Cremona - Elements of Projective Geometry (1885)
Cremona - Elements of Projective Geometry (1885)
Cremona - Elements of Projective Geometry (1885)
http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofprojecOOcremrich
ELEMENTS
OP
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
CREMONA
HENRY FROWDE
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
BY
LUIGI CREMONA
LL.D. EDIN., FOE. MEMB. E. S. LOND., HON. F.B.S. EDIN.
HON. MEMB. CAMB. PHIL. 80C. +
PEOFESSOB OF MATHEMATICS IN THE HNIVEESITT OF BOMB
TRANSLATED BY
3<rfff
— —
UN
Perspective methodus, qu& nee inter inventas nee inter inventu possibiles ulla
compendiosior esse videtur . . . — B. Pascal, Lit. ad Acad. Paris., 1654.
* With the consent of the Author, only such part of the preface to the original
Italian edition ( t 87 2) is here reproduced as may be of interest to the English reader.
3^1<)
vi author's preface to the first edition.
case my work
would have become too extensive, and would
no longer have been suitable for students who have read the
usual elements of mathematics. Yet the whole of what such
students have probably read is not necessary in order to
understand my book ; it is sufficient that they should know
the chief propositions relating to the circle and to similar
triangles.
* Cf. Reye, Geometrie der Lage (Hannover, t866; 2nd edition, 1877), p. xi. of
the preface.
f Cf. Zech, Die hbhere Geometrie in Hirer Anwendung auf Kegelschnitte und
Flachen zweit-er Ordnwng (Stuttgart, 1857), preface.
V1U AUTHOR S PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
* Poncelet, Traite des proprUUs projectives des figures (Paris, 1822). Steiner,
Systematische Entwickelung der Abhdngigkeit geometrischer Gestalten von einander,
&c. (Berlin, 1832). Chasles, Traite de Geometrie superieure (Paris, 1852); Traite
Staudt, Geometrie der Lage (Nurnberg, 1847).
des sections coniques (Paris, 1865).
•f In quoting an author I have almost always cited such of his treatises as are
of considerable extent and generally known, although his discoveries may have
been originally announced elsewhere. For example, the researches of Chasles in
the theory of conies date from a period in most cases anterior to the year 1830;
those of Staudt began in 1831 &c. ;
author's preface to the first edition. ix
Des argues ||
and Newton 11 considered the asymptotes
of the hyperbola as tangents whose points of contact lie at an
infinite distance.
CELET f.
The law of duality, as an independent principle, was enun-
ciated by Gergonne % ; as a consequence of the theory of
reciprocal polars (under the name jjrincipe de reciprocite polaire)
it is due to Poncelet§.
The geometric forms (range of points, flat pencil) are found,
the names excepted, in Desargues and the later geometers.
Steiner has defined them in a more explicit manner than
II
* Pappus, Mathematical Collectiones, lib. vii. props. 37-56, 127, 128, 130-133.
+ Loc. cit., lib. i. lemma xxi.
t Conicorum lib. iii. 54, 55, 56. I owe this remark to Prof. Zeuthen (1885).
§ Letter of Leibnitz to M. Perier in the (Euvres de B. Pascal (Bossut's
edition, vol. v. p. 459).
||
Saggio di geometria derivata (Nuovi Saggi dell' Accademia di Padova, vol.
iv, 1838), p. 270, note.
L. CREMONA.
Rome, May 1885.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Peeface V
CHAPTER I.
CHAPTER II.
4
Line at infinity in a plane (13) -5
Triangles in perspective; theorems of Desargues (14-17) . 6
CHAPTER III.
HOMOLOGY.
CHAPTER IV.
CHAPTER V.
GEOMETRIC FORMS.
PAOK
The geometric prime-forms (Arts. 27-31) . . . .22
Their dimensions (32) 24
CHAPTEE VI.
CHAPTER VII.
CHAPTER VIII.
HARMONIC FORMS.
Fundamental theorem (Arts. 46, 49) 39
Harmonic forms are projective -41
*
Elementary properties (52-57)
Constructions (58-60)
......
(47, 48, 50, 51) . . .
44
47
CHAPTER IX.
ANHARMONIC RATIOS.
Distinction between metrical and descriptive (Art. 61) . . 50
Rule of signs : elementary segment-relations (62) . . .50
Theorem of Pappus, and converse (63-66) . . . .52
Properties of harmonic forms (68-71) . . . . • 57
TJ3 twenty-four anharmonic ratios of a group of four elements (72) 59
In two projective forms, corresponding groups of elements are ^
[
equianharmonic (73) . . . . . . .62
Metrical property of two projective ranges (74) . . .62
Properties of two homological figures (75-77) . . . -63
TABLE OF CONTENTS. xvii
CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER XI.
Examples (110-112) 93
Porisms of Euclid and of Pappus (113, 114) . . .
-95
Problems solved with the ruler only (115-118) . . .96
Figures in perspective ; theorems of Chasles (119, 120) . . 98
CHAPTER XII.
involution.
PAGE
Another metrical property (130) . . . . . .106
Property of a quadrangle cut by a transversal (131, 132) . 107
The middle
are collinear (133)
Constructions (134)
........
points of the diagonals of a complete quadrilateral
........ 108
109
Theorems of Ceva and Menelaus (136-140) . . . .110
Particular cases (142) .113
CHAPTER XIII.
CHAPTER XIV.
....
.
CHAPTER XV.
163) 132
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIX
CHAPTER XVI.
CHAPTER XVII.
DESAEGUES' THEOEEM.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PAGl
(208,209) 173
Other constructions (210, 211) . . . . . .174
CHAPTER XIX.
CHAPTER XX.
POLE AND POLAR.
Definitions and elementary properties (Arts. 250-254) . .201
Conjugate points and lines with respect to a conic (255, 256) . 204
Constructions (257) 205
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXI
CHAPTER XXI.
228
Conies inscribed in the same quadrilateral ; theorem of Newton
(317, 318) 236
Constructions (285, 290, 293, 301, 307, 311, 316, 319) 238
CHAPTER XXII.
(332) 244
Hesse's theorem (334) 245
Reciprocal triangles with regard to a conic are homological (336) 246
CHAPTER XXIII.
FOCI.
The
on each of the axes (342)
foci are the double points of this involution (343)
......
The involution determined by pairs of orthogonal conjugate rays
. .
250
251
,
270
The polar reciprocal of a circle with respect to a circle (376-379) 273
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XX111
CHAPTER XXIV.
Index 303
UNIVEB
CHAPTEK I.
DEFINITIONS.
of four planes and the four points in which these planes inter-
sect three and three, &c.
which passes through the point A and the straight line a aa the ;
point common to the straight line a and the plane a; a/3 the, straight
line formed by the intersection of the planes £ a, ; ABC the plane of
:
the three points A B C , , ; afiy the point common to the three pJrne.s
a , /3 , y ; a.BC the point common and the straight line to the plane a
BC ; A.fiy the plane passing through the point A- and the straight
line /3y a. Be the straight line common to the plane a and the plane
;
Be A. fie the straight line joining the point A to the point fie, &c.
;
The notation a.BC = A / we shall use to express that the point common
to the plane a and the straight line BC coincides with the point A' ;
u — ABC will express that the straight line u contains -the points
A,B,C,&c.
2. To project from a fixed point 8 (the centre of projection) a
figure ABCD..., abed...) composed of points and straight
lines, is to construct the straight lines or projecting rays
.,
2 DEFINITIONS. [3-7,
* The operations of projecting and cutting {projection and section) are the two
fundatafcrital oies of the' Projective Geometry.
,
CHAPTEK II.
in which the planes a and </ are cut by^tngrjthe same project-
ing plane, may thus be called corresponding lines. It follows
from this that to the straight lines AB,AC, . .
.
, BC, correspond
. .
the straight lines A'B\ A'C\ ..., B'C\ ..-. and that to all
straight lines which pass through a given point A of the plane a-
* The degree of a curve is the greatest number of points in which it can be cut
by any arbitrary plane. In the case of a plane curve, it is the greatest number
of points in which it can be cut by any straight line in the plane.
\ The class of a plane curve is the greatest number of tangents which can be
drawn to it from any arbitrary point in the plane.
13] CENTRAL PROJECTION ; FIGURES IN PERSPECTIVE. 5
become parallel to &, the point A' approaches I' (the point
where a' is cut by the straight line drawn through 8 parallel to
a) and the point A moves away indefinitely. In order that the
property that to one point of a! corresponds one point of a
J
13. If now the straight line a takes all possible positions in
I the plane <r, the corresponding straight line a' will always be
J determined by the intersection of the planes </ and 8a. As a
moves, the ray 81 traces out a plane it parallel to or and the
point /' describes the straight line ira', which we may denote
/
by i''. This straight line i is then such that to any point lying
on it corresponds a point at infinity in the plane o-, which point
belongs also to the plane it.
In the same way, the plane </ has a straight line at infinity
which corresponds to the intersection of the plane o- with the
plane it' drawn through S parallel to </.
lines AB,AC, ..., BC, ... of'a 'plane figure g- correspond severally
the points A', B', C,.. and the straight lines A'B', A'C, . r> B'C', .
points lying on the line of intersection (&&'), of the planes .a-, and <r',
edges AA', BB', DD', and this point is again & since the two
straight lines AA', BB' determine it. Therefore all
suffice to
the straight lines A A' BB', CC, BB' ... pass through, the
',
same point #; that is, the two given figures are in perspective,
and S is their centre of projection..
a triangle, we have the theorem:
If each^ of Jjfcjie figures is
If two triangles ABC
and A'B'C', lying respectively in the
planes o- and cr', are such that the sides BC and B'C, CA
and CA', £b and A'B' intersect one another two and two
in points lying on the straight line o-</, then the straight lines
AA', BB', CC meet in a poini S.
\ 16. Theorem. If two triangles A 1 B 1 C1 andA 2 B 2 C2 lying in the ,
B X A X and A 2 B2 in a point ,
+ Poncelet, Proprietes projeetives des figures (Paris, 1822), Art. 168. The
theorems of Arts. 11 and 12 are due to Desargues (CEuvres, ed. Poudra, vol. i.
P- 413).
CHAPTER III.
HOMOLOGY.
are the projections of one and the same figure on one and
the same plane, but from different centres of projection,
possess all the properties of figures in perspective (Art. 8)
although they lie in the same plane. To the points and the
straight lines of the first correspond, each to each, the points
and the straight lines of the second figure two corresponding ;
C2 A 2 ,A X B and A 2B2 Y
By
intersect in three collinear points.
the theorem of Art. 17 the rays A X A 2 ,BX B2 C1 C2 will there- ,
21] HOMOLOGY. 11
b and b', c and c'3 will intersect in points which lie on a straight
line.
f
instead of c and c any other two corresponding rays are
considered. Two corresponding straight lines therefore always
intersect on a fixed straight line, which we may call s; thus
the given figures are in homology, being the centre, and s
the axis, of homology.
21. Consider two homological figures a x and ct 2 lying in
centre project the figure o^ upon a new plane </ drawn in any
way through s. In this manner we construct in the plane </ a
r
figure A'B C r ... which is in perspective with the given one
o-
1
= A 1 B1 Cl .... If we consider two points A' and A 2 of the
figures (/ and a 2 which are derived from one and the same
,
point Ax of <r
x , as corresponding to each other, then to every
point or straight line of a' corresponds a single point or straight
line of <r
2 , and vice versa and every pair of corresponding
;
and <T
2
are in perspective, and the rays A'A 2 , B'B2 , ... all
f
pass through a fixed point Moreover every ray A A 2
S2 .
meets the straight line 08^ since the points A', A 2 lie on the
12 HOMOLOGY.
do not all lie in the same plane, because the points A 2 ,B 2 ... ,
23. (1) Given the centre and the axis s of homology, and two
corresponding points A and A ' (collinear with 0) ; to construct the
14 HOMOLOGY. [23
points A, A'. In order to obtain the straight line b' which corre-
sponds to any straight line b in the first figure, we have only to join
f
the point bs to the point of intersection of a with the ray passing
tlirough and ab*.
(3) The data of the problem may also be the centre 0, the axis s, and
thevanishing line j of the first figure (Fig. 7).
In this case, if a straight line, a of the first
figure cuts j in J and s in P; the point
J' corresponding to J will be collinear with
J and and at an infinite distance from 0.
And as the straight line of corresponding to
a must pass both through J' and through P,
it is the parallel drawn through P to OJ.
(2) Through any point in the plane can be drawn either two
tangents to the curve, or only one (if the point is on the curve),
or none.
Since two homological figures can be considered as arising from the
superposition of two figures in perspective lying in different planes
(Art. 22), the curve C is simply the plane section of an oblique cone
on a circular base ; i. e. the cone which is formed by the straight lines
* It follows from this that if a passes through O, then a' will coincide with a ;
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
In the first case (Fig. 8) the curve C f will have two points <//, «//, at
an infinite distance, situated in the direction of the straight lines OJlt
OJv To the two straight lines which touch the circle in and J2Jx
OJ ) 2
which must be considered as tangents to the curve C" at its
points at infinity J/, J/. These two tangents, whose points of
contact lie at infinity, are called asymptotes of the curve C '; the
curve itself is called a hyperbola.
In the second case (Fig. 9) the curve C" has a single point J' at
infinity ; this must be regarded as the point of contact of the straight
line at infinity j', which is the tangent to C corresponding to the
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
In the third case (Fig. 10) the curve has no point at infinity; it is
calledan elli2)se.
23] HOMOLOGY. 17
In the same way it may be shown that if in the first figure a conic
C is given, the corresponding curve C in the second figure will be a
conic also.
(5). The centre of homology is a point which corresponds to itself, and
every ray which passes through it corresponds to itself. If then a
curve C pass through 0, the corresponding curve C/ will also pass
through 0, and the two curves will have a common tangent at this
point. Fig. 1 1 shows the case where one of the curves is taken to be a
circle, and the axis of homology s and the point A corresponding
Fig. 12.
supposed that the axis of homology touches the circle, that the centre
of homology is any given point, and that the straight line a of the
second figure is given which corresponds to the tangent a! of the
circle.
(1) The axis of homology s may lie altogether at infinity then two
;
18 HOMOLOGY. [23
case the two figures are said to be similar and similarly -placed, or
homothetic and the point *, is called the centre of similitude.
so that the ratio OM: OM' is constant for all pairs of corresponding
points M and M' '. This constant ratio is called the ratio of similitude
QM = ™tio of similitude.
r . .
,
-ftft,
OC
Then if CM, CM' be joined, they will evidently be parallel, and
CM: CM'= ratio of similitude. Therefore if M lie on a circle, centre
C and radius p, M' will lie on another circle whose centre is C and
whose radius p' is such that p : p'= ratio of similitude. In two homo-
thetic figures then to a circle always corresponds a circle. Further, if
it is clear that 0' will be a second centre of similitude for the two
circles. It can be proved in a similarmanner that any two central
conies (see Chap. XXI) which are homothetic, and for which a point
is the centre of similitude, have a second centre of similitude Of ;
f f
and that 0, O are collinear with the centres C, C of the two conies,
and divide the segment CC
internally and externally in the ratio of
similitude. If the conies have real common tangents, and will C
be the points of intersection of these taken in pairs the two external —
tangents together, and the two internal tangents together.
(2) The point 0, on the other hand, may lie at an infinite distance
then the straight lines which join pairs of corresponding points are
parallel to a fixed direction. In this case the figures have been termed
homological by affinity t, the straight line s being termed the axis of
particular case where the parallels SA, SB ,SC, are perpendicular to the plane
. . .
