20
sport not only has a positive effect on

disabled women’s and girls’ overall
Self-defence for women and girls with disabilities
physical activity, but also contributes
positively to their empowerment. 99 International Training Advice and Research (ITAR) has organized many self-
Participation of women and girls with defence courses for women and girls with disabilities in Europe and the
disabilities in sport not only challenges United States. These courses are targeted at the empowerment of women
gender stereotypes but can also chal- and girls with disabilities through physical activities and include specific
lenge prejudices about disabilities and teachers’ training courses for female martial arts and self-defence trainers.
impairments. Women Win—a women sports fund from the Netherlands—is financing a
The low level of participation by disa- teachers’ training project in Malaysia for women and girls with disabilities,
bled women is in part a reflection of in collaboration with Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation Malaysia
the double discrimination that disabled (WSFFM). The training is provided by a highly ranked martial arts wheelchair-
women face, both as disabled per- using woman teacher.
sons and as women. Greater physical Source: Lydia la Rivière-Zijdel, 3rd Degree Black Belt Karate and 1st Degree
and communication barriers are faced Black Belt Aikido and self-defence instructor. Women Win—http://www.
by disabled women, such as the lack womenwin.org
of access to appropriate facilities and
technological aides, including sport- The lack of research and data on Externally funded sport projects for
ing wheelchairs, prostheses, special women with disabilities in sport hinders disabled persons in developing coun-
materials for blind women such as tan- efforts to develop programmes and ini- tries do not always reach disabled
dems, ringing balls and sign language tiatives which take into account their women and girls. There is seldom suf-
interpretation.100 The lack of equipment needs and priorities. It is, for example, ficient attention to gender perspectives
and accessible training facilities can be difficult to assess the global situation in projects and, as a result, disabled men
linked to negative attitudes towards of women and girls with disabilities and boys benefit to a greater extent than
women and girls with disabilities.101 In in sport at recreational and competi- women and girls. Sport development
order to reduce the marginalization of tive levels.104 The empowering effect programmes in developing countries
disabled women and girls, their specific of sport on women and girls with dis- should incorporate specific attention
needs, for example for accessible infra- abilities should be further investigated. to gender perspectives and disability
structure and suitable sporting equip- Increasing research and data collection in order to ensure that they reach dis-
ment, should be taken into account in must be given priority. abled women and girls.105
local, national and international sport
programmes and initiatives.
Practical interventions must ensure The Cambodia women’s wheelchair racing team
that locations, facilities and equipment
The Battambang Ladies Racing Team, established in 2007 through collabo-
are accessible to women and girls with
ration of the Cambodian National Volleyball League (Disabled) Organization
all types of disabilities, that is, by ensur-
(CNVLD), the ICRC Battambang Rehabilitation Centre and WomenSport
ing that those who use wheelchairs can
International, is the first of its kind in Cambodia. The CNVLD will establish
access buildings, locker rooms, bath-
more female teams in provincial locations in 2008. The Battambang Ladies
rooms, and activity or meeting areas;
Racing Team became the first All-Female team in the ANZ Royal–CNVLD
that those who are deaf or hearing-
Wheelie Grand Prix. The five-member team trained to compete in the ANZ
impaired can have access to sign
Royal–CNVLD 2nd Round Competition in September 2007.
language interpreters; that those who
are blind or have low vision have tactile The collaboration between CNVLD and ANZ Royal, the Cambodian sub-
access and visual activities or images sidiary of one of Australia’s leading corporate bodies, demonstrates that
described to them;102 and that women long-term partnership between local sports organizations and the corpo-
and girls with learning disabilities can rate sector can be an effective path to sustainable sport development. The
access safe, adapted sport environ- programme also illustrates that sport as a catalyst for social change in
ments. Guthrie and Castelnuovo (2001) post-conflict nations is an exceptionally valuable tool, when issues such
observe that “in order to produce the as a culture of violence, weak social cohesion, high unemployment, disaf-
greatest good for the greatest number, fected youth and a high percentage of disability per capita can threaten to
more opportunities for women with undermine efforts to bring about stability.
disabilities in both sport and exercise Source: ANZ Royal CNVLD Wheelie Grand Prix Welcomes First All-female
must be made available, and those that Team (2007). Cambodian National Volleyball League (Disabled). Website.
do exist must be made more accessi- Available from http://www.standupcambodia.org/blog/?p=1062
ble and accommodating”.103
21
In terms of participation of disabled

women in international competitions, Promoting women’s participation
47 per cent of the nations compet- in the Paralympic Games
ing in the 1996 Paralympic Games
brought no women athletes, compared The International Paralympic Committee’s Sport Technical Department
to 13 per cent of nations that brought promoted women’s participation in the 2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney
no women athletes to the Olympic focusing on women in the allocation of sport wildcards, adding more events
Games. In 2004, a record 31 per cent and disciplines for women, and raising awareness of issues related to women
of participants in the Summer Paralym- and sport among the leadership of national Paralympic committees.
pic Games in Athens were women, but Source: International Paralympic Committee (2006). IPC women in sport
this was still below the 40 per cent par- leadership toolkit: Increasing opportunities for women in Paralympic sport.
ticipation of women in the 2004 Olym- Bonn, Germany: IPC. Available from http://www.paralympic.org/release/
pic Games.106 Main_Sections_Menu/IPC/Organization/Standing_Committees/Commission_
Women_Sport/WISC.html
The Women in Sport Committee of
the International Paralympic Commit-
tee provides advice and consultation December 2004, the Network’s first reflect traditional gender segregation
on issues of gender equality in Para- regional summit for the Middle East in sport. For example, there is no quota
lympic sport. The role of the Commit- was organized by the National Paralym- for female athletes in football and the
tee is to: advocate for the full inclu- pic Committee of Iran, where an action quota for male athletes in judo is almost
sion of women and girls at all levels of plan for the region was developed that twice that of female athletes. Eques-
Paralympic sport; identify barriers that will create new opportunities in Para- trian events are the only discipline with
restrict participation; make policy rec- lympic sport for women and girls in the higher quotas for women.109
ommendations to address these barri- region.108 The International Paralympic Com-
ers; and oversee the implementation of The International Paralympic Com- mittee has acknowledged that it has
initiatives. mittee set targets for the numbers given priority to the participation of
The Committee also oversees the of male and female athletes in the disabled women in sport at the elite
Women in Paralympic Sport Network, 2008 Beijing Paralympics, with a level and that more needs to be done
which aims to mobilize the worldwide quota of 65 per cent men and 35 per to increase participation and access at
Paralympic community to increase cent women. This total participation the grass-roots and recreational levels,
access to Paralympic sport for women quota was also broken down into tar- which in turn will allow more women
and girls. In 2005, two summits were gets for individual categories of sport. with disabilities to proceed to interna-
held for the Africa region in Niger and Two disciplines—sitting volleyball and tional competitions.110 Improving par-
Tanzania, which produced a regional wheelchair fencing—currently have ticipation at the grass-roots level can
action plan to effectively incorporate equal participation targets for men and bring the benefits of participation in
women into Paralympic sport.107 In women. However, other disciplines sport and physical education to local
disabled women and girls, including
improved physical and mental health,
Developing female leaders development of social skills, building of
within the Paralympic Movement social networks, and expanded opportu-
nities for education and employment.
The International Paralympic Committee organizes Women in Sport Leader-
ship Regional Summits and National Trainings in all regions to encourage
full participation of women with disabilities and acknowledge their right to Women’s leadership
be leaders within the Paralympic Movement. It has developed a blueprint
and decision-making
for action on gender equality in paralympic sport and calls for commitments
for action to facilitate increased participation by girls and women. Leader- Throughout the world, women’s par-
ship Summits have been organized in Africa—in Tanzania (2005) and Kenya ticipation in leadership and decision-
(2006) and in the Niger (2006). A pilot Regional Summit for Asia was held making remains limited in sport and
in Tehran, Iran, in 2004. The first European Summit was held in Bonn in sport-related organizations. Women are
2007. underrepresented at all levels, including
in coaching, management, commercial
Source: International Paralympic Committee (2007). Developing Female
Leaders Within the Paralympic Movement. Bonn, Germany. Available from sporting activities and the media, as
h ttp://www.paralympic.org/release/Main_Sections_Menu/Development/ well as in decision-making bodies at
Development_Programmes/WIS/index.html the local, national, regional and interna-
tional levels, including the International
22
Olympic Committee. To give an exam-