C 2
;
CHAPTEE IV.
they intersect in pairs, but do not all meet in the same point; they
lie therefore in the same plane a'*. Two corresponding planes a, a'
intersect on the plane tt ; for all the points and all the straight
lines of this last plane correspond to themselves, and therefore the
straight line a'n coincides with the straight line air.
which is the image of the point at infinity in the same plane. The
vanishing lines of the planes tr
v cr
2
have a common point, which is the
image of the point at infinity on the line o-j <r
2
. The vanishing lines
of all the planes o- are therefore such as to cut each other in pairs
and as they do not pass all through the same point (since the planes
through do not pass all through the same straight line), they must
lie in one and the same plane <//.
This plane <f/ 9 which may be called the vanishing 2>lane, is parallel
to the plane tt, since all the vanishing lines of the planes o- are
parallel to the The vanishing plane <f>' is thus the
same plane n.
* Since c' cuts both a! and b' without passing through the point a'b', therefore
c' has two points in common with the plane a'b', and consequently lies entirely in
the plane a'b'. And similarly for the other straight lines.
CHAPTER V.
GEOMETRIC FORMS.
passing through the same straight line (the axis of the pencil)
such is the figure resulting from the operations of Art. 4 or
Art. 6.
28. The first three figures can be derived one from the other
by a projection or a section*.
From a range A ,B , C ... is derived an axial pencil ,
*&, sy, and of straight lines aa, <r(3, ay, ... will be denoted by s (A B C
. . ;
), , , , . .
.
0(A ,
B , C ...,),* (a, 0, 7, ... ,), and <r(a, j8, 7, ... ) respectively. To denote the
,
indifferently.
, ;
those of the axial pencil, the planes ; those of the flat pencil, I
* One of these ranges has all its points at an infinite distance ; each of the
others has only one point at infinity.
t The straight line at infinity belongs to an infinite number of flat pencils, each
of which has its centre at infinity, and consequently all its rays parallel.
24 |
GEOMETRIC FORMS. [31
32. The first three figures, viz. the range, the axial pencil,
and the which possess the property that each can
flat pencil,
+ Among these, there are an infinite number which have their centre at an in-
finite distance, and whose rays are consequently parallel.
the first corresponds one ray in the second and one plane in the
third. The number of elements in each of these forms is infinite,
but it is the same in all three.
Similarly we conclude from Art. 29 that we are justified in con-
sidering the plane figure as of the same dimensions with the sheaf.
But the plane of points (lines) contains (Art. 30) an infinite number
of ranges (flat pencils) and each of these ranges (flat pencils) itself
;
figures may be, in the first case, the point or the plane ; in the
second case the point or the straight line ; in the third case
the plane or the straight There are therefore always
line.,
figures having the same genesis and only differing from one
another in the nature of the generating element.
In the Geometry of space therange and the axial pencil, the
plane of points and the sheaf of planes, the plane of lines and
the sheaf of lines, are correlative forms. The flat pencil is a
form which is correlative to itself.
In the Geometry of the plane the range and the flat pencil
are correlative forms.
In the Geometry of the sheaf the axial pencil and the flat
are not collinear determine a not pass through the same line
plane, viz. the plane ABC which determine a point, viz. the point
passes through the three points. a/3y w here
r
the three planes meet
each other.
4. Two straight lines which 4. Two straight lines which lie
cut one another lie in the same in the same plane intersect in a
plane. point.
5. Given four points A ,B ,Cf, 5. Given four planes a, j3, y, 8 ;
D; if :
the- straight lines AB ,GD if the straight lines a/3 ,
yd meet,
meet, the four points will lie in the planes will meet in
four
a and consequently the
plane, a and consequently the
point,
straight lines BC and AD, CA straight lines /3y and a8,ya and
and BD will also meet two and /3S, will also meet two and two.
two.
6 Given any number of straight Given any number of straight
6
lines ; if each meets all the others, lines if each meets all the others,
;
while the lines do not all pass while the lines do not all lie in
through a point, then they must the same plane, then they must
lie all in the same plane (and pass all through the same point
constitute a plane of lines)*. (and constitute a sheaf of lines) f.
t For let a,b, c, ... be the straight lines as ab, ac, be are three planes distinct
;
from each other, the common point must be the intersection of the straight lines
a, b, c, . . .
/
:
through A).
Solution. Construct the line Solution. Join the point a b to
of intersection of the planes Ab, the point ac.
Ac.
the vertex, the faces, and the edges of the latter are correlative to the
plane, the vertices, and the sides respectively of the triangle ; thus
the theorem correlative to that of Arts. 15 and 17 will be the fol-
lowing :
If two trihedral angles a'fty', J'tf'-J* are such that tlie edges ft'y'
and $"y", yV and y"a", a'fi' and a"$" lie in three planes a , /3 , y
which pass through same straight line, then the straight lines
the
da", $'$", -/y" will lie in the same plane.
The proof is the same as that of Arts. 1 5 and 1 7, if the elements
point and plane are interchanged. If, for example, the two trihedral
angles have different vertices S', S" (Art. 1 5), then the points where
the pairs of edges intersect are the vertices of a triangle whose sides
are dan , fi'fr", y'y
f>
'; these latter straight lines lie therefore in the
same plane (that of the triangle).
So also the proof for the case where the two trihedral angles have
the same vertex S will be correlative to that for the analogous case of
two triangles A'B'C and A"B"C" which lie in the same plane (Art.
17). The theorem may also be established by projecting from a point
S the figure corresponding to the theorem of Art. 16.
The proof of the theorem correlative to that of Arts. 14 and 16 is
/ / / fr
If two trihedral angles a /3 y a $"y" are such that tlie straight lines
,
a' a", fi'fi", y'y" lie in tlie same plane, then the pairs of edges ft'y' and
&"y", yV and y"a", a'$ f and d'$" determine three planes zvhich pass
all through the same straight line.
36. In the
Geometry of the plane, two correlative proposi-
tions are deduced one from the other by interchanging the
words point and line, as in the following examples
.
y> G
points are called the vertices, and straight lines are called the sides
the six straight lines joining them of the quadrilateral, and the six
in pairs are called the sides of points in which the sides cut one
the quadrangle. another two and two are called
the vertices.
Two which do not meet
sides Two vertices which do not lie
in a vertex are termed opposite-^ on the same side are termed op-
there are accordingly three pairs 2)0site; there are accordingly
of opposite sides, BO and AD, three pairs of opposite vertices, be
CA and BD, AB and CD. The and ad, ca and bd, ab and cd.
Fig. 16.
points E,F,Gin which the oppo- The straight lines e,f,g which
site sides intersect in pairs are join pairs of opposite vertices are
* The complete quadrangle has also been called a tetrastigm, and the complete
quadrilateral a tetragram. Townsend, Modern Geometry, ch. vii.
:
and C'A ',AD and A'D', BD and c a/ ad and a'df bd and b'd'
/
, ,
B'D' cut one another in five lie upon five straight lines which
of BD and B'D' *.
* These two theorems hold good equally when the two quadrangles or quadri-
laterals lie in different planes in fact, the proofs are the same as the above, word
;
for word.
32 THE PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY. [38
edges lie in five planes which one another in five straight lines
pass all through the same straight which lie all in one plane <r, then
line s, then the sixth pair of corre- the line of intersection of the
sponding edges will lie also in a sixth pair of corresponding faces
plane passing through s. will lie also in the plane <r.
CHAPTEE VII.
and we may say that if one geometric form has been derived
from another by means of one of these operations, we can con-
versely, by means of the complementary operation, derive the
second form from the first. And similarly for the operations
projection from an axis and section by a transversal line.
Suppose now that by means of a series of operations, each of
which is either a projection or a section, a form f2 has been
derived from a given form^ then another form/3 from /2 and
, ,
this range from an axis, and cut the resulting axial pencil by a
plane, by which means a flat pencil is produced, and so on then ;
pencil.
41. From what has been said above it is easy to see
that two geometric forms which are each projective with
* Two projective forms are termed homographic when the elements of which
they are constituted are of the same kind e. when the elements of both are
; **.
points, or lines, or planes. It will be seen later on (Art. 67) that this definition of *
homography is equivalent to that given by Chasles (Geometrie suptrieure, Art. 99).
:
Fig. 20.
Two ranges (Fig. 19), if they are sections of the same fiat
and 0' not lying in the same plane with it, we obtain two flat
pencils in perspective. These pencils, again, may be regarded as
sections of the same axial pencil made by the transversal planes Ou,
Ou''; the axial pencil namely which is composed of the planes 00' A,
00'B, 00' C, ..., and which has for axis the straight line 00'. This
is the general case of two flat pencils in perspective they have not the ;
same centre and they lie in different planes at the same time, they ;
project the same range and are sections of the same axial pencil.
There are two exceptional cases (1). If we project the row u from
:
two centres and 0' lying in the same plane with u, then the
two resulting flat pencils lie in the same plane and are consequently
no longer sections of an axial pencil ( 2 ). If an axial pencil is cut by
;
(2) If the two straight lines lie in the same plane (Fig. 21),
join AA', and take on this straight line any two points S, S'j
* To do this, we have only to draw through any point of AA' a straight line
which meets BB' and CC
(Prob. 8, Art. 34).
44.] PROJECTIVE GEOMETRIC
ET] F0RM8. 37
draw SB S'B' to cut in B", and SC S'C to cut in C", and join
, ,
5 u~vW
B [
EFGB be aprojection of thesSfteints
r>
HARMONIC FORMS.
J 46. Theorem*.
Given three points A, B, C on Given in a plane three straight
two otheropposite sides (KX, ML) site vertices (hi ml) lie on b, and
,
meet in B, and the fifth side (LX) the fifth vertex (nl) lies on c,
passes through C, then the sixth then the sixth vertex (&;?i) will
side (it J/) will cut the straight lie on a straight line d which
line 8 in appoint D which is de- passes through S, and which is
Fig. 2;.
structed (either in the same plane, structed which satisfies the pre-
or in any other plane through s), scribed conditions, then the two
which satisfies the prescribed con- quadrilaterals will have five pairs
ditions, then the two quadrangles of corresponding vertices collinear
will have five pairs of correspond- respectively with the given point
ing sides which meet on the given therefore the sixth pair will also
straight line therefore the sixth
;
lie in a straight line passing
pair will also meet on the same through the same point (Art. 36,
line (Art. 36, No. 5, left). No. 5, right).
From this it follows that if the From this it follows that if the
upon any other straight line, its projection A'B'C'B' will also be a- l
1
*
f
fifth and sixth sides pass respectively through C and B'
the sixth side must pass through B (Art. 46, left), since by
hypothesis the range ABCB is harmonic. But then we have
a complete quadrilateral Tclmn which has two opposite vertices
A and R lying on SA, two other opposite vertices B and P on
SB, a fifth vertex Q on SC, and the sixth B on SB; therefore
: :
(Art. 46, right) the four straight lines which project the range
ABCD from S are harmonic. We may therefore enunciate the
following proposition
A harmonic pencil is cut by any transversal whatever in a
harmonic range ; and, conversely, the rays ivhich project a harmonic
range from any centre whatever form a harmonic pencil.
a complete four -flat (see Art. 37) k\\w he cofistructed, of which two
opposite edges k\ \lv lie in the plane a, two other opposite edges kv \fx
, ,
lie in the plane ft, and the edgekv lies in theplane y ; then the sixth
edge kjjl will always lie in a fixed plane b (passing through s), which
does not change, in whatever manner the arbitrary elements of the
four-flat he made to vary.
pencil.
harmonic.
Conversely, two harmonic forms are ahc ays projective with one
another.
To prove this proposition, it is enough to consider two
groups each of four harmonic points for if one of the forms ;
fore B x must coincide with B', since the three points A'B'C
determine uniquely the fourth point which forms with 'them a
harmonic range (Art. 46, left).
44 HARMONIC FORMS. [52
of arrangement; therefore .
Nl
other opposite sides in B, while the fifth and sixth sides pass
respectively through A and B. This shows that the relation
towhich the points C and B are subject (Art. 53) is the same
as the relation to which the points A and B are subject or, ;
range, then not only the ranges BACB ABBC BABC but
, ,
}
33) be the given points (lying 34) be the given rays (lying in
on a given straight line) and let one plane and passing through a
cut the given straight line in the the line joining which to S is the
required point D, conjugate to required ray d, conjugate to c.
c*.
59. In the problem of Art. 58, left, let C lie midway between A
and B. We can, in the solution, so arrange the arbitrary elements
that the points K and M shall- move off
(Fig- 37) two conjugate rays c , d are at right angles, then they are the
bisectors, internal and external, of the angle between the oilier two rays
a,b.
* De la Hire, Sectiones Conicae (Parisiis, 1685), lib. i, prQp. ao.
60] HARMONIC FORMS. 49
lies at infinity, C must lie midway between A and B (Art. 59) conse-
;
CHAPTEK IX.
ANHARMONIC RATIOS.
c B
(a)
B c A
(i)
K B C
c B A
(c)° A B
B AC
Fig. 38.
we have AB = AC+ CB ;-
whence - CB-AC+ AB = 0,
or BC+CA + AB=:0.
Again, if iTlies between A and C (Fig. 38 b),
AC=AB + BC;
whence BC-AC+AB = 0,
or BC+CA + AB=0.
Lastly, if A lies between B and C (Fig. 38 c),
CB=CA + AB;
whence -CB+CA + AB = 0,
or BC+CA + AB= 0.
Accordingly :
The results (l) and (2) may be extended ; they are in fact
particular cases of the following general proposition :
A X A2 + A2 A Z + ... + An _ A n + n A x = x 0,
the truth of which follows at once from (3), since the expres-
sion on the left hand is equal to
.
. (OA 2 - OA,) + (OA 3 - OA 2 ) + . . . +(OA -OA n ),
1
'
which vanishes.
Another useful B be four collinear
result is that if A, B, C,
points,
BC.AB+CA.BB + AB.QB= 0.
This again follows from (3), since the left-hand side
= (BCr-BB)AB+. + .. ...
= 0.
Many other relations of a similar kind between segments
might be proved, but they are not necessary for our purpose.
We will give only one more, viz.
If A, B C be any four collinear points, then
, ,
- I
fa
JA:J£::rS:FA';*
so from the similar triangles SBJ, B'SI\
JB: JS ::I'S \TB'\
.-. JA J'A' = JB. TB' = JS . I'&i
i.e. the rectangle JA.I'A' has a constant value for all pairs
of corresponding points A and A '.
therefore by subtraction,
I'V-FA' = '<%-??.
JA .JB
But I'B'-I'A' = ^'5', and JA-JB = BA = -AB;
•••
^'=jA-^-
If we consider four points A , B C D
, , (Fig. 40) of the
straight line a and their four projections, A\B\C\1)\ we
obtain, in a similar manner,
—h
B c = 7STTc' BC
' '
'
whence by division
A'C\A'B' _ AC AB
r %
%
This last equation, which has been proved for the case of
projection from a centre S, holds also for the case where
ABCI) and A'B'C'B' are the intersections of two transversal
lines s and *' (not lying in the same plane) with four planes
a, (3, y b which all pass through one straight line u in other
, ;
A", B", C", B" respectively by a straight line %" which meets
s and /. The straight lines AA'\ BB" C€", BB" are [the y
'' '
AC AB
• _Ine number ,
-^r- -jr^ :
* Pappus, Mathemalicae Collecliones, book vii. prop. 129 (ed. Hultsch, Berlin,
1877, vol.ii. p. 871).
;
Or again :
If two ranges, each of four points, are projective, they have the
same anharmonic ratio, or, as we may say, are equianharmonic *.
64. Dividing one by the other the expressions for A'C and
B'C, we have
A'C _ AC.AJ
B'C~ BC'BJ'
In this equation the right-hand member is the anharmonic
ratio of the four points A B C ,J
, , ; consequently the left-hand
member must be the anharmonic ratio of A', B', C, J'-, thus
the anharmonic ratio offour points A',B',C, J', of which the last
lies at infinity, is merely the simple ratio A'C B'C. :
.-.
,. ...
limiting value of
,
-^, j^, = :
^/ •
A'C
= B'C
., , ...
£ A'B'
limiting value of j^, :
^j^-f j^
i.e. the anharmonic ratio of the four points A',B' ,B', C, of which
the third lies at infinity, is equal to the simple ratio B'C A'C. :
AB AC A
-^ji = ~Wn
BB BC =
%
or :
f*,
from the construction given, since only one line can be drawn
through 8 parallel to A'B'. Consequently there cannot be
two different points B and B L such that ABCB and ABCB^
have the same anharmonic ratio. Or :
CB' CB~ PA CB
' :
;
,
Wh6nce
AC AB
BC BB=-
: 1 >
t
i.e. (ABCB) = -1;
therefore the anharmonic ratio of four harmonic elements is equal
to -If.
69. The equation (ABCD) =- 1, or
AC AD _
M
W
BC + BD =
°>
which expresses that the range ABCD is harmonic, may be put into
two other remarkable forms.
Since AD = CD-CA (Art. 62) and BD = CD-CB, the equation
(1) gives
CA (CD-CB) + CB (CD-CA) = 0,
UD=Hk+m> (2 >
* In Fig. 30 ACBD may be projected (from K on NC) into LCNQ ; and then
LCNQ may be projected (from M on AD) into BCAD.
t Mobius, loc. cit. p. 269.
;
we have
OC-OA
OC+OA
qc
*'
o^
or 0C*=0A.0B, (3)
t. e. half the segment CD is a mean proportional between the distances
of A and B from the middle point of CD.
The equation (3) shows that the segments OA and OB must have
the same sign, and that therefore can never lie between A and B.
If now a circle be drawn to pass
through A and B (Fig. 42), O will lie
outside the circle, and OC will be the
length of the tangent from to it*
(Euc. HL 37). The circle on v CZ) as
Fig. 4*. diameter will therefore cut the first
no AXHARMOXIC RATIOS. 59
* GH is the radical axis of the two circles, and all points on it are of equal
power with regard to the circles.
60 ANHARMONIC RATIOS. [72
here arranged in six lines of four each. The four groups in each
line are projective with one another (Art. 45), and have therefore
the same anharmonic ratio In order to determine the anharmonic
.
column. These six groups are so related to each other that when
any one of them is known the other five can be at once determined.
II. Consider the two groups ABCD and ABDC, which are derived
one from the other by interchanging the last two elements. Their
anharmonic ratios
and (ABDC) or ^§ :
BC. AD + CA BD + AB CD =
. .
~*
ACBD AB.CD .
*
•
im7AD + CB7AD=
l>
AC AD AB AD_
BC BD + CB CD ~
°r '' ''
'
(ABCD) = A,
the formula (1) gives (ABDC) = -»
and by
and finally,
(6)
by (3) or (5)
(AJDCB) = 1_ ^ = JL
*
(ADBC) = ^1
A
.
(ABCD) = (AACD) = 1.
\J thus when of four elements two coincide, the anharmonic ratios have
the values 1, 0, oo.
of (IV) give
(iM) = 2 and ACDB = ( )
i
so that when the anharmonic ratio of four points has the value 2 or
^, these points, taken in another order, form a harmonic range.
VII. Conversely, the anharmonic ratio of a range ABCD, none of
whose points lies at infinity, cannot have any of the values 0, 1, oo,
see that the anharmonic ratios of four points no two of which coincide
may have all values positive or negative except + 1, 0, or oo.
BJ:AJ= AT : B f
V (Art. 64),
and JA.I'A' = JB.I'B';
i.e. the product JA.I'A' has a constant value for all pairs of
corresponding points f.
[This proposition has already been proved in Art. 63 for
the particular case of two ranges in perspective.]
* Steiner, Systematische Entwickelung . . (Berlin, 1832), p. 33, § 10; Collected
Works, ed. Weierstrass (Berlin, 1881), vol. i. p. 262.
(UNI
76] ANHARMONIC RATIOS. 63
MA M'A'
Consequently, the ratio -^^ ,, /7?/ depends : only on the
straight lines ah (and a'b'), and not at all on the straight line
m (or m').
The ratio MA NA : is equal to that of the distances of the
points M, iV'from the straight line a, which distances we may
denote by (M, a), (N,.a); thus
* Bellavitis, Saggio di Geometria derivata (Nuovi Saggi of the Academy of
Padua, vol. iv. 1838), § 50.
f Two figures are said to be congruent when the one may be superposed upon
the other so as exactly to coincide with it.
; \ ;
that is to say * :
constaat -
~
m m
:
031'
''
then a becomes the vanishing line in the first figure the ratio ;
\jqr
— 7v will in the limit become equal to unity, and thus
—
OM /ll/r
,:(if,.)
.
= ON _: W
'.
.)
x
= constant
in other words f :
CHAPTER X.
of the other in such a manner that any four elements of the first form
are equianharmonic with the four corresponding elements of the second,
then the two forms are projective.
For every series of operations (of projection or section),
which leads from the triad ABC to the triad A'B'C, leads at
the same time from the element D to another element D" such
that {ABCD) = {A'B'C'D"). But {ABCD) = {A'B'C'D') by
hypothesis therefore {A'B'C'D') = {A'B'C'D"), and D" must
;
(1). If, for example, the forms are two ranges ABCB ... and
A'B'C'B' ...; then if the three straight lines AA', BB' CC ,
* In the case of two projective forms we shall in future employ the term
self-corresponding to denote an element which is such that it coincides with its
correspondent ; thus A or A' above maybe called a self-corresponding point of the
two ranges.
F 2
68 CONSTRUCTION OF PROJECTIVE FORMS. [81
Fig. 50-
two flat pencils abc ... and
a'b'c'. will be formed, which . .
such pencils are formed when two different ranges are pro-
jected from the same centre (Fig. 51). And two axial pencils
may have a common axis such pencils ;
Given (Fig. 53) three pairs of Given (Fig. 54) three pairs
J
corresponding points A and A' of corresponding rays a and a',
A A' in A". The operations which straight line joining the points
enable us to pass from ABC to b"o" and aaf. The operations
Fig- 53-
*V 54-
A'B'C are : i. a projection from which enable us to pass from abc
S; 2. a section by u" (the line on to a'b V
are 1 a section by s
: .
;
tions lead from any other given from U'. The same operations
point D on u to the correspond- lead from any other given ray d
ing point D' on u', so that the of the pencil U to the correspond-
rays SD and S'D' must intersect ing ray df of the pencil TJ'\ so that
in a point D" of the fixed straight the points sd and ttdf must lie on
line u". a straight line d" which passes
through the fixed point U".
In this manner a range In this manner a pencil
u"=A"B"C"D"...
is obtained which is in perspec- is obtained which is in perspec-
tive both with u and with vf. tive both with U and with U'.
u to cut u" in I" ; then join S'l", which will cut u' in the required
point I'. Similarly, if the ray through S' parallel to u cuts u" in
J", and SJ" be joined, this will cut u in J, the point on u which
corresponds to the point at infinity on u'.
(
Fi g- 55). Then the ray S'P co- (Fig. Then the point /p
56).
incides with u, and P' is accord- coincides with U, and yf is ac-
ingly the point of intersection of cordingly the straight line UU'.
u and vf. So too the ray SQ' So too the point sq' coincides
coincides with u, and Q also lies with U\ and q also must be the
at the point uu'. straight line UU'.
If then we take the points A' If then we take the rays a'
and A as the centres S and S' and a as the transversals s and
respectively, the straight line u" s' respectively, the point U" will
will cut the bases u and u re- be the intersection of the rays p
spectively in P and Q\ the points and <f which correspond to the
which correspond to the point straight line UU', regarded in
uu' regarded in the first instance the first instance as the ray p' of
as the point P /
of the line u' and the pencil U', and in the second
in the second instance as the instance as the ray q of the
point Q of the line u. pencil U.
Now in the construction of Now in the construction of the
the preceding Art., the straight preceding Art., the point U" was
line u" was found as the locus of found as the centre of perspective
the points of intersection of pairs of the ranges in perspective
. .
pencils in perspective
S(ABCD..) and S'{A'B'C'D'..).
The straight line u" obtained by The point U" obtained by the
the construction of the present Art. construction of the present Art.
is in like manner the locus of the is in like manner the centre of
points of intersection of pairs of perspective of the ranges
corresponding rays of the pencils a' (abed . .
.) and a (a'b'c'd''. .
.),
.\\
locus of the points (AB', A'B), (ad' , a'd), ... and through the
(AC, A'C), (AD', A'B), ... and point of intersection of the rays
the straight line which is the (ba' , b'a\ (be' , b'c), (bd' , I'd), ...
f
locus of the points (BA B'A), , pass two different straight lines,
(BC, B'C), (BD', B'D), ... have viz. UU' and (ab', a'b), these
two points in common, viz. and points must coincide. This being
(AB', A' B), these straight lines so, aa'bb' is a complete quadri-
must coincide altogether. This lateral,whose diagonals are UU',
being so, AA'BB'
is a com- s (the straight line on which
plete quadrangle, whose diagonal aa' bb',
, intersect), and m (the
. .
r
points are 0,S (the point where straight line which joins ab and
AA',BB', ... meet), and (the M 7
a 6); consequently (Art. 56) the
point of intersection of AB' and points U and U' are harmonic
A'B); consequently (Art. 57) the conjugates with regard to U" and
straight lines u and u' are har- the point in which s meets UU'.
monic conjugates with regard to If therefore a range be projected
the straight lines u" and OS. If from two points U and U' by the
therefore two transversals u and rays (a , a'), (b , b'), (c , c') . ., then
u' cut a flat pencil (a, b, c, . .
.
) in the the straight lines which join the
AB ' and
the pairs of straight lines same point U", which lies on the
A'B , AC
and A'C and , BC line UU' ; and the point where
B'C, ... lie on one and the same the straight line UU' cuts the base
straight line u", which passes of the range is the harmonic con-
through the point uu' and the ; jugate of U" with respect to U
straight line joining uu' to the and U'.
centre of the pencil is the har-
monic conjugate of u" with re-
spect to u and u'.
From this follows the solution From this follows the solution
of the problem of the problem
To draw the straight line con- To construct the point where a
necting a given point M-with the given straight line m would be in-
87] CONSTRUCTION OP PROJECTIVE FORMS. 75
Through M
(Figs. 57 and 58) On m (Fig. 59) take two points,
draw two straight lines to cut u and join them to U by the
in A and B, and u in B' and A'
r
straight lines a and b, and to U'
u" M N W
A //
/ XV
W B' C* A' W
Fig. 58. Fig. 59-
respectively ;
join AA',BB' meet- by the straight lines V and a' ;
consist of only three rays, the of only three points, the theorem
theorem may be enunciated as may be enunciated as follows
follows, with reference to the with reference to the three pairs
three pairs of points A A', BB f ,
of rays aa', bb', cc
f
:
CC:
If a hexagon (six - point) If a hexagon (six-side) ab'ca'bc'
AB'CA'BC (Fig. 60) has its ver- (Fig. 61) be such that its sides of
tices of odd order (1st, 3rd, and 5th) odd order (1st, 3rd, and 5th)
on one straight line u, and its ver- meet in one point U, and its sides
tices of even order (2nd, 4th, and of even order (2nd, 4th, and
6th) on another straight line u', 6th) meet in another point U',
then the three pairs of opposite then the three straight lines
sides (AB' and AB* B'G and , which join the pairs of opposite
BC, CA' and C'A) meet in three vertices (ab
f
and a% b'c and be',
points lying on one and the same ca! and c'a) pass through one and
straight line u"*. the same point U".
centre S be taken at the point line joining the points aa', cc' be
where AA meets BB', and the
' taken as the transversal s, and
centre >S" at the point where A A' that joining the points aa', W
meets CC (Fig. 62). Then since as the transversal / (Fig. 63).
SB , S'B' meet in B', and SC, Then since the line joining the
S'C in C, therefore B'C is the points sb , s'b' is b, and the line
straight line u". Consequently joining the points sc , sV is c',
the ray S'D X determines upon vf the point D' which corresponds
toi>.
The construction is simpler in the case where two corresponding
points A and A' coincide (Fig. 65).
When this is if ux be drawn
so,
for example, a and a' coalesce and form a single ray, &c.
91. Consider two projective (nomographic) plane figures tt and
7/ as has already been seen (Art. 40), any two corresponding straight
;
lines are the bases of two projective ranges, and any two correspond-
ing points are the centres of two projective pencils.
If the two figures have three self-corresponding points lying in a
straight line, this straight line s will correspond to itself; for it will
contain two projective ranges which have three self-corresponding
points, and every point of the straight line s will therefore (Art. 82)
be a self-corresponding point. Consequently every pair of corresponding
straight lines of n and i/ will meet in some point on s, and therefore
the two figures are in perspective (or in homology in the case where
they are coplanar).
92. If two projective plane figures which are coplanar have three
self-corresponding rays all meeting in a point 0, this point will be
the centre of two corresponding (and therefore projective) pencils
which have three self-corresponding rays therefore (Art 82) every ;
forming a complete quadrilateral (i.e. such that no three of them are con-
current), then every straight line will coincide with its correspondent.
94. Theorem. Two plane quadrangles ABCD , A'B'C'D' are
always projective.
Suppose the two quadrangles to lie in different planes it i/.
(1). ,
through A draw an arbitrary plane it" (distinct from it) then from ;
S as centre project A', B', C, D' upon it" and let A", B", C", D"
be their respective projections (A" therefore coinciding with A).
In the plane it join AB CD, and let them meet in E so too in , ;
the plane w" join A"B" C"D", and let these meet in E". , The
straight lines ABE A"B"E" lie in one plane since they meet each
,
other in the point A == A" therefore BB" and EE" will meet one ;
jected from Bx as centre upon it'". Let A'", B'", C", D"' E'" ,
be their respective projections, where A"', B'" E'" are collinear and ,
also, since their correspondents C", D", E" are collinear. The straight
lines CDE C"'D'"E'" lie in one plane since they meet each other
,
in the point E~E"'; therefore CC" and DD'" will meet one
If now the points A ", B'" C" D " be
f f
another in some point S2 . , ,
projected from S2 as centre upon the plane it, their projections will
evidently be A B C
, , , D.
The quadrangle ABCD may therefore be derived from the quad-
rangle A'B'C'D' by first projecting the latter from JS as centre upon
the plane it", then projecting the new quadrangle so formed in the
plane it" from S x
upon it'", and lastly projecting the quadrangle so
formed in the plane it"' from >^2 upon it ; that is to say, by means
of three projections and three sections *.
(2). The case of two quadrangles lying in the same plane reduces
to the preceding one, if we begin by projecting one of the quadrangles
upon another plane.
(3). two quadrangles (lying in different planes) have a pair
If the
D and D f then two projections will
of their vertices coincident, say ,
suffice to enable us to pass from the one to the other; or, what
L,M , iV respectively, and let s' cut the sides of the triangle A'B'C'm
L',M',N' respectively. Then in the plane ss' the straight lines LL',
MM', NN' will form a triangle which is in perspective at once with
ABC and with A'B'C.
(4). If the quadrangles (still supposed to lie in different planes)
have two pairs of their vertices C = C, D == D' coincident, then if
the straight lines AA' BB' meet
, one another the quadrangles will be
directly in perspective, the point of intersection of AA / and BB'
being the centre of projection ; so that we can pass at once from the
one quadrangle to the other by one projection from 0. If AA ' BB' ,
are not in the same plane, so that they do not meet one another, then
through CDan arbitrary plane n" be drawn, and in it let the
let
G
;
responds a ray cutting a', b' in the two corresponding points P',Q'.
(2). The two ranges ABCD A'B'C'D' in which the sides of the
,
be , B , ba , bd
G , cb , ca , cd
B , C , A , D
is equal to + i. And considering in like manner in the other plane
the triangle b'c'm!\ cut by the transversals a' and d', the product of
the anharmonic ratios of the three ranges
B' , C , A* , D'
is + i. But the range in which b is cut by the pencil
also equal to
cmad equianharmonic with the range in which b' is cut by the
is
be j B , ba , bd
6V, B\ 6V, b'd'
are equianharmonic ; and for a similar reason the ranges
.