ple of one country, in the Czech Repub- Targets for women’s participation
lic: only 8 per cent (33 women) of all in sport decision-making
members of executive boards in Czech
Progress in women’s leadership at the International Olympic Committee
sport federations are women; only 3
was seen in 1997 when Anita DeFrantz became the first female vice-presi-
women have ever been members of
dent of the IOC Executive Committee and Nawal El Moutawakel, appointed
the executive board of the Czech Olym-
as Minister of Sport and Youth in Morocco that same year, became the first
pic Committee in its 105-year history;
Muslim woman ever elected as a member of the IOC.
and only 21 per cent of elite athletes are
coached by women.111 Source: Promotion of women sports leaders (2007). Official website of the
Olympic Movement. Available from http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/
The lessons learned from efforts to
missions/women/activities/leaders_uk.asp
increase women’s participation in politi-
cal decision-making show that many
of the gains made can be attributed of Zambia became the second in the
to affirmative action, such as quotas, world to elect women as both Presi-
Promoting women’s
established in constitutions, by leg- dent and Secretary General.112 The
leadership in national
islation or through temporary special study recognized that it is critical not
strategies for women
measures. Targets do work, although to view targets as ceilings for women’s
and sport
incentives as well as sanctions for non- participation, but as minimum require-
compliance are often needed to ensure ments for women’s representation. Women and Sport South Africa,
their effectiveness. The study found that, in terms of a national strategy launched in
impact, women on these committees 1996, is aimed at empowering
In 1997, as part of its Women and
had influenced ongoing policy debates women to be actively involved in
Sport policy, the International Olympic
on women and sport, and the Secretaries all spheres of sport and recrea-
Committee (IOC) established targets to
General of various National Olympic tion. In particular, it targets gov-
increase the number of women occupy-
Committees indicated that women ernmental and non-governmental
ing leadership and administrative posi-
were among the most active members agencies in South Africa to develop
tions within the Olympic Movement. By
of the Executive Committees. The a culture where all girls and
31 December 2005, the National Olympic
benefits cited by the women commit- women have equal opportunities,
Committees, International Sports Fed- equal access, and equal support
tee members included the increases
erations and sporting bodies belonging in sport and recreation at all levels
in women’s influence in the National
to the Olympic Movement should have and in all capacities, as decision-
Olympic Committees, in participation
established that at least 20 per cent of makers, administrators, coaches,
of women in leadership training, in
the positions in all their decision-making officials and participants.
appointment of women to other com-
structures are held by women.
mittees, and in the general profile of Source: Oglesby, Carole A., in
A study conducted in January 2004 women in sport.113 collaboration with the International
by the International Olympic Commit- The study identified a number of Working Group on Women and
tee (IOC) and the Institute of Sport & constraints to women’s participation Sport, WomenSport International,
Leisure Policy at Loughborough Uni- the International Association of
in leadership and decision-making, Physical Education for Women
versity (UK) found that the introduc- including the challenge of getting and Girls, and the International
tion of targets in the IOC had a positive women nominated and elected from Council of Sport Science and
impact on the proportion of women in a constituency of National Federations Physical Education (2006). Positive
the Executive Committees of National whose representatives were predomi- Embodiment: Contributions of
Olympic Committees. Sixty-two per S p o r t , E xe r c i s e a n d P hys i c a l
nantly and traditionally male. Further- Recreation to the Life-long Develop-
cent of National Olympic Committees more, the targets were limited to only ment of Girls and Women. (Brief
(NOCs) had achieved the targets. As one part of the Olympic decision-making prepared for the Division for the
of December 2005, there were nine structure—the National Olympic Com- Advancement of Women.)
women NOC Presidents: five in Africa, mittees—and more work is needed to
three in Europe and one in the Ameri- increase women’s participation at all
cas; and there were 14 women Secreta- levels. There was also recognition In addition to targets and quotas, a
ries General: four in Europe, four in the that successful implementation of number of other approaches are impor-
Americas, three in Africa, two in Asia the targets will not necessarily lead to tant in promoting the participation of
and one in Oceania. Africa is leading policy changes in support of women’s women and girls in sport leadership
the way for women’s leadership, and in increased participation in decision- and decision-making, including skills
2005, the National Olympic Committee making. training and recognition of achieve-
23
ments. Men’s leadership on this issue