C , cb , ca , ed
C, e'b\ c'a' s
c'd'
B , C A D , ,
(3). If the straight line m turn round a fixed point M, then m'
also will revolve round a fixed point.
For by hypothesis the points A and B, in which m cuts a and b,
describe two ranges in perspective whose self-corresponding point is
ab. Similarly the points A', B' describe two ranges, which, being
respectively projective with the ranges on a 6, are projective with ,
/ / / /
b'd', c'd' of the quadrilateral a b c d .
This reasoning holds good also when the point M, round which
m turns, lies upon one of the sides of the quadrilateral, on c for
example because we still obtain two ranges in perspective upon two
;
on one of the sides of the quadrilateral abed, the point mn' will fall
on the corresponding side of the quadrilateral a'b'c'd' therefore the ;
two projective ranges are the same as those which it has already
been shown may be obtained by starting from the pairs of correspond-
ing points on a and a', b and b', c and e'
G 2
—
must be identical.
97. Theorem. Any two projective plane figures {the straight lines
at infinity in which are not corresponding lines) can be superposed
one upon the other so as to become homological.
f
Let i , j be the vanishing lines of the two figures i.e. the
straight lines in each which correspond respectively to the straight
line at infinity in the other. In the first place let one of the figures
be superposed upon the other in such a manner that i and j' may be
parallel to one another. Since to any point on i corresponds a M
point at infinity in the second figure, to the pencil of straight lines
in the first figure which meet in M
corresponds in the second figure
a pencil of parallel rays. Through M
draw the straight line m
parallel to these rays ; then m will be parallel to its correspondent m'.
Similarly let a second point N be taken on i and through N let the
straight line n be drawn which is parallel to its correspondent n' ;
let m and n meet in S, and rnf and n' in JS'. If through Sa straight
line I be drawn parallel to *, its correspondent V through S'
will pass
and will also be parallel to i, since the point at infinity on i corre-
sponds to itself. The corresponding pencils S and S' are therefore such
that three rays I , m , n of the one are severally parallel to the three
corresponding rays V, m', n' of the other ; and consequently (see
below, Art. 104) the two pencils are equal. Now let one of the planes
be made to slide upon the other, without rotation, until S' comes
into coincidence with JS; then the two pencils will become concentric ;
and since they are equal, every ray of the one will coincide with the
ray corresponding to it in the other. This being the case, every
pair of corresponding points will be collinear with S, and the two
figures will be homological, S being the centre of homology.
98. Suppose that in a plane n is given a quadrangle A BCD, and
in a second plane it' a quadrilateral a'b'c'd'. By means of construc-
tions analogous to those explained in Arts. 94-96, the points and
straight lines of the one plane can be put into unique correspondence
98] CONSTRUCTION OF PROJECTIVE FORMS. 85
with those of the other, so that to any range in the first plane cor-
responds in the second plane a pencil projective with the said range,
and to any pencil in the first plane corresponds in the second plane a
range projective with the said pencil. Two plane figures related to
one another in this manner are called correlative or reciprocal.
CHAPTEK XI.
of the other, in such a way that the ratio of any two corre-
sponding segments AB and A'B', AC and A'C , ... is a con-
stant.
range A" B" C" ... and from this last, by projecting it upon
;
C
u' by straight lines drawn parallel to u, the range A' B' ...
may be derived.
If PQ = P' Q', i.e. if the straight line PQ' makes equal
angles with the bases of the given ranges, the ranges are
equal.
To the point at infinity of u corresponds the point at infinity
of u\
100. Conversely, if the points at infinity I and V of two
projective ranges u and u' correspond to each other, the ranges
will he similar. For if (Fig. 67) u be projected from /', and u f
from /(as in Art. 85, left), two pencils of parallel rays will be
formed, corresponding pairs of which intersect upon a fixed
straight line u". The segments A" B" of »" will be propor-
tional to the segments AB of u and also to the segments A' B'
of u' ; consequently the segments AB of u will be proportional
to the segments A'B' of nf.
AC A'C
BC ~ B'C'
an equation which shows that corresponding segments are
proportional to one another.
Examples. If a flat pencil whose centre lies at a finite distance
be cut by two parallel straight lines, two similar ranges of points will
be obtained.
Any two sections of a flat pencil composed of parallel rays are
similar ranges.
In these two examples the ranges are not only projective, but also
in perspective : in the first case the self-corresponding point lies at
infinity ; in the second case it lies (in general) at a finite distance.
101. Two flat pencils, whose centres lie at infinity, are pro-
jective and are called similar, when a section of the one is
similar to a section of the other. When this is the case any
other two sections of the pencils will also be similar to one
another.
102. From the equality of the anharmonic ratios we con-
clude that two equal ranges are projective (Art. 79), and that
88 PARTICULAR CASES AND EXERCISES. [103
conversely two projective ranges are equal (Art. 73), when the
corresponding segments which are bounded by the points of
two corresponding triads ABC and A'B'C are equal i.e. when ;
and P' move in opposite directions, the ranges are said to be oppositely equal.
106] PARTICULAR CASES AND EXERCISES. 89
which they intercept upon any parallel to the base are equal ; thus
JB=A B / /
, or two corresponding segments are equal', consequently
AA'=BB', i.e. the segment bounded by a pair of corresponding points
is of constant length. We may therefore suppose the two ranges to
have been generated by a segment given in sign and magnitude,
which moves along a given straight line the one extremity A of ;
the segment describes the one range, and the other extremity A /
describes the other range.
Conversely it is evident that if a segment A A', given in sign and
magnitude, slide along a given straight line, its extremities A and A'
will describe two directly equal (and consequently projective) ranges,
which have a single self-corresponding point, lying at an infinite
distance.
be equal if three rays abc of the one make with each other angles
which are equal respectively to those which the three corresponding
rays make with each other.
This theorem may be proved by cutting the two pencils
by two transversals in such a way that the sections ABC
and A'B'C of the groups of rays abc smd^a'b'c' may be equal.
The projective ranges so formed will be equal (Art. 102); con-
sequently also the other corresponding angles ad and a'd\ ... of
the given pencils must be equal to one another.
105. Since two equal forms (ranges or flat pencils) are
always projective with one another, it follows that if a range
or a flat pencil be placed in a different position in space,
without altering the relative position of its elements, the form
in its new position will be projective with regard to the same
form in its original position.
106. Consider two equal pencils abed... and a'b'c'd'... in the
same plane or in parallel planes and suppose a ray of the ;
ing rays; consequently (Art. 82) every other ray will coincide
with its correspondent. If now the first pencil be moved back
into its original position, the angle dd' will be equal to aa'.
108. As the angles aa', bb' , cc', ... of two directly equal
109] PARTICULAR CASES AND EXERCISES. 91
What has been said in Arts. 104-108 with respect to two pencils
in a plane might be repeated without any alteration for the case of
two axial pencils in space.
109. (1). Let ABC ..., A'B'C ... be two projective ranges lying
'
upon the same base, and let them, by means of the pencils abc ...,
a'b'c''..., be projected from different points U ,U'. Let i,j' be those
rays passing through U, U' respectively, which are parallel to the
given base, and let i'', j be the rays corresponding to them. The
points I', J in which these last two rays cut the given base will then
be those points which correspond to the point at infinity (I or J') of
the base, according as that point is regarded as belonging to the
range ABC ... or to the range A'B'C' ...
The fact that the two corresponding groups of points are pro-
tectively related gives an equation between the anharmonic ratios,
from which we deduce (as in Art. 74)
Let us now enquire whether there are in this case any self-
corresponding points. If such a point exist, let it be denoted by E ;
lie between I' and 0' there are two self-corresponding points
, E and
F, lying at equal distances on opposite sides of 0, and dividing the
segment I'O' harmonically (Art. 69).
When lies between I' and 0' there are no such points.,
When 0' coincides with 0, there is only one such point, viz. the
point itself.
fore two self-corresponding points. And these will lie outside the
finite segment JI', since OE is a mean proportional between 01' and
00'.
If the order of ABC is the same as that of A 'B'C, we arrive in a
similar manner at the con-
« J u
u' 0' tt'
clusion that JA and I'A\
u J u and again JO and I'O', have
opposite signs. In this case
Fig. 69. then,self-correspondingpoints
exist if does not lie be-
tween I' and 0'; that is, if 0' lies between and I' (Fig. 696). And
these willlie within the segment JI', since OE is a mean proportional
EFAA' and EFBB' are the projections of EE"SS' from the centres
A" and B" respectively ; therefore EFAA f
and EFBB' are projective
with one another ; thus the anharmonic ratio of the system consisting
of any two corresponding points together with the two self-corre-
sponding points is constant.
In other words : two projective forms which are superposed one upon
the other, and which have two self-corresponding elements, are composed
of pairs of elements which give with two fixed ones a constant anhar-
monic ratio *.
f 2^
|
J-^
\
^—
lg '
responding rays are all equal '
*
other words, to construct the element of the one form which corre-
sponds to a given element of the other. The solution of the following
particular cases is left as an exercise to the student
1. Suppose the two forms to be two ranges u and u' which lie on
different bases and let the given pairs of elements be
;
* The above construction gives the solution of the problem: Given two pairs
A A and B B f of corresponding
, , points, and one of the self-corresponding points
E, to find the other self-corresponding point.
t Chasles, loc. cit. p. 119.
t P , P , Q, Q', IfJft J, J' have the same meaning as in Art. 84
/
; A ,B ... are
any given points.
:
circumscribed about the former and inscribed in the latter (Fig. 73).
The two pencils
O (Uvx
U U
2 ,
9
... ) and 3 (tru TJ% , U 3 ...
* Steiner, loc. cit. p. 85. § 23, II. Collected Works, vol. i. p. 297.
t Pappus, loc. cit., book VII. props. 123, 139, 141, 143. Chasles, loc. cit.
slide respectively upon two fixed straight lines u , u' , then will the
third vertex M alsoa straight line *.
describe
In a like manner may be demonstrated the more general theorem :
For if B' denote the point where EP cuts FQ, and D' the point
* This one of Euclid's porisms. See Pappus, loc. cit., preface to book VII.
is
f This one of the porisms of Pappus; loc. cit., preface to book VII.
is
Fig. 77.
H
:
* These and other problems, to be solved by aid of the ruler only, will be found
in the work of Lambert quoted above.
t Chasles, loc. cit., Arts. 368, 369. A proposition equivalent to this has already
been proved by a different method in Art. 22.
;
OG :B'D::BG: BD,
B'D BG
0G =
.
BD
i. e. OG is constant. The point therefore moves on a sphere whose
centre is G and whose radius is the constant value just found for OG.
of centres of the spheres, and whose centre lies upon this same line.
This line GHK is the line of intersection of the planes n and a-
and is consequently parallel to <rc/ (since it and </ are parallel planes)
it is the vanishing line of the figure <r, regarded as the perspective
image of the figure </ (Art. 13).
120. Theoeem. Two concentric projective pencils lying in the same
plane, which have no self-corresponding rays, may be regarded as the
perspective image of two directly equal pencils *.
be the common centre of the two pencils. Cut them by a
Let
transversal s, thus forming two collinear projective ranges ABC...
and A 'B f C' .. which have no self-corresponding points. Draw through
.
s any plane </ we can determine in this plane (Art. 109) a ppint U
;
H %
CHAPTEK XII.
INVOLUTION.
* We say two forms, because the reasoning which we have made use of in the
case of two concentric flat pencils may equally well be applied in the case of two
and of two axial pencils having a common axis. The same result
collinear ranges,
may be arrived at by cutting the two flat pencils by a transversal, and by pro-
jecting them from a point lying outside their plane.
*
123] INVOLUTION. 101
122. But in the case where lies upon u" (Fig. 8o), if a
ray be drawn through to cut u and u' in A and B' respec-
tively, then will also A'B pass through \ in other words, to
the ray OA or OB' corresponds
the same ray OA' or OB.
This property may be expressed
by saying that the two rays
correspond doubly to one another ;
intersect the other given ray. The straight lire u'\ the
locus of the points of intersection of the "-pairs- of 3mea such
as MN', M'N, formed by joining crosswise any two pairs of
corresponding points of the ranges u u\ (Art. 85), will pass ,
* Desargues, Brouillon projet d'une atteinte aux evenements des rencontres oVun
cdne avec unplan (Paris, 1639) : edition Poudba (Paris, 1864), vol. i. p. 119.
. ;
involution.
The self-corresponding elements of two forms in involution
!
are called the double elements of the involution. In the case of
1
For since the rectangle OA. OA' vanishes, one out of every
pair of conjugate points must coincide with 0.
126. The proposition that if an involution has two double
elements, these separate harmonically any pair of conjugate
elements, may proved thus
also be :
the second point in which these circles meet, join GH, and let
it cut the base in 0. Since GHAA' lie on a circle,
G. OH=OA.OA';
and since GHBB' lie on a circle,
OG.OH=OB.OB';
/. OA.OA'=OB.OB'.
is therefore the centre of the involution determined by the
[^
and BB' overlap (Fjg. 83) *,
In the first case, the involution (as already seen) consists of
an infinite number of pairs of points which are harmonically
conjugate with regard to a pair of fixed points.
In the second case, on the other hand, the involution is
traced out on the base by
the arms of a right angle
which revolves about its
vertex. For since (Fig.
84) the segments A A' and
BB' overlap, the circles
described onAA' and BB f
* An involution of the kind hich has double points is often called a hyperbolic
involution ; one of the kind which has no double points being called an elliptic
involution.
106 INVOLUTION. [129
may therefore be called the central ray of the given involution. If,
reciprocally/ we project an involution of points by means of parallel
rays, these rays will form a new involution, whose central ray passes
through the centre of the given involution.
When one involution is derived from another involution by fteans
of projections or sections (Art. 124), the double elements of the first
always give rise to the double elements ofj;he setqpd.
130. Since in an involution any groupof elements is projective with
the group of conjugate elements, it follows that if any four points of
the involution be taken, theirmnharmonic ratio will be equal to that
of their four conjugates. In the involution A A ', BB' CC',. the , . .
therefore 4
whence
^ AB\ BC. CA' + A'B.B'C. C'A = o.
Conversely, if this relation hold among the segments determined by
sixcollinear points AA'BB'CC^ these will be three conjugate pairs of
131] INVOLUTION. 107
QSy ST and QR, QT and RS are st and qr, qt and rs are projected
cut by any transversal in A and from any centre by the rays a and
A', B and B\ C and C respec- a', b and b', c and c' respectively.
and A' CAB, it follows (Art. 122) therefore aca'b' is projective with
that AA',BB', CC are three con- aba'c or (Art. 45) with aYab.
jugate pairs of an involution. And since a and a? correspond
doubly to one another in the
pencils aca'b' and a' cab, it follows
(Art. 122) that aa', bb', cc' are
three pairs of conjugate rays of
an involution.
The theorem just proved may The theorem just proved may
also be stated in the following also be stated in the following
form form :
collinear points, then its sixth fixed concurrent straight lines, then
side will also /;ass through a fixed its sixth vertex will also move on a
point collinear with the other five, fixed straight line, concurrent with
and forming an involution with the other five, and forming an in-
them. volution with them.
points; that is, they have the same radical axis. The centres of
these circles lie in a straight line ; hence
The middle points of the three diagonals of a complete quadrilateral
are collinear *.
If, in the preceding problem (left), the point C lies at infinity, its
* Chasles, loc, cit., Arts. 344, 345. Gauss, Collected Works, vol. iv. p. 391.
:
transversal in Cv
Applying the theorem of Art. 131 (left) to
the quadrangle QRST, we have
(AA'BCJ = (A'AB'C).