is critical. The Chairperson of the
Sport as a platform to advance
International Olympic Committee’s
women’s leadership in all spheres
Women and Sport Commission, Anita
DeFrantz, has highlighted the need for UNESCO and the Sony Ericsson Women’s Tennis Association Tour
women and men to work together to announced a landmark global partnership in 2006, which marked a new level
achieve the goals set for women’s par- of commitment to raise awareness of gender equality issues and advance
ticipation in sport leadership.114 Such opportunities for women’s leadership in all spheres of society. Activities
cooperation can help to achieve the planned included a fund for women’s leadership; appointment of global
benefits of women’s increased partici- “Promoters of Gender Equality”; mentoring, scholarship and fellowship
pation in decision-making in sport for programmes; and the use of UNESCO and Sony Ericsson WTA Tour events
both women and men, including the as awareness and fund-raising platforms. Tennis star Venus Williams, the
diversification of the talent pool among first global Promoter of Gender Equality, noted that “our goal is to let women
coaches, managers, administrators and and girls throughout the world know that there are no glass ceilings, and to
other officials. do our part to support programs that provide real opportunities for women
to succeed in whatever they set their minds to.”
A number of international and
regional meetings and conferences Source: UNESCO (2006). “UNESCO and Sony Ericsson WTA Tour announce
have explored women’s participation in Global Partnership to Advance Gender Equality.” Press release. 12 November.
Available from http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=35640&URL_
sport leadership and decision-making. DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
The International Paralympic Commit-
tee regularly addresses this issue in its
regional “Women in Sport Leadership tive outcome of this incident was the
Summits”, which have been held in criticism that his remark drew from a
Employment
the Middle East, Africa and Europe. In wide variety of sources, and the atten-
October 2005, a conference on “Effect-
opportunities
tion given to the fact that the woman
ing social change through women’s lead- An enabling environment is also neces- in question was the first woman to be
ership in sport” was held in the United sary to improve the access of women employed full-time in a major-league
States as part of the International Year to sport-related employment. A wide club’s training room.
of Sport and Physical Education. The range of opportunities for employment
In Canada, for example, more than
conference, hosted by Kennesaw exists in the world of sport, as coaches,
95 per cent of an estimated 1.2 million
State University, in association with the managers, sport administrators, train-
coaches work at the community level.
United States Olympic Committee and ers, game officials, physical education
In community-level softball, hockey and
the International Labour Organization teachers, sports therapists, journalists
soccer, it is estimated that less than 5
(ILO), included programmes on: fos- and editors. Positions also exist in the
per cent of the coaches are women,
tering socio-economic improvement commercial sporting industry, in areas
even though the number of female
through the perspective of women’s such as sport marketing and branding.
participants in these sports at the com-
leadership; the role of media in shap- Women’s participation in all these fields
munity level is growing significantly.117
ing society’s perception of women; of sport-related employment is low. The
and facilitating women in leadership poor representation of women in sport- A number of initiatives are under
positions that make an impact on soci- related employment is not a reflection way to encourage and promote wom-
ety.115 of the number of working women in the en’s work in all sectors of the sporting
world today; women represent more industry. At the policy level, the Brighton
Educational role modelling as a
than 40 per cent of working people Declaration calls upon sports and
means to reach community youth
was a special focus of the conference. worldwide.116 sports-related organizations to develop
Positive role models are recognized as policies, programmes and design struc-
Many barriers to equitable employ-
an important way to increase partici- ment opportunities remain, including tures that increase the number of women
pation of women and girls in sport and stereotypical attitudes towards women coaches, advisers, decision-makers,
sport leadership. Long-term mentor- and sport. A recent example in the officials, administrators and sport per-
ship is also important, as the encour- United States was a derogatory remark sonnel at all levels with special atten-
agement and moral support offered made by a prominent New York Mets tion given to recruitment, development
through such relationships are key broadcaster about women’s presence and retention.118
factors in providing an enabling envi- in baseball dugouts: “I won’t say that The International Olympic Commit-
ronment for increased participation in women belong in the kitchen, but they tee (IOC), in cooperation with Olympic
this area. don’t belong in the dugout”. A posi- Solidarity, established a programme of
24
regional seminars for female adminis-

trators, coaches, technical officials and Women in coaching
journalists in the national and interna-
tional sport movement. The Interna- The Coaching Association of Canada (CAC) launched the “We are coaches”
tional Labour Organization (ILO) has campaign in February 2006 to increase the number of women coaching at
also been active in promoting wom- the community level from 5 per cent to 10 per cent in three years. As part
en’s employment in the sport sector. It of the initiative, participating women will receive quality coach training in
adopted women in sport as the theme certain sports through the National Coaching Certification Programme. CAC
for its 2006 celebrations for Interna- anticipates expansion of the programme to include at least 15 additional
tional Women’s Day and held a panel sports and many more communities in the second year, and to increase the
discussion to explore gender equality number of sports and communities again in the third year.
issues in the sport-related employment Source: “The Coaching Association of Canada launches a three-year campaign
sector.119 to increase the number of women coaches at the community level.” In
Canada Sports News Online, 7 February 2006. Available from http://www.
In some countries, progress has
canadiansport.ca/news/news_view_e.cfm?id=9449&search=&show=&
been made through legal channels to month=&year=&search_where
lift some of the barriers to women’s
careers in sport-related areas. For
example, in 1978, Melissa Ludtke of
Sports Illustrated, a highly recognized Supporting women’s professional
periodical of American sport, filed a development in sport
lawsuit in which a United States District
Court judge ruled that male and female The International Olympic Committee (IOC), in cooperation with Olympic
reporters should have the same access Solidarity, established a programme of regional seminars for female admin-
to athletes, even if it means entering istrators, coaches, technical officials and journalists in the national and inter-
locker rooms while athletes are dress- national sport movement. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has
ing.120 also been active in promoting women’s employment in the sport sector. It
adopted women in sport as the theme for its 2006 celebrations for Interna-
tional Women’s Day and held a panel discussion to explore gender equality
Providing skills issues in the sport employment sector.
for a career in
Source: Support Activities. Official website of the Olympic Movement.
international sport Available from http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/missions/women/
The second Sport Management activities/activities_uk.asp
Seminar for Women, organized
by the International Academy of events was 95 to 1 in television and 20
Sports Science and Technology to 1 in print media.121
(AISTS), took place in June 2006
Women’s sport
in Lausanne, Switzerland. A total
and the media In Australia, a 1996 study conducted
by the Australian Sports Commission
of 51 women representing 38 The gender-based discrimination
found that coverage of women’s sport
nationalities took part in this four- against women in sport-related employ-
day education programme organ- was just two per cent of total sport
ment is also apparent in the unequal
ized to provide women in sport broadcasting in television, 1.4 per
representation of women in sport
management with a solid under- cent in radio and 6.8 per cent in sport
media, and the negative portrayal of
standing of the key skills needed magazines. Newspaper reportage of
women athletes and women’s sports
to pursue a successful career in women’s sport was higher at 10.7 per
remains a persistent problem. In addi-
international sport. The seminar cent.122 When the South Australian
tion, women’s sporting events remain
included workshops and lectures Premier’s Council for Women com-
marginalized from the mainstream
on sport marketing, sponsorship missioned similar research in 2006, it
multi-billion dollar sport-media indus-
and media; project management; found that newspaper coverage was
try and while many local, national and
and communication, teamwork just 4.1 per cent, despite a number of
international competitions include both
and leadership. men’s and women’s events, the men’s high-profile women’s sporting events
events invariably dominate media cov- held during the study period.123
Source: International Academy
of Sports Science and Technology. erage and local and global attention. Frank Deford, a senior writer for
Website: http://www.aists.org/ For example, in the United States, the Sports Illustrated, has argued that
events.htm media coverage ratio in 2004 between coverage of sport is dictated by what
male and female professional sporting people want to see. He maintains that
25
there is little coverage of women’s

sport because women do not support
Sport media and stereotypes
female athletes nearly as much as men
support male athletes.124 The Women’s Austria, Iceland, Italy, Lithuania and Norway have taken part in a cross-
Sports Foundation has, however, noted European research project initiative, “Sport media and stereotypes—women
that there is no evidence to support the and men in sport and media”, to explore similarities and variations in rep-
contention that women are not as inter- resentations of women and men in sport. The initiative aims to promote
ested in sport as men.125 change in gender stereotypes in sport by raising awareness among influen-
Frank Deford has also suggested tial target groups about the impact of representation of male and female ath-
that although individual female athletes, particularly in the media, and how it creates and maintains traditional
letes are able to command attention, images of women and men.
women’s team sporting events do Source: The 2005 United Nations International Year of Sport and Physical
not because men cannot conceive of Education: Austrian Projects. Available from http://sport.austria.gv.at/
women representing them, for exam- Docs/2005/7/8/UN%20Year%20of%20Sport%20&%20Physical%20Education
ple when supporters closely associate %20Austrian%20Projects.doc?wai=true
their own identity with a college or pro-
fessional team. He has recommended The coverage, marketing and promo- Girls and Women in Sport, noted that
that major women’s competitions, such tion of women’s sport are also often while the number of sexualized images
as the national Collegiate Basketball highly sexualized. The value of the of male athletes is far outweighed
Championships in the United States, female athlete is often determined in by pictures depicting men simply as
should be moved to a different month terms of her body type, attractiveness great athletes, this is not the case for
in the year so that they do not have to and sex appeal, rather than in terms of women.133 Female athletes can also be
compete with the men’s events.126 The the qualities that define her as an ath- sexualized through official game rules,
Women’s National Basketball Associa- lete. Donna Lopiano, the former Chief which sometimes require revealing uni-
tion (WNBA) has already been moved Executive of the Women’s Sport Foun- forms, even when there is no functional
to a summer season.127 dation in the United States, says that purpose. This has been referred to as
Media representation and portrayal the sports media culture is “deciding sexploitation.134
of men’s and women’s sport are also what sells, and they’re not willing to
significantly different. Media cover- sell legitimate female athletic achieve-
age of women’s sport continues to ment”.130
be influenced by gender stereotypes,
This approach is sometimes imposed
which reinforce traditional images of Promoting women
on female athletes but may also be
men and women. Numerous research in sport media
used voluntarily as a strategy to gain
studies have, for example, shown that The Ministry of Youth and Sports
media coverage. For example, in 2000,
in sport media, women are frequently of Hungary funded a promotional
the Australian national women’s soc-
portrayed as “girls”, no matter what programme for women in sport
cer team, the Matildas, launched a
their age, and described in terms of with a specially designed logo
nude calendar to generate publicity and
their physical attributes and emotional and the slogan “Keep in Shape”.
increase their public profile.131 Capital-
responses, often in ways that stress The programme includes weekly
izing on attractiveness is one way that
their weakness, passivity and insig- women of sport pages in a daily
women athletes are earning more
nificance.128 Such gender stereotyping newspaper, articles in sport mag-
money and corporate sponsorships,
can have a powerful influence on the azines and a weekly television
but it is argued that the enhanced sexu-
younger generation’s perceptions and health and lifestyle programme.
alization of female athletes diminishes
attitudes towards women and gender The Ministry also produced a 30-
their accomplishments and reinforces
equality. In this context, the findings of minute programme on the “His-
the image of women as sex objects,
a research study conducted on gender- tory of Women in Sports” for
which is harmful to all women.132
specific images in Sports Illustrated for national television.
Kids are particularly disheartening. The Male athletes are also taking advan-
study showed that stereotypical mascu- tage of the commercialization of the Source: International Working
Group on Women and Sport
line and feminine ideologies continued sporting industry—as seen by clothing
(2002). Women and Sport
to dominate the magazine, even when collections of male sport starts such as Progress Report 1998-2002. Bonn,
progress in gender equality in sport has Björn Borg (Sweden) and Ian Thorpe Germany. Available from http://
been achieved and cultural acceptance (Australia). However, Dr. Mary Jo Kane, www.canada2002.org/e/progress/
and expectations of women in sport Director of the University of Minneso- worldwide/chapter3_america.htm
have evolved.129 ta’s Tucker Center for Research on
26
The promotion and popularization of ing someone close to them who had a victim, of harassment in sport. Of
women’s sport requires an increase in been harassed.139 those, 67 per cent said the abuser was
media coverage as well as a significant Women and girls may face ver- the trainer and 92 per cent said that the
improvement in the breadth, depth and bal harassment, including of a sexual harassment took place in a sport facility
quality of women’s sport media, as nature, which can originate from other or workplace.144
called for in the 1998 Windhoek Call athletes, coaches, managers, specta- Violence, exploitation and abuse in
for Action. Non-discriminatory portrayal tors, and family or community mem- the context of sport are of concern for all
of female athletes in sport media and bers. For example, girls playing football women, not only women athletes. The
marketing could not only provide posi- in the Mathare Youth Sports Associa- notion of masculinity based on men’s
tive role models that encourage more tion programme in Kenya spoke of the dominance, physical strength and power
women and girls to become athletes, taunts and jeers of the boys who teased that is traditionally enhanced by male
but it could also persuade more women them as they walked in the community sport can manifest into violence against
to become consumers of sport media and of the risk of being harassed by all women. Such notions of masculinity
and other products, as well as posi- street boys who were present near the may be a factor in the increasing levels
tively influence gender stereotypes and playing field.140 of sexual violence committed by male
the sexualization of women in all areas The risk of violence and harassment athletes. Negative conduct, however,
of society. may stem from men’s resistance to the does not seem to have had an impact
challenging of gender-specific bounda- on the popularity of male sport stars,
ries and assertion of women’s inde- as recognized by United States sports
Violence against pendence, or may occur because women commentator Frank Deford:
women, exploitation are participating in sport viewed as “Hardly a week goes by it seems
and sexual harassment male domains. For example, one of the without some pro or college star
girls in the Mathare Youth Sports Asso- being hauled up on some brutal
A further impact of the sexualization of ciation (MYSA) programme in Kenya charge against a woman. It is risky
women athletes is increased harass- noted, “When I started playing for to try to explain this simply, but cer-
ment, exploitation and violence against MYSA my father would say that there tainly part of this sorry trend can be
women.135 Studies conducted in a is no football for girls, and he would accounted for by the fact that ath-
number of countries give some indica- beat me up. So whenever I wanted to letes are now given so much, and
tion of the prevalence of violence and go and play, my mother would cover forgiven so much, and from so early
harassment in sport: 40-50 per cent of up for me by saying that she had sent on, that they become imbued with a
female athletes surveyed in Canada and me somewhere.”141 Such attitudes can sense of entitlement previously only
27 per cent in Australia reported harass- sometimes be altered if the sport takes found with royal princes of the realm.
ment.136 A study of Australian athletes place within school grounds, rather After a while it is hard to believe that
found that 31 per cent of female and than in other facilities, as parents may anybody will turn you down, particu-
21 per cent of male athletes reported see schools as safer environments for larly any woman. Yet while there is a
experiencing sexual abuse at some their daughters to practise sport. lot of bemoaning about the athletes’
time in their lives. Of these, 41 per cent Verbal and physical harassment by violence towards women, has it
of females and 29 per cent of males coaches and managers, such as derog- affected the popularity of any sport,
had been sexually abused within the atory remarks and inappropriate looks especially the NBA [National Basket-
sport environment.137 A Norwegian or touching, is a particular concern. ball Association], where misconduct
research project administered by the A study in the Czech Republic found of all kinds appears most abun-
Norwegian Olympic Committee from that 45 per cent of female athletes dant? . . . Until we see evidence
1995-2000 found that 28 per cent of had experienced sexual harassment to the contrary, we can continue to
female athletes had experienced sexual from someone in sport, 27 per cent assume that how pro-athletes treat
harassment in a sporting context. The noting harassment from a coach.142 In women is simply not germane so
study also showed that female athletes Canada, 21.8 per cent of female ath- long as they treat the games we love
had experienced sexual harassment letes surveyed reported relationships with respect and devotion.” 145
from both women (15 per cent) and with a sporting authority figure, 23 per The link between international sport-
men (45 per cent), either in or outside cent of whom were under 16 years of ing events and prostitution, and the use
of the sport setting.138 Young athletes age and 8.6 per cent of whom felt obli- of human trafficking to fill the demand,
are particularly vulnerable. In the United gated to enter into the relationship.143 is a further concern relating to the
States, adolescents made up 31 per A survey conducted during a marathon exploitation of women in the context of
cent of cases of harassment, and in in Mexico revealed that 71 per cent of sport. While the link between sporting
Denmark, 25 per cent of sportswomen the 150 respondents had been a vic- events and human trafficking is often
under 18 reported harassment or know- tim, or knew someone who had been made, a representative of Ban Ying, an
27
NGO assisting prostitutes from South- to sport.150 This followed on from the A group of experts on women and
east Asia, reports that the organization Council of Europe resolution passed in sport, Kari Fasting (Norway), Celia
and money required to traffic large 2000 on the prevention of sexual har- Brackenridge (England), Sandi Kirby
numbers of women into a country for assment and abuse of women, young (Canada) and Trisha Leahy (Hong Kong),
a short-term event would be too much people and children in sport (3/2000), have also been contracted by UNICEF
of an investment, particularly given which resolved to commission research Innocenti Research Centre in Florence
the large police presence.146 Interpol on the phenomena, prepare a national to prepare a digest on violence against
has noted, however, that “prostitution policy and suggest actions for imple- children in sport.
networks set up specific organizations mentation.151 A great deal remains to be done to
to take advantage of major sporting The International Olympic Commit- combat exploitation, harassment and
events” and, for example, an increase tee’s Executive Committee adopted a violence against women in sport. For
in prostitution was detected during the consensus position statement on Sex- example, affordable and reliable trans-
Fédération Internationale de Football ual Harassment and Abuse in Sport in portation, appropriate hours for events,
Association (FIFA) Confederations Cup February 2007. It was prepared by a and safe sporting locations are all impor-
in 2005.147 group of experts/researchers at a sem- tant criteria for increasing the safety of
A research project by the International inar in Lausanne in October 2006. The women and girls when participating in
Organization for Migration on traffick- statement defines the problems, identi- sport, especially when scheduled prac-
ing and the 2006 World Cup found that fies the risk factors and provides guide- tice or competition times finish after
although data on trafficking is limited, all lines for prevention and resolution. The dark. Further efforts should include