But by hypothesis
(AA'BC) = (A'AB'C);
.-. (AA'BC1 ) = (AA'BC);
consequently (Art. 54) C1 coincides with C, i.e. QC passes
through T.
The correlative theorem is
If a point S he joined to the vertices of a triangle rsa (Fig. 86) by
three rays a', V, c' which, when taken together with three other rays
a,b ,c passing also through S} form three conjugate pairs of an
involution, then the points ra ,
qb , sc lie on the same straight line t.
136. Take again the figure of the complete quadrangle
QRST whose three pairs of opposite sides are cut by a trans-
versal in A and A', B and B', C and C. Let (Fig. 88) SQ and
RT meet in R', QR and ST in S', RS and QT in Q'.
Fig. 88.
(
BA BA\ ,CB CB\ f AC AC\ §
: '
{ CA CA') \AB AB') ^BC BC'J
'' ''
: : :
CA'.AB'.BC
0r
BA'. CB'. AC '
then, if the straight lines RR', SS', QQ' are concurrent, the points
A', B', C will be collinear; and conversely, if the points A\B\C
are collinear, the straight lines RR f
, SS', QQ' will be concurrent.
Suppose now the transversal to lie altogether at
137.
infinity; then the anharmonic ratios (SQR'A'), QRS'B'), and
(RSQ'C) become (Art. 64) respectively equal to SR' QR', :
If the two sets of three straight lines which connect the vertices of
a triangle RSQ with any two given points T and T meet the
f ff
f
respectively opposite sides in R', S', Q and R'\ S", Q", then will the
product of the anharmonic ratios (SQR'R"), (QRS'S"), and
{RSQ' Q") be equal to + i.
SA'.QB'.BC '
SA". QB". BC"
is equal to i ; dividing one by the other, the required result
follows.]
Reciprocally, if on the sides of a triangle BSQ three pairs of
points A'A", B'B", C'C" be taken such that the product of the
anharmonic ratios {SQA'A"), (QBB'B"), {BSC'C") may be equal to
+ i then, if thepoints A', B'
; C
are collinear, the points A", B", C"
,
will also be collinear, and if the lines BA' SB', QC are concurrent ,
141. It has been shown (Art. 122) that if two projective ranges
(ABC.) and (A'B'C'...), lying in the same plane, are projected from
the point of intersection of a pair of lines such as AB' and A'B, AC
and A'C,...ov BC / and B'C., the projecting rays form an involution.
The theorems correlative to this are as follows
Given two projective", but not concentric, flat pencils (abc.) and
(a'b'c' ...) lying in the same plane if they be cut by the straight line
;
which joins a pair of points such as ab' and afb, ac' and a'c,... or he'
and b'c., the points so obtained form an involution.
Given two projective axial pencils (a/3y...) and (a'Ay* ...) whose
axes meet one another if they be cut by the plane which is deter-
;
mined by passing through a pair of lines such as a/3' and a'/3, ay and
ay,... or fry and /3'y..., the rays so obtained form an involution.
Given two projective flat pencils (abc.) and (a'b'c' ...) which are
concentric, but lie in different planes if they be projected from the
;
a common middle point, then will this point bisect also the segment
CC formed by any other pair of conjugates.
All rectilineal angles which have a common vertex, lie in the same
plane, and have the same fixed straight line as a bisector, form an in-
volution, since the arms of every angle are harmonically conjugate
with regard to the common bisector and the ray perpendicular to it
through the common vertex.
Conversely, if the double rays of a pencil in involution include a
right angle, then any ray and make equal angles with
its conjugate
either of the double rays. an involution the angles included
If in such
by two pairs of conjugate rays aa' and bb f have common bisectors,
these will be the bisectors also of the angle included by any other pair
of conjugate rays cc''.
All dihedral angles which have a common edge and which have the
same fixed plane as a bisector, form an involution ; for the faces of
every angle are harmonically conjugate with regard to the fixed plane
and the plane drawn perpendicular to it through the common edge.
Conversely, if the double planes of an axial pencil in involution are
at right angles to one another, then any plane and its conjugate make
equal angles with either of the double planes.
I
;;
CHAPTEE XIII.
Yi g 89.
.
corresponding to it in the first pencil
therefore to O'O or q' considered as
a ray of the second pencil corresponds in the first pencil the
tangent a to the circle at 0.
Imagine the circumference of the circle to be described by a
moving point A the rays AO AO' or a, a' will trace out the
; ,
I 2
116 PROJECTIVE FORMS IN RELATION TO THE CIRCLE. [147
CHAPTER XIV.
Q of 0', and to the same point o'o or I" of the second range corre-
sponds the point of contact P of 0*.
* Steiner, he. cit., p. 139. § 38. Collected Works, vol. i. pp. 332, 333.
}
•93-
Fig- 95-
Fig. 96.
constant.
The a?iharmonic ratio of the four points in which four fixed tan-
gents to a conic are cut by a variable tangent to the same is
constant *.
The locus of a point such that the rays joining it to four given
points ABCI) form a pencil having a given anharmonic ratio is a
conic passi?ig through the given points.
0, 0' ,A,B ,C in a plane (Fig. 92), o, o', a, b, cin a plane (Fig. 93),
no three of which lie in a straight no three of which meet in a point,
line, a conic can be described. a conic can be described to touch
For we have only to construct the them. For we have only to con-
two projective pencils which have struct the two projective ranges
their centres at two of the given which are determined upon two of
points, and 0' for example, and the given lines, o and 0' for ex-
in which three pairs of corre- ample, by the three others a, b,c,
sponding rays OA and O'A, OB and of which three pairs of cor-
and O'B, OC and O'C intersect responding points oa and o'a, ob
n the three other points. Any and o'b, oc and o'c are given.
other pair OB and O'D of corre- The straight lin« d which joins
sponding rays will give a new any other pair of corresponding
point D of the curve. points of the two ranges will be a
new tangent to the curve.
To construct the tangent at any To construct the point of con-
one of the given points, at for tact of any one of the given
example, we have only to deter- straight lines, that of for ex-
mine that ray of the pencil ample, we have only to determine
which corresponds to the ray O'O that point of the range which
of the pencil '. corresponds to the point o'o of the
f
range o .
Through five given points only Only one conic can be drawn to
one conic can be drawn ; for if touch five given straight lines ;
there could be two such, they for if there could be two such,
would have an infinite number of they would have an infinite num-
other points in common (the ber of common tangents (all the
intersections of all the pairs of straight lines which join pairs of
corresponding rays of the projec- corresponding points of the pro-
tive pencils) ; which is impossible. jective ranges) ; which is im-
* Steiner, loc. cit. f pp. 156, 157, §43. Collected Works, vol. i. pp. 344, 345.
: : '
straight lines which join the three pairs of opposite sides intersect
pairs of opposite vertices are con- one another in three collinear
current. points.
This is known as Bkianchon's This is known as Pascal's
theorem *. theorem f.
P- 34)-
f This theorem was given in Pascal's E.<sai sur les Coniques, a small work of
six pages 8vo., published in 1640, when
author was only sixteen years old.
its
It was republished in the CEuvres de Pascal (The Hague, 1779), and again more
recently by H. Weissenborn, in the preface to his book Die Projection in da'
Ebene (Berlin, 1862).
154] TO THE CONIC SECTIONS. 125
a conic, and the straight lines joining the angular points of the one
to the non-corresponding angular points of the other all touch another
conic %.
f
of its vertices P, Q slide along two fixed straight lines CB', CA
f
respectively ', then the remaining vertex C will describe a conic which
passes through the following five joints, viz. the two given points A
and B, the point of intersection C of the given straight lines, the
point of intersectionB' of the straight lines Alt and CB', and the
A' of the straight lines BR and CA'*.
point of intersection
So also Brianchon's theorem may be expressed in the
following form :
If a triangle c'pq (Fig. 99) move in such a way that its vertices
pq, qc', c'p slide along three fixed straight lines r, a, b respectively,
while two of its sides p , q turn round two fixed
points cb' , ca' respectively, then the remaining
side c' will envelope a conic which touches the j
/
following five straight lines, viz. the two given a/7/\
straight lines a and b, the straight line c which
j
joins the fixed points, the straight line V which I
p / j-
//(^
joins the points ar and cb', and the straight K/ \
r / \
c
Fig. ioo.
two similar ranges (which are not in perspective), the straight lines
connecting pairs of corresponding points will envelope a parabola which
touches the given straight lines at t/ie points which correspond in
the two ranges respectively to their point of intersection.
For the points at infinity on the given straight lines being
corresponding points (Art. 99), the straight line which joins
them will be a tangent to the envelope thus the envelope is ;
a conic (Art. 150 (II)) which has the line at infinity for a
tangent, i.e. it is a parabola.
158. In theorem I of Art. 150 (Fig. 95) suppose that the
point A lies at infinity, or, in other words, that the pencil A
consists of parallel rays. To the straight line OA, considered as
a ray a' of the pencil (viz. that ray which is parallel to the
rays of the other pencil), corresponds that ray a of the pencil
A which is the tangent at the point A. This ray a may be at
a finite, or it may be at an infinite distance.
In the first case (Fig. 101) the straight line at infinity is
K
130 PEOJECTIVE FORMS IN THE CONIC SECTIONS. [160
t-
It c
/
be the required tangent, If C be the required point,
hexagon to which
^ab'ca'bc' is a AB'CA'BC is a hexagon to
Brianchon's theorem applies. Let which Pascal's theorem applies.
r be the diagonal connecting one Let R be the point of intersection
pair ay and af b of opposite ver- of one pair ^LS' and A'B of oppo-
tices, and
q be the diagonal
let site sides, ancTlet be the point
connecting another such pair ca' of intersection of another such
and /
c a (where ca is the given pair CA' and r\ then QR must
pointZT) ; then the diagonal which pass through the point of inter-
connects the remaining pair hd section of the remaining pair
and b'c must pass through the BC and B'C. If then PB be
point qr . If then p be the straight joined, .it will cut the given
K %
:
line joining the points qr and Vc, straight line r in the required
the straight line which joins <pb point Cf .
for the point H, all lying on one for the given straight line r, all
of the given tangents, and repeat- passing through one of the given
ing in each case the above con- points on the conic, and repeating
struction, any desired number of in each case the above construc-
tangents to the conic may be tion,any desired number of points
drawn. on the conic may be found.
Brianchon's theorem therefore Pascal's theorem therefore serves
serves to construct, by means of its to construct, by means of its
tangents, the conic which is deter- points, the conic which is deter-
mined by five given tangents*. mined by five given points f.
Fig. 108.
BP be joined, it will be
parallel to the required di-
rection.
Fig. no.
It will be a useful exercise
deduce the constructions for these particular
for the student to
cases from the general construction in order to do this it is
;
CHAPTEE XVI.
point P where the fifth side (B'C) meets the tangent aU the opposite
vertex, are collinear. {
^*
This corollary may also be deduced from the construction (Art. 84,
right) for two projective pencils. Three pairs of corresponding rays
are here given, viz. AA' and BA', AC'und BC, AB' and BB' We .
Particular cases.
Given four points of a hyperbola and the direction of one asymptote,
to draw the tangent at one of the given points. (This is obtained
by taking one of the points A B', C A' to lie at infinity.)
, ,
11
;
and let QR meet the given tangent in P. Then B'P will be the
required tangent *.
at' this, and the directions of both asymptotes ; or, one other point,
and the direction of the second asymptote or, two points on the ;
curve, the tangent at one of them, and the direction of the point at
infinity on the curve.
points.
A f
,B',H, Q respectively. In the inscribed quadrangle ABCD
(Fig. 117) the point of intersection of the tangents at A and C,
170] OF PASCAL AND BRIANCHON. 141
sides of the diagonal triangle EFG (Art. 36, [2] ) of the complete
quadrangle whose vertices are the points A,B,C,D; and
since the same straight lines contain also the points in which
intersect two and two the tangents a,b, c, d at these points,
they are also the diagonals of the complete quadrilateral
formed by these four tangents. The theorem is therefore
proved.
170. In the complete quadrilateral abed the diagonal /,
whose extremities are the points ac bd, cuts the other two ,
171. By help of the theorem of Art. 169, when we are given four
tangents a ,b ,c ,d to a conic and the point of contact A of one of
them, we can at once find the points of contact of the three others
and when we are given four points A , B, G, D on a conic and the
tangent a at one of them, we can draw the tangents at the three
other points t.
Solution. Draw the diagonal Draw the diagonal triangle
triangle EFG of the complete EFG of the complete quadrangle
quadrilateral abed ; then AG, ABCD; then the straight lines
AF, AE will cut b, c, d respec- joining ag,af,ae to B, G, D re-
tively in the required points of spectively will be the required
contact B,G, D. tangents.
which join the points of contact of the pairs of opposite sides pass
through the point of intersection of the diagonals (Fig. 118).
This property coincides with one already proved with regard
to two projective ranges (Art. 85, left). For
consider the projective ranges on a and c as
bases, in which ab and cb, ad and cd, ... are
corresponding points ; the straight lines which
connect the pairs of points ab and cd, cb and
ad must intersect on the straight
respectively,
line which connects the points corresponding
in the two ranges respectively to ac but this ;
173. The theorem of Art. 172 gives the solution of the problem
To construct a conic by tangents, having given three tangents a,b,c
and the points of contact A and G of two of them; to draw, for
example, through a given point H lying on a a second tangent to the
curve (Fig. 118),
Solution. Join the point ab to the point of intersection of AG and
H(bc) ; the joining line will meet c in a point which when joined to
H gives the required tangent d.
obtained
To construct by tangents a hyperbola, having given one asymptote,
two tangents to the curve, and the point of contact of one of them ;
respectively to meet AC , BC
in P, Q ; and if MP be drawn
parallel to DC to meet PQ in Fig. 1 20.
on the straight line r which joins the points ah', ha' In order .
and if two conies touch two given straight lines at two given points
{i.e. if two conies touch one another at two points) they cannot have
L 2
CHAPTEK XVII.
DESARGUES THEOREM.
and let s be any transversal cut- conic ; from any point S let
ting the conic in P and P', and tangents p, p' be drawn to the
the sides QT, ES, QE, TS of the conic, and let the straight lines
projective with one another (Art. jective with one another (Art.
149), and the same is therefore 149), and the same is therefore
true of the groups of points in true of the pencils formed by
which these pencils are cut by joining these points to S. That
the transversal. That is, the is, group of rays pbp'a is
the
/
group of points PBP' A is pro- /
projective with the group^a jp 6',
jective with the group PA'P'B', and therefore (Art. 45) with
and therefore (Art. 45) with 2>'b'pa' ; consequently (Art. 123)
P'B'PA'\ consequently (Art. the three pairs of rays
123) the three pairs of points pp', aa', bb'
PP', AA\ BB f
are in involution.
are in involution.
184. This theorem, like that This theorem, like that of
of Pascal (Art. 153, right), enables Brianchon (Art. 153, left), en-
us to construct by points a conic ables us to construct by tangents
of which five points P,Q,R,S,T a conic of which five tangents
are given. For if (Fig. 122) an p, q, r, s, t are given. For if
arbitrary transversal s be drawn (Fig. 123) an arbitrary point S
through P, cutting QT, RS, QR, be taken on p, and this point be
TS in A , A', B, B' respectively joined to the points qt, rs, qr, ts
*and if (as in Art. 134) the point respectively by the rays a,a',b,b'\
P' be found, conjugate to P in and if (Art. 134) the ray p' be
the involution determined by the constructed, conjugate to p in the
pairs of points A, A' andi?, B' \
involution determined by the pairs
then will P' be another point on of rays a, a' and b,V '
; then will
f
the conic to be constructed. p be another tangent to the conic
to be constructed.
185. The pair of points C, C The pair of rays c, c' which
in which the transversal cuts the connect S with the points of
diagonals QS and RT of the intersection qs and rt of the
inscribed quadrangle belong also opposite sides of the circum-
(Art. 131, left) to the involution scribed quadrilateral belong also
determined by the points A , A f
(Art. 131, right) to the involu-
and B, B'. tion determined by the rays a, a'
and b , V.
Moreover, since the points Moreover, since the rays a, a'
A, A' and B, B f suffice to deter- and b, b' suffice to determine the
mine the involution, the points involution, the rays p, p' are a
150 DESARGUES THEOREM. [186
P, P f
are a conjugate pair of conjugate pair of this involution
this involution for every conic, for every conic, whatever be its
one another ; and will therefore and will therefore be the tangent
be the point of contact of the at S to some conic inscribed in
transversal with some conic cir- the quadrilateral.
cumscribing the quadrangle.
There are therefore either two There are therefore either two
conies which pass through four conies which touch four given
given points Q, P, S, T and straight lines q, r, s, t and pass
touch a given straight line s through a given point S (not
(not passing through any of the lying on any of the given lines),
given points), or there is no or there is no conic which satis-
conic which satisfies these con- fies these conditions.
ditions.
186. If, from among the six If, from among the six rays
f r
points AA', BB', PP' of an aa', bb , pp of an involution,
involution, five are given, the five are given, the sixth is deter-
sixth is determined (Art. 1 34). If mined (Art. 134). If then in
,( !
then in Fig. 122 it is supposed Fig. 123 it is supposed that the
that the conic is given, and that conic is given, and that the
the quadrangle varies in such a quadrilateral varies in such a
way that the points A, A', B way that the rays a, a', b remain
f
remain fixed, then also the fixed, then also the ray b will
point B' will remain invariable ;
remain invariable ; consequently:
consequently :
collinear with the three given fourth fixed straight line, concur-
ones. rent with the three given ones.
4«S 6
th
, 8 th , ... 2 (n - i) th
the first diagonal of the polygon) will pass through a fixed point
on s. In the second quadrangle the first three sides (the first
diagonal and the fourth and fifth side of the polygon) pass re-
spectively through three fixed points on * ; therefore the
fourth side (the second diagonal of the polygon) will pass
through a fixed point on s. Continuing in the same manner,
we arrive at the last quadrangle and find that the fourth side
of this (i.e. the 2n th side of the polygon) passes through a
fixed point on s. We may therefore enunciate the general
theorem
If a variable polygon of an even number of sides move in such a
way as to remain aUvays inscribed in a given conic, while all its sides
but one pass respectively through as many fixed points lying on a
straight line, then the last side also will pass through a fixed point
collinear with the others *,
If tangents can be drawn to the conic from the fixed point
round which the last side turns, and if each of these tangents
is considered as a position of the last side, the two vertices
• which lie on this side will coincide and the polygon will have
only 2 n — 1 vertices. The point of contact of each of the two
these three pairs of points are in contact of the opposite side, and
f
involution. the tangents p, p to the conic,
then these three jyairs of rays are
in involution.
190. This theorem gives a This theorem gives a solution of
solution of the problem : GivenJive the problem : Given five tangents
Forif^ 5
^ /
B(Fig.i26) are the
5J For if a,a',b (Fig. 1 2 7) are the
points in which the straight line rays joining the point pp' to the
PP' cuts the straight lines QS, SB, points qs,sr,rq respectively, we
BQ respectively, we construct (as construct (as in Art. 134) the ray
in Art. 1 34) the point B ' conjugate b' conjugate to b in the involu-.
to B in the involution determined tion determined by the two pairs
by the two pairs of points A A' ,
of rays a, af and p ,//; then b's
and P, P'; then B'S will be the will be the required point of con-
required tangent. tact.
also coincide in one point, which rays a and a' will also coincide
is consequently one of the double in a single ray a, which is conse-
points of the involution deter- quently one of the double rays of
mined by the pairs of conjugate the involution determined by the
Fig. 129.
Fig. 128.
f
points P, P' and B, B'. In this pairs of conjugate rays p, p and
case, then, Desargues' theorem b b', The theorem correlative to
.
point on PP'.
If the tangents QU, SU vary If the points of contact of q and
at the same time with the conic, s vary at the same time with the
while the points P,P',B,B' re- conic, while the straight lines
f
main fixed, the chord of contact p,p', b, b remain fixed, the point
193] DESARGUES THEOREM. 155
then the pairs of tangents from and then the two pairs of tan-
B and B' to this conic ; then if gents to this conic at the points
each tangent from B is taken to- where it is cut by b and &';
gether with each tangent from then if the tangents at the two
B\ four chords of contact will be points on b are combined with
obtained, which intersect one the tangents at the two points on
another two and two in the double &', each with each, four points of
points of the involution determined intersection will be obtained,
byP, />' and £ ,"£'*, which lie two and two on the
double rays of the involution de-
termined by p, p f and b, b' '.
192. From the theorem of the From the theorem of the last
last Article (left) is derived a Article (right) is derived a solu-
solution of the problem : Given tion of the problem Given four :
and the tangent at one of them Q, the point of contact of one of them
to draw the tangent at any other q, todetermine the point of contact
of the given points S (Fig. 128). of any other of the given tangents
s (Fig. 129).
r
which PP' cuts QS and the given connect pp with qs and with the
tangent respectively, and we con- given point of contact respec-
struct the point B' conjugate to tively, and we construct the ray
B in the involution determined b' conjugate to b in the involu-
by the pair of points P, P' and tion determined by the pair of
the double point A ; then the rays p p' and
,
the double ray a ;
f
straight line SB' will be the tan- then sb will be the required
gent required. point of contact.
193. Consider again the theorem of Art. 191 and suppose that ;
the conic is a hyperbola, and that its asymptotes are the tangents
given (Fig. 1 30). The chord of contact QS lies in this case entirely
at infinity; so that the involution (PP\ BB', ...) has one double
point at infinity, and therefore (Arts. 59, 125) the other double point
Fig. 130.
which gives a rule for the construction of a hyperbola when the two
asymptotes and a point on the curve are given t.
194. Consider once more the Consider once more the theorem
theorem of Art. 191 (left), and of Art. 191 (right), and suppose
suppose now that the points P now that the tangents p and p' lie
and P' are indefinitely near to one indefinitely near to one another,
another, i. e. let the transversal i.e. let the point S lie on the
be a tangent to the conic (Fig. conic itself (Fig. 132). The tan-
131). Its point of contact P will gent to the conic at S will be the
a
Fig. 131. Fig. 132.
be the second double point of the second double ray of the involu-
involution determined by the pair tion determined by the pair of
of points B,B f
and the double rays b , V
and the double ray a
points consequently (Art. 125)
; consequently (Art. 125) p and a
P and A are harmonic conjugates are harmonic conjugates with re-
t Ibid., ii. 4.
: : : : :
with regard to B and B' ; and gard to b and b'; and we con-
we conclude that clude that
In a triangle UBB' circum- In a triangle ubb' inscribed in
scribed to a conic, any side BB f a conic, any two sides b and b'
where it meets the chord QS joining in which they meet and the straight
the points of contact of the other line joining this vertex to the point
two sides. of intersection of the tangents q
and s at the other two vertices.
195. From A a second tangent The straight line a cuts the
can be drawn to the conic ; let its conic in a second point ; let the
point of contact be 0. Since the tangent at this be o. Since the
four points P,A,B,B', which have four rays p ,a,b ,b' which , have
been shown to be harmonic, are been shown to be harmonic, are
respectively the point of contact respectively the tangent at S, and
of the tangent AB, and the three the straight lines which join S to
points where this tangent cuts three other points on the conic
three other tangents OA, QB, SB' (the points of contact of o , q, and
respectively, it follows that the s) it follows that the straight
tangents AB, OA, QB, SB' will lines connecting these four points
be cut by every other tangent in with any other point on the conic
four harmonic points (Art. 149); will form a harmonic pencil (Art.
i.e. they are four harmonic tan- 149); i.e. the four points are
gents (Art. 151). And since the harmonic (Art. 151). And since
chord of contact QS of the con- the point of intersection of the
jugate tangents QB, SB' passes tangents q and s lies on the chord
through A the point of intersec- of contact of the tangents p and o,
tion of the tangents at P and 0, we have the theorem
we have the theorem :
Any tangent to the curve cuts the asymptotes in two points B and
B' which are harmonically conjugate with regard to the point of con-
tact P and the point where the tangent meets the chord of contact of
the asymptotes ; but this last lies at infinity ; therefore P is the
middle point ofBB\ Thus
The part of a tangent to a hyperbola which is intercepted between
the asymptotes is bisected at its point of contact t.
This proposition is a particular case of that of Art. 193.
198. Theoeem J. If a quadrangle is inscribed in a conic, the
rectangle contained by the distances of any i^oint on the curve from
* De la Hire, loc. cit., book i. prop. 30. Steiner, loc. cit., p. 1
59, § 43 Collected ;
P'B ~ PA ''
PB'
PB' PA'
P'B'' P'A'
But PA P'A is equal to the ratio of the distances (measured in
:
any the same direction) of the points P and P' from the straight line
QT, and the other ratios in the foregoing equation may be interpreted
similarly ; we have therefore
(A±.{B)__(&).M
(A)'-{B)' {B'f(A')"
(B).(B')-(By.(B'Y'
where (A), (A'), (B), (B') denote the distances of the point P from
the sides QT, R/S, QR, ST respectively of the inscribed quadrangle
QRST, and (A)', (A')', (B)', (B')' denote similarly the distances of
P' from these sides respectively.
the point (These distances may be
measured either perpendicularly or obliquely, so long as they are all
measured parallel to one another.) The ratio
(A) (A')
(B)(B')
is therefore constant for all points P on the conic ; which proves the
theorem.
199. Theoeem. If a quadrilateral is circumscribed about a conic,
the rectangle contained by the distances of one pair of opposite vertices
from any tangent is to the rectangle contained by the distances of the
other pair from the same tangent in a constant ratio *.
In Fig. 123 let the vertices qr, qt, st, sr of the circumscribed
quadrilateral qrst be denoted by R, T, Tx Rx respectively let the , ;
points where the tangents p, p' meet the side q be called P, P'
respectively t, and let the points where these same tangents meet the
side s be called P x P x ' respectively.
,
Since by the theorem corre-
lative to that of Desargues, the pairs of rays p and p', a and a',
b and b', are in involution, the anharmonic ratios (bapp') and
(b'a'p'p) are equal to one another. Hence by theorem (2) of
Art. 149,
= (T&PfPJ
(RTPP')
= (2?^^/) by Art. 45;
#P &£* _ R^P R P(
•*•
Tp Tp - T•
T^,,
^ X
'
X
»
RP.T.P. RP'.T.P/
Whence
TP^P^ TP'.RSf
But RP TP is equal to the ratio of the distances (measured in
:
any the same direction) of the points R and T from the straight line
p ; so also TP 1 1
: RP
X X
is the ratio of the distances of the points Tx
and R x
from the same straight line p. The foregoing equation
therefore expresses that the ratio
RP.T P 1 1
TP.R.P,
is constant for every tangent p to the conic ; which proves the
theorem.
C
CHAPTEK XVIII.
from two new points 1 0/ (or from the same point) lying
,
pencils (ABC ... ) and Cf (A' B' ... ) respectively and are ;
Fig. 136.
C and C
For in order to find other
pairs of corresponding points, and the
self-corresponding points (when such
Fig. 137.
exist), we have only to construct the
be the points where s cuts the conic, and any number of pairs
of corresponding points can be constructed by help of the
property that any pair D and B' are such that the lines A'B
and AB' (or B'B and BB', or CD and CD') intersect on s *
these two series of tangents are cut by two other tangents o 1 and o/,
two new ranges of points will be obtained, which are projective with
the given ranges respectively (Art. 149), and are therefore projective
with one another.
Tivo series of tangents to a conic are said to be projective with one
anotJier when they are cut by any other tangent to the curve in two
projective ranges.
I. Suppose the first series of tangents to be cut by the tangent a',
the conic, each of them will be a self- corresponding line of the two
projective series of tangents abc ... and a'b'c' ....
[The proof of this is analogous to that of the corresponding property
of two projective ranges of points on a conic (Art. 200, II). ]
III. Two projective series of tangents to a conic are determined
by three pairs of corresponding lines a and a', b and b', c and c'.
For in order to find other pairs of corresponding lines, and the self-
corresponding lines (when such exist), we have only to construct the
point of intersection S of the diagonals which join two and two the
opposite vertices of the circumscribed hexagon ab'c a'bc'. The self-
corresponding lines will be the tangents from S to the conic, and any
pair of corresponding lines d and d' may be constructed by means of
the property that the points a'd and ad' (or b'd and bd", or c'd and
cd', . .
.) are collinear with S.
* Steiner, loc. cit., p. 174, § 46, Hi.; Collected Works, vol. i. p. 357.
M %
164 SELF-CORRESPONDING ELEMENTS [201
with a third (also of one dimension) are projective with one another
(cf. Art. 41).
VI. From these definitions it follows also that theorem (3) of Art.
149 may be enunciated in the following manner :
another. Let s be the straight line on which the pairs of straight lines
such as AB' and A AC' and A'Cy% and B'C ... intersect and BC ;
let S be the point in which meet the straight lines joining pairs of
points such as ah' and a'b ac' and a'c, be' and b'c, ...
, If s cuts the .
at Mand N
respectively must therefore be the self-corresponding
lines of the projective series dbc ... and a'b'c' ...; consequently the
straight lines m and n will meet in S.
VIII. From the foregoing it follows that for the consideration of a
* The introduction of these new one- dimensional forms enables us now to add
to the operations previously made use of (section by a transversal straight line
and projection by straight lines radiating from a point) two others, viz. section of
a flat pencil by a conic passing through the centre of the pencil, and projection of
a range of collinear points by means of the tangents to a conic which touches the
base of the range.
203] AND DOUBLE ELEMENTS. 165
* The triangles A'BC and AB'C', AB'C and A'BC, ABC and A' B'C are
likewise homological in pairs.
:
S is the point of intersection of the chords A A' and BB', then in the
involution determined by the pairs A A and B J5' the straight line
f
, ,
joining any other pair of conjugate points will pass through S. The
point C and its conjugate lie therefore on a straight line passing
through S, and the tangents at these points must meet on the
straight line joining the points aa' and bb' i.e. on s; the conjugate ,
tion, and MN the double elements, then MN, AB, and A'B' (and
similarly MN AB' and A'B) are three pairs of conjugate elements
, ,
of another involution.
VIII. The straig-hfc line s cuts the conic (see below, Art.
254) when the point S lies outside the conic (Fig. 138), that is,
Fig. 139.
when the arcs A A' and BB' do not overlap one another ; when
these arcs overlap, the point S lies within the conic and the
straight line s does not cut the latter (Fig. 139). We therefore
168 SELF-CORRESPONDING ELEMENTS [204
In other words
If from any point there he drawn to a conic two tangents and a
secant, the two points of contact and
the two points of intersection form a
harmonic system.
The points (AA'), (BB'), (CC), ...
form an involution of which and M
N are the double points (Art. 203,
III, IV). We therefore arrive again Fig. 141.
at the property of an involution
that if it has two double elements these are separated harmoni-
cally by any pair of conjugate elements (Art. 125).
205. Suppose now that the conic is a circle (Fig. 141). From the
similar triangles SAM , SMA',
AM : MA' : : SM : SA',
(smCe SM = Sir
axn
*
' AN '
>'
or AM.A'N = AN.A'M.
But by Ptolemy's theorem (Euc. vi. D),
AA'. MN = AM. A'N+AN. A'M.
If then M N, , A A' , are four harmonic points on a circle,
II. Let A and A', B and B\C and C (Fig. 143) be three pairs
fr
Fig. 143.
Describe any circle touching the common base of the two ranges,
7
and to this circle draw from the given points the tangents a and a ,
b and b', cand c' Let r be the straight line which joins the points*
.
ab\ a'b, and q that which joins the points ac\ a'c. If the point qr
lies outside the circle and from it the tangents m and n be drawn to
the circle, then the points om on in which these meet the base will
,
Fig. 144.