information available strongly indicated objective is to improve the health and research, awareness-raising and advo-
that an increase in trafficking during protection of athletes through the pro- cacy; the adoption of harassment-free pol-
and after the World Cup did not occur. motion of effective preventive policy,
Prevention campaigns by the German as well as to increase the awareness of
Government and local and international these problems among all stakeholders
NGOs, as well as increased police and actors in sport. The recommenda- Combating harassment
focus, may have positively contributed tions include: and violence against
to this development. For example, a • Adopting harassment-free policies women and girls by
range of initiatives were implemented and procedures that are in line with coaches
including multilingual hotlines, shelters international ethical and human WomenSport International
for victims of trafficking, and outreach rights statutes, and that are inclu- encourages all sport organiza-
activities to women in their home sive; tions to establish codes of ethics
countries. The study also noted that
• Encouraging open debate about and conduct for coaches; foster
the characteristics of the fan commu-
sexual harassment, homophobia a climate of open discussion
nity and the overall setting of the World
and exploitation of women and men about sexual harassment and
Cup 2006 played an important role, as
in sport; abuse; develop athlete autonomy
many of the fans included families with
• Embedding an equitable balance of wherever possible; incorporate
children.148 Unfortunately, attempts
males and females in all roles and the issues of sexual harassment
to prevent human trafficking in these
democratic leadership styles to miti- and abuse into coach education
contexts can lead to further discrimina-
gate against abuses of power; programmes; introduce report-
tion against women, as illustrated in the
• Acting as advocates of harassment- ing and mediation systems; and
proposal to impose special visa require-
free sport through education and adopt rigorous screening proce-
ments for women visitors from some
training programmes for everyone dures for the appointment of all
non–European Union countries as a
involved in sport; personnel.
measure to address the trafficking of
women for the purpose of prostitution • Actively monitoring the effective- S o u r c e : W o m e n S p o r t
at the World Cup.149 ness of all anti-harassment initia- International (WSI) Task Forces. The
tives; Sexual Harassment Task Force:
Prevention of violence, harassment Brochure on Sexual Harassment
and exploitation in sport is gradually • Initiating research into men’s, wom- and Abuse in Sport. WomenSport
being addressed at both policy and en’s and boys’ and girls’ experiences International. United States:
operational levels. For example, the rec- of abuse and bullying within sport; W o m e n S p o r t I n t e r n a t i o n a l .
and Available from http://www.sportsbiz.
ommendation on discrimination against b z / wo m e n s p o r t i n t e r n a t i o n a l /
women and girls in sport passed by taskforces/harassment_brochure.
the Parliamentary Assembly of the • Giving active representation to ath- htm
Council of Europe in 2005 calls for the letes in decision-making at every
combating of sexual abuse in relation level of sport.152
28
icies and procedures; the promotion of on the benefits of sport and the capa- all aspects of sport policies and pro-
women in coaching, management and bilities of women and girls are all useful grammes, and providing specific tai-
other leadership positions; and access strategies for bringing about change. lored support where appropriate. This
to open channels of redress.153 A sys- It is important to keep in mind, how- approach is essential to ensure that
tem of impunity must not be allowed ever, that gender mainstreaming does women and girls with disabilities par-
to perpetuate harassment, exploitation not eliminate the need for targeted ticipate fully, enjoy the benefits of both
and violence against women and girls activities focused on women and girls. recreational and competitive sport, and
in sport. Resources, responsibilities and power are empowered through the process.
are not equitably allocated between In relation to women’s participation
women and girls and men and boys. in decision-making, it is important to go
Given the significance of the gender beyond increasing numbers to enhanc-
Where to now: gaps in many areas of sport, redress- ing the effectiveness and impact of
conclusions ing this situation will continue to require women’s participation, through increas-
affirmative action and the developing women’s voice in shaping policies,
and
ment of specific targeted programmes resource allocations, and programme
recommendations for women and girls for some time to development and management. Wom-
come. en’s access to promotion opportunities
The foundations of a sound action within sporting organizations at all lev-
A range of actors are taking actions to framework for the promotion of gen- els should be assessed, and the types
address discrimination and inequali- der equality and the empowerment of of support mechanisms required to
ties in sport, including governments, women in sport are already in place. increase these opportunities should be
the United Nations system, sport- Bodies at international, regional and identified and provided. The impact of
ing institutions and NGOs. Common national levels, in particular the women affirmative action measures must also
strategies include awareness-raising, and sport movement, have made major be regularly assessed and strategies
advocacy and gender-sensitive policy- efforts to provide clear policy recom- adjusted as necessary. Furthermore,
making and programming, using both mendations to redress the imbalances databases on women leaders in sport
gender-mainstreaming approaches and women and girls face in their involve- are needed as a resource for those
women-specific initiatives. However, ment in all areas and at all levels of seeking candidates for leadership posi-
the extent of the problem of discrimi- sport. They have also worked to accel- tions. Without such databases, organi-
nation against women and girls in sport erate the process of change, in particu- zations can continue to claim that there
demands further action, and success- lar through advocacy, research and data are no women with the necessary skills
ful strategies and programmes must collection, and monitoring and report- or experience willing to take up key
be scaled up and expanded. ing progress. There are, however, a positions.
Gender mainstreaming in sport is number of areas in which this frame- Initiatives that address all forms
essential and requires that sporting work can be significantly strength- of violence, exploitation and harass-
bodies and institutions identify and ened and expanded, including through ment are needed at a variety of lev-
explicitly address the relevant gender gender-sensitive resource allocations; els, including within families, schools,
perspectives in all areas of their activi- establishing higher targets for wom- sport teams, communities, and in local,
ties, for example, in policy develop- en’s participation in decision-making national, regional and international com-
ment, planning processes, budget and leadership, and enhancing follow- petitions. There should be commitment
procedures, human resources devel- up of these targets; and developing to creating safe and supportive envi-
opment—including recruitment, pro- and implementing policies and codes of ronments for women and girls to par-
motion, retention and training—and conduct in relation to violence, exploi- ticipate in sport. Improving safety and
in research and statistics. The main- tation and harassment in sport. Action security requires, for example, atten-
streaming of gender perspectives into plans are needed at all levels that pro- tion to suitable locations; appropriate
all sport policies and programmes will vide concrete guidance on what needs scheduling; and the design of gender-
require a deeper understanding of the to be done and by which actors, and sensitive and disability-aware facilities
barriers women and girls may face in that also outline timelines, concrete tar- that take into account the need for
accessing, participating in and benefit- gets, resource implications, and moni- secure changing rooms and adequate
ing from sport and physical activity, and toring and reporting requirements. lighting and transport. Initiatives must
the identification of ways to address A twin-track approach on sport for address a number of key issues such
them. For example, establishing appro- women and girls with disabilities is as gender stereotyping, power relation-
priate physical resources and infra- necessary, that is, ensuring that issues ships between coaches and athletes,
structure, developing equitable rules of women and girls with disabilities as well as the link between interna-
and regulations, and raising awareness are systematically mainstreamed into tional sporting events and prostitution
29
and the risk of human trafficking to fill not only required for girls and young equately addressed—is identifying
that demand. women; there is also a critical need means of developing accountability of
A number of other critical areas need for gender-sensitive male athletes, these key actors.
further attention. Monitoring and evalu- coaches, journalists and other leaders Men and boys also need to be tar-
ation of the impact of initiatives, such to provide positive role models and geted for training on gender equality in
support for boys and young men.
as the use of targets and quotas, need sport and the empowerment of women
to be significantly strengthened. Reli- Organizational change is particularly and girls. The women and sport move-
able and comparable data are required, important, including changes to organi- ment should identify critical allies
both as an advocacy and awareness- zational cultures, values, norms, rules among male athletes, coaches, manag-
raising tool, and as a means to improve and procedures. Practical aspects of ers and other leaders, including in the
the effectiveness of monitoring and organizational change can be critical to media. Men must be encouraged to play
reporting on the implementation of poli- ensure women’s full involvement, such a more visible supportive role. Follow-up
cies and programmes. Improved means as establishing appropriate meeting to ensure the effectiveness of training
of disseminating data and statistics schedules and provision of childcare. programmes provided to both women
should be sought, including through the Since the representation of women and men is critical.
media. Initiatives are needed to build a in sporting organizations is currently
low, men in leadership positions have Other critical allies could also be
good knowledge base on successful identified, for example, in parliaments
strategies and promising practices for a major responsibility for promoting and
sustaining the required organizational as well as in the national mechanisms
increasing participation of women and established to promote gender equal-
girls in sport and promoting sport for change.
ity and empowerment of women, such
gender equality. A range of actors should be involved
as women’s ministries, gender equal-
in and collaborating on promoting
Strategies that address the inad- ity commissions and ombudsperson
increased access, involvement and
equate and often negative portrayal of offices.
benefits for women and girls in all
women’s sport in the media are essen- The International Year of Sport and
areas of sport. These include govern-
tial. Attention should be paid not only to Physical Education in 2005 generated
ments, public authorities, sporting
increasing coverage but also to improv- considerable attention to the issue of
organizations at the local, national and
ing the quality and style of media report- sport and development throughout the
international levels, research and train-
ing. Efforts may include reducing the world. Now is the time to harness the
ing institutions, women’s organizations
sexualized representation, marketing momentum created by the Interna-
and networks, and development agen-
and promotion of women’s sport, and tional Year and ensure the systematic
cies. Individuals who are involved with
changing the dominant stereotypical promoting, conducting, researching, and effective integration of a gender
gender images to reflect the progress reporting on and in any way influencing perspective in all areas and at all levels
on gender equality in sport. sporting activities—such as coaches, of sport. Concerted efforts are needed
The establishment of positive role trainers, managers, other officials, by all key actors to move positions for-
models and development of mentor- journalists and athletes themselves— ward on gender equality in sport and on
ing systems are important strategies. should also be actively involved. A the empowerment of women and girls
Positive role models and support are major challenge—which remains inad- through sport.
30
10 World Health Organization (2007c). Disability in Sport Working Group,