UNTVEKi
206] AND DOUBLE ELEMENTS. 171
cils. Draw through the centre any circle cutting the given
rays in A and A\ B and B' respectively. Let AB', A'B meet in
R, and AB , A'B' in Q; if the straight line QR cut the circle in
two points M and N, then OM , ON will be the required double rays
of the involution.,
IV. Let A and A\B and B' be two given pairs of conjugates of an
back upon the given straight line, then their projections will MN ,
* Steiner, loc. cit.y pp. 68 and 174, §§17 and 46; Collected Works, vol. i.
, Otherwise
Describe a circle touching the base AB... (Fig. 147), and draw to
this circle from the points A and A', B and B', the tangents a and a',
Kg. 147.
each ray OA, OB, ... will be at right angles to its conjugate
* h
Fig. 152
on the other hand illustrates the case where no such pair exists.]
209. The preceding problem, viz. that of determining the common
pair of conjugate elements of two involutions superposed one upon
the other, depends upon the following, viz. to determine (in a range,
in a pencil, or on a conic) a pair of elements which are harmonically
conjugate with regard to each of two given pairs. This problem has
already been solved, for the case of a range, in Art. 70 the following ;
is another solution :
and A', B', the other by the pairs A, B' and A', B (Art. 203,
VII.)
From this follows a construction for the double points of an
involution of collinear joints which is determined by the pairs A, A'
and B, B'. Take any point G outside the base of the involution
and describe the circles GAB, GA'B' they will meet in another
;
Conversely, if any straight line s (which does not touch the conic)
is given, an involution of points on the conic is thereby determined
*% i54
and O'B, OG and O'C. There ob and o'b, oc and o'c. There
may be two such self-correspond- may be two such self-correspond-
ing points, or only one, or none ing rays, or only one, or none at
at all ; consequently the straight all ; consequently there can either
line s may cut the conic in two be drawn from the point £ two
points, or it may touch it, or it may tangents to the conic, or JS is a
not meet it at all. The construction point on the conic, or else from S
of the self-corresponding points no tangent at all can be drawn.
themselves may be effected by The construction of the self-cor-
either of the methods explained responding rays themselves may
in Art. 206, II. be effected by the method ex-
plained in Art. 206, I.
case by the three pairs o and in the latter case they are
O'O, 00 f and o', OA and O'A. and o'o, oo' and 0', oa and
o'a.
already given (Arts. 180, 171, 175); the problem will then re-
177); the problem will then reduce duce to one of the cases given
to one of the cases given above. above.
214. In the construction given in Art. 212 (left) suppose that the
conic is a hyperbola and that the given
straight line s is one of the asymptotes (Fig.
156). The collinear projective ranges de-
termined on s by the pencils (A, B, C, ... )
and 0' (A, B, C, ... ) will have in this case
one self-corresponding point, and this (being
the point of contact of the hyperbola and
the asymptote) will lie at an infinite dis-
Fig. 157-
line s which does not pass through on any of the given lines.
any of the given p>oints.
Solution. Let A A' « , B , B' Let a , a' , b , b' be the rays
219] PROBLEMS OF THE SECOND DEGREE. 181
be the points where the sides joining the point Sto the vertices
QT RS QR ST
, , , respectively qt , rs ,
qr , st respectively of the
of the quadrangle QRST cut quadrilateral qrst (Fig. 161).
the straight line s (Fig. 160). Construct the double rays (if
Construct the double points (if such exist) of the involution de-
such exist) of the involution de- termined by the pairs of rays
termined by the pairs of points a and a', b and &'.
ft, '*»*.>.
To solve it, take any point (Fig. 162), and through it draw
the rays a , a' , b , b' parallel respectively to the straight lines
QT RS QR ST
, , , ; and construct the double rays (if such exist)
of the involution determined by the pairs of rays a and a' b and }
b'.
: ;
Each of these double rays will determine the direction in which lies
the second case when one of the four points lies within the triangle
formed by the other three (i.e. when the quadrangle formed by the
four points is reentrant).
Repeat the same reasoning for reasoning for the case of the point
the case of the transversal PP", pp'\ from which are drawn the
which cuts q and s in D and D" rays d and d" to the points
if C and C x
are the double points Q and S; if c and cx are the
of the involution determined by double rays of the involution de-
P and P"
the two pairs of points ',
termined by the two pairs of rays
D and D'\ the chord of contact 2)and ;;", d and d", the point of
must similarly pass through intersection of the tangents must
C or C x
. The problem admits similarly lie on c or cv The
therefore of four solutions ; viz. problem admits therefore of four
when two involutions the solutions ; viz. when the two in-
(PP'iBB') and {PP" DD") , volutions (ppf, bb') and (pp", dd")
both have double points, there both have double rays, there are
are four conies which satisfy the four conies which satisfy the given
given conditions. If the double conditions. If the double rays are
points are A , A x
and C , C :
a , a x and c , cx respectively, the
respectively, the chords of con- points of intersection of the
tact of the four conies and the tangents at Q and S to the four
tangents q and s are AC, A C X ,
conies are ac , axc , ac 3
, and ax cx .
AC X , and A G 1 1
. Of each of these Of each of these conies five
conies five points are known, viz. tangents are known, viz. p ,p',p",
P P ,
/
i
P", and the two points and the two straight lines which
of intersection of AC (or of AC X
', join ac (or a2 c, or ac 1} or a c x as y ,
or ACli or A x Cxi as the case may the case may be) to Q and S ;
be) with q and s ; they can ac- they can accordingly be con-
cordingly be constructed by points structed by tangents by means of
by means of Pascal's theorem Brianchon's theorem (Art. 161,
(Art. 161, right). left)..
.
#12 ^23
5 #34 #41 ( Fi g* l6 5)«
5 J
The method and reasoning will be the
Fig. 165.
S23 as centre upon s3i and let A 3 B3 C3i ... be their projections. , ,
in other words the locus of the first vertex of the variable quadri-
lateral whose second, third, and fourth vertices (A 2 A 3 A 4 ) slide , ,
is a conic *. This conic passes through the points S12 , aS"^ , the
centres of the pencils which generate it ; in order therefore to deter-
mine it, three other points on it must be known ; the intersections
of the three pairs of corresponding rays A X A 2 and A±A B1B2 and BJB ,
C C2
X
and Cfi will suffice. It is then only necessary further to con-
struct (Art. 212) the points of intersection if and N of the straight
line sx with the conic determined by these five points ; either M or N
can then be taken as the first vertex of the required quadrilateral.
may be looked at from another point of view. The
This construction
broken lines A A 2A 3 A AA B B2 B3 BJ$ and C C2 Cz Cfi may be regarded
X ,
X ,
x
of the polygon be taken there, the last vertex will also fall on the
same point, and the polygon will be closed.
In the following examples also the method remains the same
whatever be the number of sides of
the polygon which it is required to k
Cz M
M^-ff7''^k\ "^/f
— '
construct.
A'^vS&Z >K' 'V
223. Peoblem. To inscribe in a / ^^S{^^^>J^/
given t conic a polygon whose sides
/'Z^i^ /f\
pass respectively through given points. ^xi/l / /
\
\V\ /
Solution. Suppose that it is re- <w \\k' /
j
\
quired a c
to inscribe in the conic ^£-A/_YAf
B
. . . iB n
triangle whose sides pass respectively
through three given points Sxi S S3 2 ,
(Fig. 1 6 6). Let us make three trials. Take then any three points
A B C, , on the conic ;
join them to Sx
and let the joining lines
cut the conic again in Ax B , x , C x ;
join these points to S2 and let
* This theorem, viz. that 'if a simple polygon move in such a way that its
sides pass respectively through given points and all its vertices except one slide
respectively along given straight lines, then the remaining vertex will describe a
conic,' is due to Maclaubin (Phil. Trans., London, 1735). Cf. Chasles, Aper$u
historique, p. 150.
the range of points A B',C, ..., with which we ended (Arts. 200, 201,
',
203). The problem would be solved if one of the points in the latter
range coincided with its correspondent in the former. If then the
two projective ranges ABC... and A'B'C... have self-corresponding
points, each of these may be taken as the first vertex of a triangle
which satisfies the given conditions. We have therefore only to
determine (Art. 200, II) the straight line on which intersect the three
pairs of opposite sides of the inscribed hexagon AB CA'BC\ and to con-
f
second and third, and the third and fourth, are projective with one
another; consequently (Art. 201) the same is true of the fourth and
the first. Since the problem would be solved if A f coincided with A,
or B f
with B , ... , each of the self-corresponding points of the pro-
jective ranges ABO... and A'B'C' ... may be taken as the point of
contact of the first side of a triangle which satisfies the given con-
ditions. "We have therefore only to make three trials (Art. 200),
i. e. to take any three points A B C on the conic and to derive , ,
struct the points of intersection of the conic with the straight line
which joins the points of intersection of the three pairs of opposite
sides (the Pascal line) of the inscribed hexagon AB'CA'BC*.
225. The particular case of the problem of Art. 223 in which the
given points Slt S2t ... lie all upon one straight line s must be con-
sidered separately. If the number of sides of the required polygon
is even, the theorem of Art. 187 maybe applied; in this case the
problem has either no solution at all, or it has an infinite number of
solutions. Suppose it required, for example, to inscribe in the conic
an octagon of which the first seven sides pass respectively through
the points Sl9 S2t ... S7i then by the theorem just quoted the last side
will pass through a fixed point S on s this point S is not arbitrary, :
If then the last of the given points S8 coincides with S, there are an
infinite number of octagons which satisfy the given conditions. But
if Ss does not coincide with S, there is no solution.
If the number of sides of the required polygon is odd, the problem
becomes determinate. Suppose it is required to inscribe in the conic a
heptagon (Fig. 124) whose sides pass respectively through the given
collinear points Sx , S2i S3 ... S7 By the theorem of Art. 187 there
, .
exist an infinite number of octagons whose first seven sides pass through
seven given collinear points and whose eighth side passes through
a fixed point S collinear with the others. If among these octagons
there is one such that its eighth side touches the conic, the problem
will be solved ; for this octagon, having two of its vertices indefinitely
Fig. 168.
quadrangle ABGF in six
points of an involution (Art.
183, left) ; and the same is true with regard to the second conic and the
inscribed quadrangle ABG'F'.
But the two involutions must coin-
cide (Art. 127), since they have two pairs of conjugate points in
common, viz. the points C, C
in which the transversal cuts both the
conies, and the points in which it cuts the pair of opposite sides
AFF\ BGG', which belong to both quadrangles. The involutions
will therefore have every pair of conjugate points in common, and
therefore the transversal CC
will meet FG and F G in the same
f f
respectively ;
join FG, F'G', and
let them meet in H. The point H
will lie on the chord joining the two required points. Again, join
AM, and let it meet the first conic again in M'; join GM G'M', and ,
chord. The required points therefore lie on HK, and the problem
reduces to the determination (Art. 212) of the points of intersection
C > C
of the conies with * HK
228. The solution just given of problem II holds good equally when
the points A and B lie indefinitely near to one another, i.e. when the
two conies touch a given straight line at the same given point.
In this case two conies are given which touch one another at a
point A, and the straight line HK
is constructed which joins their
and the conies are said to osculate at the point A. The construction
gives a point H of the chord which joins A to the fourth point of
intersection C of the conies. It may happen that this chord coin-
cides with the tangent at A ; in this case A represents four coincident
points of intersection of the two conies (or rather, four such points
lying indefinitely near to one another).
229. Let now the lemma of Art. 226 be applied to the case of a
conic and a circle touchingit at a point A. At A draw the normal
to the conic (the perpendicular to the tangent at A), and let it cut
the conic again in F and the circle again in F'. On AF as diameter
describe a circle ; this circle, which touches the conic at A and cuts
it at F, will cut it again at another point G such that AGF is a right
angle. Join AG and let G f
be the point where it cuts the first
[In the particular case where A is a vertex (Art. 297) of the conic, F
will be the other vertex, FG the tangent at F, AC the tangent at A,
and C will coincide with A . It is seen then that the osculating circle
at a vertex of a conic has not only three but four indefinitely near
points in common with the conic]
Conversely, the conic can be constructed which passes through
three given points A, P, Q and has a given circle for its osculating
circle at one of these points A.
For join AP, AQ, and let them cut the given circle in P f Q' re- ,
to construct by 2>oints the conic which passes through P and through the
four points of intersection of the two conies which are determined by the
points A ,B ,0 ,D E and A 1 ,B1 ,01 ,D 1 Ex respectively.
, The conies ,
are supposed not to be traced, nor are their points of intersection given *.
this point P' will lie on the required conic. By causing the trans-
versal to turn about the point P, other points on the required conic
may be obtained.
232. Pkoblem. Given ten points A,B,C,D,E; A 1 ,B1 ,C ,D 1 ,E1 l
the point of contact (Art. 185) of s with a conic drawn through the
four points of intersection of the conies ABODE and A 1 B1 C1 D 1 E l
Solution. has been seen (Art. 151) that the straight lines
It
which are cut by four given straight lines in four points having a
given anharmonic ratio are all tangents to one and the same conic
touching the given straight lines and that if A B C are the points ; , ,
ad(=A),bd(=B),cd(=C)
an anharmonic ratio {ABCD) equal to the given one, and if then the
straight lines be constructed (Art. 213, right) which pass through S
and touch the conic determined by the four tangents a,b ,c,d and
the point of contact D of d, each of these straight lines will give a
solution of the proposed problem.
If one of the straight lines a,b ,e,d lie at infinity, the problem
becomes the following
Given three straight lines a ,b , c and a point S, to draw through S
a straight line such that the segment intercepted on it between a and b
may be to that intercepted on it between a and c in a given ratio.
To solve this, construct on the straight line a that point A which
is so related to the points ab (=B) and ac (==C) that the ratio
AB AC has
: the given value and draw from S the tangents to the
;
of contact A of a.
The correlative construction gives the solution of the following
problem : On a given straight line s to find a point such that the
rays joining it to four given points A B ,C ,D form
, a pencil having
a given anharmonic ratio.
235. Problem. Given two projective ranges of points lying on the
straight lines u , u' respectively ; to find two corresponding segments
let A x
be a point on u such that the angle A OD is equal to the first x
and A' ,B f ,G f ... lying on the straight lines u and u' respectively, to
find two corresponding segments which shall be equal, in sign and
magnitude, to two given segments.
Solution. Take on u' a segment A'])' equal to the second of the
given ones, and let AD be the segment on u which corresponds to
A'D'. Take on u the point A x such that A X D is equal to the first of
the given segments then the problem would be solved if A x coincided
;
neously, the ranges traced out by A and A' respectively will be pro-
jective with one another, as also those traced out by D and !)' respectively
(by reason of the projective relation existing between ABG... and
A'B'C' ...} and the ranges traced out by A and D respectively, and
;
similarly those traced out by A' and D' respectively, will be projective
with one another, since they are generated by segments of constant
length sliding along straight lines (Art. 103). Consequently also the
ranges traced out by A and A x are protectively related, and their self-
corresponding points give the solutions of the problem. It is there-
fore only necessary to obtain three pairs of corresponding points
A and A',B and B', G and C', by making three trials, and then to
construct the self- corresponding points of the ranges determined by
these three pairs (Art. 206, II).
237. The student cannot have failed to remark that the method
employed in the solution of the preceding problems has been in all
cases substantially the same. This method is general, uniform, and
direct and it may be applied in a more or less simple manner to all
;
problems of the second degree, i.e. to all questions which when treated
algebraically would depend on a quadratic equation. It consists in
making three trials, which give three pairs of corresponding elements
of two superposed projective forms ; the self-corresponding elements
of these systems give the solutions of the problem. This method is
194 PROBLEMS OF THE SECOND DEGREE. [238
+ A problem is said to be of the first degree when it can be solved with help of
the ruler only, by the intersections of straight lines. See Lambert, loc. cit.,
i. e.