Endnotes
Physical activity and older people: For Sport in the United Nations Conven-
1 Historyof Women in Sports Time- people of all ages, physical activ- tion on the rights of persons with dis-
line, 1930 -1959 and 1990 -1997. ity improves the quality of life in abilities. Boston, United States: North-
Available from www.northnet.org/ many ways. Geneva, Switzerland. eastern University.
stlawrenceaauw/timelne3.htm and Available from http://www.who.int/ 19 United Nations Inter-Agency Task
www.northnet.org/stlawrenceaauw/ moveforhealth/advocacy/informa-
Force on Sport for Development and
timelne6.htm tion_sheets/elderly/en/index.html
Peace (2003). op. cit.
2 Historyof Women in Sports Timeline, 11 Ibid.
20 United Nations (2006b). Sport for
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12 Bailey, Richard, I. Wellard and H. Development and Peace: the way for-
org/stlawrenceaauw/timeline.htm
Dismore (2004). Girls’ participation ward, report of the Secretary-General
3 Oglesby, Carole A., in collaboration in physical activities and sports: Ben- (A/61/373). New York.
with the International Working Group efits, patterns, influences and ways 21 United Nations (1995). Report of the
on Women and Sport, WomenSport forward. Centre for Physical Education
International, the International Associ- Fourth World Conference on Women
and Sport Research. United Kingdom:
ation of Physical Education for Women in Beijing, 4-15 September 1995.
Canterbury Christ Church University
and Girls, and the International Council New York (United Nations Publication,
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of Sport Science and Physical Educa- Sales No. E.96.IV.13). See Critical Area
icsspe.org/portal/download/Girls.pdf?
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Contributions of Sport, Exercise and of women, Strategic Objective B.2,
82d8eaf0862b8
Physical Recreation to the Life-long para. 83 (m), and Critical Area of Con-
13 Darlison, E (1998). Gender, sport, cern C, Women and health, Strategic
Development of Girls and Women”,
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Division for the Advancement of opment. Unpublished paper. Paris, 22 United Nations Commission on the
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31
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Strasbourg, France: Parliamentary 57 United Nations (2007). United Nations
45 Ibid.
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60 Shapiro, Leonard (2006). Burk Still 70 Meier, Marianne (2005). Gender Equity, 78 Information
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63 History of Women in Sports Timeline,
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75 Riordan, James (2000). “Chinese 87 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit.
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67 “Objectives of Women Islamic Medical Commission Working Group
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89 Ibid.
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December 2006. 90 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit.
“Facts on Women at Work”, March
69 Oglesby, Carole A., et al. (2006), op. cit. 2006). 91 Ibid.
33
92 Feminist Majority Foundation (1995). 102 Oglesby, Carole. A., et al. (2006), op. cit. and the Olympic Movement. Lough-
“Empowering Women in Sports”. In 103 Guthrie, borough, UK: Loughborough Univer-
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www.feminist.org/research/sports/ 114 The Olympic Movement (2004). op. cit.
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93 Feminist Majority Foundation. Gender
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94 Ibid.
105 Communication
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95 Equal
with Lydia la Rivière-
cheers for boys and girls draw 116 International Labour Organization
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106 International
Paralympic Committee.
14 January 2007. 2006. “ILO celebrates International
96 Hardman, Kenneth (2004). An Update (2006). IPC women in sport leader- Women’s Day; champion female ath-
ship toolkit: Increasing opportuni- letes urge women to step up fight for
on the Status of Physical Education in
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Schools Worldwide: Technical Report
Bonn, Germany: IPC. Available from
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97 Ibid. Canada Sports News Online, 7 Feb-
107 The reports are available from
98 United States Centers for Disease ruary 2006. Available from http://
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Publications
Ending Violence against Women:

From Words to Action—
Study of the Secretary-General
The study, which addresses violence against women as a form of discrimination and a
human rights violation, finds that such violence is severe and pervasive throughout the
world, causing untold misery for women, harming families across generations, impoverish-
ing communities and reinforcing other forms of violence throughout societies.
The study acknowledges the work of grass-roots women’s organizations and movements
around the world in bringing violence against women into the arena of public attention and
State accountability. It analyses the causes, forms and consequences of violence against
women, reviews available data and outlines States’ obligations to address such violence.
While the study describes promising practices in the areas of law, service provision for
victims and prevention, it also notes remaining challenges in bringing an end to violence
against women.
The study puts forward a blueprint for action, by different stakeholders, at local, national
and international levels. Such action needs to involve demonstrations of political commit-
ment; the investment of resources; and strong institutional mechanisms that can develop
and implement comprehensive approaches for the prevention and eradication of all forms of
violence against women. Securing women’s human rights and promotion of gender equality
are crucial to this agenda.
The study is available in English, French and Spanish.
Sales No. E.06.IV.8 • ISBN: 978-92-1-130253-0 • Price $38.00
World Survey of the Role of Women

in Development:
Women and International Migration
A flagship publication of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations
Secretariat, the 2004 World Survey on the Role of Women in Development addresses key
issues related to women and international migration. A gender perspective is essential
to understanding both the causes and consequences of international migration. Migrant
women contribute to the economic development of their country of destination and to the
country of origin through financial contributions from remittances, the improvement of their
own skills and their contributions to the improvement of the education and skills of the next
generation. Women often migrate officially as dependent family members of other migrants
or marry someone in another country. Many national laws on emigration and immigration
of voluntary migrants include discriminatory provisions that affect the protection of migrant
women. Refugee women and girls face particular problems regarding their legal and physi-
cal protection. The trafficking of people for prostitution and forced labour is one of the
fastest-growing areas of international criminal activity and one that is of increasing concern
to the international community. International migration affects gender roles and opportuni-
ties for women in destination countries. The 2004 World Survey analyses key issues on
labour migration, family formation and reunification, rights of migrant women, refugees and
displaced persons, as well as trafficking of women and girls. It sets out recommendations,
which, if adopted, will improve the situation of migrant, refugee and trafficked women.
Sales No. E.04.IV.4 • ISBN 92-1-130235-8 • Price $19.95

Publications
The Convention on the Elimination

of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
and its Optional Protocol
Handbook for Parliamentarians
This Handbook, produced by the Division for the Advancement of Women of the United
Nations Secretariat in collaboration with the Inter-Parliamentary Union, offers a compre-
hensive and educational presentation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol. The Handbook presents the
background to and content of the Convention and the Optional Protocol and describes the
role of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which secures
implementation at the national level. It provides examples of good practices and gives an
overview of what parliamentarians can do to ensure effective implementation of the Conven-
tion and encourage use of the Optional Protocol. It also proposes model instruments and
reference materials as aids designed to facilitate the work of legislators.
The Handbook is available in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
Sales No. E.03.IV.5 • ISBN 92-1-130226-9 • Price $18.95

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Back issues of Women 2000 and Beyond This issue of

are available to download from: Women 2000 and Beyond
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2000.html was prepared
in collaboration with Carole
A. Oglesby
Gender equality and empowerment and the International
of women through ICT (September 2005)
Working Group on
Women and Sport (IWG) and
Women and Water (February 2005) WomenSport International
(WSI).
Making Risky Environments Safer: Women Building The document was

Sustainable and Disaster-Resilient Environments (April 2004) peer-reviewed by
Johanna Adriaanse,
Women, nationality and citizenship (June 2003) Karl Fasting and
Lydia la Rivière-Zijdel.
Gender Dimensions of Ageing (March 2002)
Widowhood, invisible women, secluded or excluded

(December 2001)
Integrating a gender perspective into United Nations

human rights work (December 1998)
Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response

(April 1998)
Women and decision-making (1997)
The cover is adapted

Women and the Information Revolution (1996) from “Sprite”, 1997,
by Edwina Sandys
The role of women in United Nations peace-keeping (1995)

of the United Nations Secretariat
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Convention on the Elimination of
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PUBLISHED TO PROMOTE THE GOALS OF THE BEIJING DECLARATION AND THE PLATFORM FOR ACTION

Women, gender equality

Women, have a higher risk of developing than

gender equality of other chronic and degenerative dis-

and sport osteoporosis and cardiovascular abnor-

have seriously considered suicide by ment in many different areas, including

States parties to take all appropriate

need for action on women and sport.

the 2006 Doha Asian Games, and to

Association champion from France, has

Sporting activities can be an impor-

were highly responsive to sports-tar- prevention and resolution of conflicts

and sport is critical for optimal learning.

letes who speak out on such issues can

way for women to qualify for the PBA

and, for example, it was not until 1996

Studying attitudes towards women The attitudes of women and girls

This type of practice is also common

ple, by alerting pregnant sportswomen

also continue to receive more money

sport not only has a positive effect on

In terms of participation of disabled

Olympic Committee. To give an exam-

ments. Men’s leadership on this issue

regional seminars for female adminis-

there is little coverage of women’s

10 World Health Organization (2007c). Disability in Sport Working Group,

enssportsfoundation.org/cgi-bin/iowa/ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/ 86 Australian Sports Commission.

aph.gov.au/senate/committee/ecita_ www.womenssportsfoundation.org/ 145 Deford,Frank (2003). Commentary

Georgetown, Guyana: The CARI- Feminist Majority Foundation (1995).

Ending Violence against Women:

Sales No. E.06.IV.8 • ISBN: 978-92-1-130253-0 • Price $38.00

World Survey of the Role of Women

Sales No. E.04.IV.4 • ISBN 92-1-130235-8 • Price $19.95

The Convention on the Elimination

Sales No. E.03.IV.5 • ISBN 92-1-130226-9 • Price $18.95

All orders from North America, Latin America and Customers in

Back issues of Women 2000 and Beyond

Back issues of Women 2000 and Beyond This issue of

Making Risky Environments Safer: Women Building The document was

Gender Dimensions of Ageing (March 2002)

Widowhood, invisible women, secluded or excluded

Integrating a gender perspective into United Nations

Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response

Women and decision-making (1997)

The cover is adapted

The role of women in United Nations peace-keeping (1995)

Internet information resources

Review and Appraisal: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/Review/

Commisssion on the Status of Women: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/

Country information: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/country/

Meetings and documentation: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/documents/index.html

Women 2000 and Beyond: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2000.html

Division for the Advancement of Women

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