Collected Works, vol. i. pp. 461-522 Staudt, Geometric der Lage (Niirnberg,
;
!847)> § 23-
:
sponding rays of these pencils will give the solutions of the problem.
f
240. In the preceding problem the straight lines u and u might
be taken to coincide, and similarly v and v'. If all four straight
lines coincided with one another, the problem would become the
following
Given two projective ranges u, u' and two other projective ranges
v, v all lying on one straight line, to find a pair of points which shall
correspond to one another when regarded as points of the ranges u, u
respectively, and likewise when regarded as points of the ranges v, v*
respectively.
241. Peoblem. Between twio given straight lines u and u x to place
a segment such that it shall subtend given angles at two given points
and S (Fig. 170).
Fig. 170.
a range which is similar (Art. 99) to the range A', B',C, ... and
therefore projective with A B C ... The collinear ranges , , , .
A B", C"
, and A ,B ,C ... have already one self-corresponding
, . . . ,
and again three points A", B", C" such that the segments AA", BB h ',
CC" may each be equal in length to the given segment. The ranges
ABC ... and A'B'C ... will be projectively related (Arts. 79, 109), and
the same will be the case with regard to the ranges ABC ... and
A"B"G" .(Art. 103); therefore A'B'C ... and A"B"C" ... will be
.
anharmonic ratio (EFMM') will have the given values, and the
problem is solved.
245. Problem. To inscribe in a given triangle PQR.a rectangle
of given area (Fig. 171).
Suppose MSTU to be the rectangle required if MS' be drawn ;
they will trace out ranges which are all projective with one another.
For since D is the projection of A made from the point at infinity on
PQ, and A' the projection of D' made from the point at infinity on
PB , theand second ranges are in perspective, and the third and
first
fourth likewise. But the second and third ranges are projective with
one another, since the relation PD PD'=k 2 shows (Art. 74) that the .
entirely at infinity. If then a pair of corresponding points and D' have been D
found, and we wish to find the point E' which corresponds to any other point E
of PR (=w), we have only to join D'E, and to draw BE' parallel to D'E to
meet PQ (=«,') in £'.
198 PROBLEMS OF THE SECOND DEGREE. [240
any construction ; the pairs which result from them are composed
respectively of the point at infinity and R , and of Q and the point at
infinity. If the pair given by the third trial be called B ,B' }
and if
A Af
, stand for any pair whatever, we have (Art. 74)
QA.BA'szQB.MB',
and therefore, if M is a self-corresponding point,
QM.RM=QB.RB\
from which the self- corresponding points could be found. But it is
the point at infinity. Let then any circle be taken, and a point on
its circumference from
; draw the straight lines OB OB', OR OQ, , ,
and a parallel to QR, and let these cut thecircle again inB 1 2?/, Rv Q ti ,
two points x
M
and %
N
the straight lines which join these to
, will
meet QR in the self-corresponding points and N, and these give M
the solutions of the problem.
246. Problem. To construct a polygon, whose sides shall pass
respectively through given points, and all whose vertices except one shall
lie on given straight lines ; and which shall be such that
respectively
the angle included by the sides which meet in the last vertex is equal to
a given angle.
Suppose, for example, that it is required to construct a triangle
LMN (Fig. 172) whose sides MN ,NL ,LM shall pass through the
given points , V, U respectively,
and whose vertices M N , shall lie
on the given straight lines u v , re-
spectively; and which shall be such
that the angle MLN is equal to a
given angle.
Through draw any straight
line to A and v in B;
cut u in
join BV, and through U draw the
Fig. 172. straight line TJX making with BV
an angle equal to the given one.
Let TJX meet u in A' \ the problem would be solved if the point
Af coincided with A. If the rays OA, UA' be made to vary
simultaneously, they will determine on u two projective ranges the ;
they form at each of these points a pencil of four rays having a given
anharmonic ratio. If at each of the points the pencil is to be
harmonic, and the given straight lines such as to include a right
angle, the problem can be enunciated as follows (Art. 60) :
divided by a given point into two parts having a given ratio to one
another t.
* That is to say, two adjacent sides are to cut a given straight line, on which
are two given points A, JB, in two other points C, D such that the anharmonic
The polar of a given point 8 is therefore at the same time: (l) the
202 POLE AND POLAR. [251
will cut s in two points from which can be drawn two other tan-
gents a' and b' to the conic. Let A and B' be the points of
f
Fig. 176
* Apollonius, loc. cit, lib. vii. 37; Desargues, loc. ci£.,pp. 164 sqq. ; De la
Hire, loc. cit., books i. and ii.
+ (4) follows from (3) by what has been proved in Art. 71.
254] POLE AND POLAR. 203
triangle (Art. 169). The vertices of this triangle are S, the point
of intersection F pf AB and A!B\ and the point of intersection
E of AB r
and A'B its sides are s, the straight line/ joining the
;
this point.
. III. Keciprocally, if every point of the polar lies outside the
conic, the pole lies inside the conic if the 'polar cuts the
;
conic, the pole is the point where the tangents at the two
points of intersection meet ; and if the polar touches the conic,
the pole is its point of contact.
255. If two points are such that the first lies on the polar
of the second, then will also the "second lie on the polar of the first.
Consider Fig. 176; let E be taken as pole and let F
be a point lying on the polar of E. If the straight line EF
cuts the conic, it will cut it in two points which are harmoni-
cally conjugate with regard to E and F (Art. 250 [3] )
the other outside the conic, and by Art. 250 (3) again, if i^be
taken as pole, E will be a point on its polar.
EF does not cut the conic, the chord of
If the straight line
contact of the tangents from E will pass through F, since this
chord is the polar of E and therefore by Art. 250 (1) E will
\
/
257] POLE AND POLAR. 205
Ever?/ point on the polar of a given point E has for its polar a
straight line passing through E.
Every straight line passing through the pole of a given straight
line e has for its pole a point lying on e *.
Join SA,SB, and find the From the points sq, , sb draw
f
points A',B' where these cut the the second tangents a' ,b respec-
conic again respectively (Art. 161, tively to the conic (Art. 161,
right). The straight line s which left). The point S in which the
joins the point of intersection of diagonals of the quadrangle aba'b'
AB' and A'B to that of AB and intersect one another will be
II. Let the conic be determined II. Let the conic be deter-
..
Fig. 182.
polar, take on this polar any point F, and construct the polar of F.
This last will pass through E, since and E F
are conjugate points
if G be the point where it cuts the polar of E, then E and G
F and G, will be pairs of conjugate points ; and therefore EFG is a
self- conjugate triangle.
In other words : take any point E and draw through it any two
transversals to cut the conic in A and D, B and C respectively ; join
AC, BD, meeting in F, and AB CD
, meeting in G ; then EFG is a
self- conjugate triangle.
Or again, one side e may be taken arbitrarily, and its pole E con-
structed ; if through E any straight line / be drawn, and its pole
: : :
line/, and the points ab,cd by the straight line g then will efg be ;
a self-conjugate triangle.
260. From what has been said above the following property
is evident
The diagonal points of the complete quadrangle formed by any
four points on a conic are the vertices of a triangle which is self-
conjugate with regard to the conic. And the diagonals of the
complete quadrilateral formed by any four tangents to a conic
are the sides of a triangle which is self-conjugate with regard to the
conic *.
Or, in other words
The triangle whose vertices are the diagonal points of a complete
conic the two triangles are therefore in perspective, and the three
;
isan internal point, its polar does not cut the conic, and con-
sequently F and G are both external to the conic. If, on the
other hand, E is an external point, its polar cuts the conic, and
F and G are harmonic conjugates with regard to the two
points of intersection of the two points F and G therefore,
;
* Poncelet, loe. cit., p. 104. + Desargues, loc. cit., pp. 192, 193.
X Mobius, Baryc. Cole, § 290.
P
210 POLE AND POLAR. [264
Fig. 183.
(1). In the first place let the eight vertices be such that some
three ofthem are collinear. Suppose
for example that A ' lies on AB. Since
AB and A'B' meet in G, therefore
B' also must lie on AB; and since
the straight lines GE GF , are har-
monically conjugate with regard both
to AB, CD and to A'B' ,CD', and
AB coincides with A'B', therefore also
CB coincides with CD'. Thus the Fig. 184.
four points C,D,C,D' are collinear,
and the eight points A,B,C,D, A',B',C,D' lie four and four
on two straight lines.
(2). But if this case be excluded, *. e. if no three of the eight
conjugate, and which pass through a fixed point A, pass also through
three other fixed points B ,C ,D.
and which touch a fixed straight line, touch three otherfixed straight lines.
To construct a conic to touch two given straight lines, and with
respect to which a given triangle shall be self-conjugate.
Fig. 187.
points PQR, PMN, LQN, and LMR lie on four straight lines (the
axes of perspective).
These four axes form a quadrilateral whose diagonals LP, MQ, NR
form the triangle EFG. Accordingly, a conic inscribed in the
quadrangle ABCD and passing through L will pass also through
N , P, and R (Art. 270) ; similarly a conic can be inscribed in
the quadrangle ABDC to pass through R, M, N, and Q', and
a conic can be inscribed in the quadrangle ACBD to pass through
Q, P, M, and L.
It will be seen that for each of these conies the four tangents
shown in the figure (the four sides of the complete quadrangle ABCD)
are harmonic, and that the same will therefore be the case with
regard to their points of contact (Arts. 148, 204). For take one of
the sides of the quadrangle, for example AB a consideration of the ;
* Steiner, loc. cit., p. 160, § 43, 4; Collected Works, vol. i. p. 347; Staudt,
Beitrage zur Geometrie der Laye, Art. 329.
::
of the third vertex be are conjugate to one another with respect to the
conic.
And conversely
If two straight and b) touch a conic, any two conjugate
lines (c
straight lines (fandg) drawn from any point (E) on their chord of
contact will cut the two given tangents in points such that the
And conversely
If two given points (B C) on a conic , be joined to two conjugate
points (G ,F) which are collinear with the pole (S) of the chord (BC)
joining the given points, then the joining lines will intersect in a
point (A) lying on the conic.
CHAPTEE XXL
THE CENTRE AND DIAMETERS OF A CONIC.
straight line joining the points ab and a'b' and that joining the
points ab' and a'b both pass through the centre in other ;
* In the case of the parabola there are no pairs of conjugate diameters ; for
since the centre lies at infinity, the diameter drawn parallel to the chords which
are bisected by a given diameter must coincide always with the straight line at
infinity.
220 THE CENTRE AND DIAMETERS OP A CONIC. [285
t Ifw and v should be parallel, the conic is a parabola, whose diameters are
parallel to u and v.
:
tremities B and B f
of a fixed diameter are always parallel to two
conjugate diameters.
288. The following conclusions can be drawn at once, from
Art. 286.
Any two parallel tangents (a and a') are cut by any pair of
conjugate diameters in two pairs of points, the straight lines
connecting which give two other parallel tangents (b and b').
BA The tangent
of the second (Art. 143).
at A must therefore make a right angle with BA and simi- ;
equal in length.
IV. The diagonals of any inscribed parallelogram are
diameters ; but all diameters are equal in length ; therefore
any parallelogram inscribed in a circle must be a rectangle.
the two pencils are in this case equal. The range of poles
A,B,C,... is therefore projective with the pencil of polars
a,b , cwith regard to a circle.
. . .
tangents to the conic these straight lines will be three conjugate pairs of
,
an involution.
Let ABCD be a simple quadrangle inscribed in a conic (Fig.
195); let the diagonals AC BD meet , in F, and the pairs of opposite
sides BC ,AD and AB ,CD in E
and G respectively ; the points
E,F,G two
will then be conjugate
and two with respect to the conic
(Art. 259). Take any point / on
EG and join it to the vertices of
the quadrangle, and draw also the
tangents IP, IQ to the conic. The
two tangents are harmonically
separated by IE, IF (Art. 264),
since these are conjugate straight
lines, F being the pole of IE. But Fig. 195.
the rays IE IF, are harmonically
conjugate also with regard to IA , IC ; for the diagonal AC of the
complete quadrilateral formed by AB BC CD,
, , and DA is divided
harmonically by the other two diagonals BD and EG, and the two
pairs of rays in question are formed by joining / to the four
harmonic points on AC. For a similar reason the rays IE IF,
Q
226 THE CENTRE AND DIAMETERS OF A CONIC. [293
If s cuts the conic in two points M and if, these will be the double
points of the involution, and
OA.OA'=OM =01V 2 2
.
If 8 does not cut the conic, the constant value of OA OA' . will be
negative (Art. 125); in this case there exists a pair and H' of H
conjugate points of the involution, or of conjugate points with regard
to the conic, such that lies midway between them, and
OA OA' =
. OH . OH' =-OH*=- OH' 2 .
that the diameters of the two conies which pass through the
respective poles of HH' both pass through the middle point of
IIII'.
* Staudt, Geomelrie der Lage, Art. 305.
t PONCELET, IOC. Clt., p. 29.
;
tors of the angle made with one another by the tangents drawn from
the given point, when this is exterior to the conic.
296. In Art. 263 (Fig. 183) let the point G be taken to co-
incide with the centre of the conic (hyperbola or ellipse)
two conjugate lines such as GF, GF will then become conju-
gate diameters, and we see that the pairs of conjugate diameters
of a conic form an involution. If the conic is a hyperbola, the
asymptotes are the double rays of the involution (Arts. 264,
283); thus any two conjugate diameters of a hyperbola are har-
monically conjugate with regard to the asymptotes*. If the conic
is an ellipse, the involution has no double rays.
Consider two pairs of conjugate elements of an involution ;
the one pair either overlaps or does not overlap the other, and
according as the first or the second is the case, the involution
has not, or it has, double points (Art. 128) ; thus:
Of any two pairs of conjugate diameters of an ellipse, the one
aa' is always separated by the other (Fig. 192) W ;
Q2
:;
hyperbola (Fig. 197) the axes are the bisectors of the angle
between the asymptotes m and n (Arts. 296, 60).
In the ellipse both axes cut the curve (Art. 284); the
f
greater (a ) is called the major, the smaller (a) the minor axis.
In the hyperbola only one of the axes cuts the curve ; this one
(a') is called the transverse axis, the other (a) the conjugate axis.
The points in which the conic is cut by the axis a' in either
case are called the vertices.
The straight lines which join two conjugate points P and P' to the
extremities A and Ax of that diameter whose conjugate is parallel to
FT?' intersect on the conic.
OP OF = constant = OB 2 = OB
. •,
Fig. 199.
In the case of the ellipse (Fig. 198) the four points A,A l
,B,B 1
all lieon the curve in the case of the hyperbola (Fig. 199)
; AA
let X
be that one of the two given diameters which meets the conic.
Construct on the diameter BB X
several pairs of conjugate points
P and P f of the involution determined by having as centre
and B and B x in the first case as double points, in the second case
as conjugate points. The straight lines AP and A V P' (as also A X P
and AP') will intersect on the curve.
K K
and x in which AX meets the asymptotes, are the double
,
or
The rectangle contained by the segments intercepted on a fixed tangent
to a conic between its point of contact and the points where it is cut
by any two conjugate diameters is equal to the square ( + OB 2 ) on the
semi-diameter drawn parallel to the tangent.
304. We have seen (Art. 302) that in the case of the hyper-
bola K and K x
are the double points of the involution of which
A is the centre and X,X' a pair of conjugate points ; thus
AX.AX'=AK 2 =0B 2
.
+ In order to account for the signs, it need only be observed that in the case of
the ellipse OP and OP' are similar, but AX
and AX' opposite to one another
in direction ; while in the case of the hyperbola OP and OP' are opposite, but
AX and AX' similar as regards direction.
X Apollonius, loc. cit., book ii. 1.
:
I /
^s. \ / w\ and direction (Fig. 200).
\^^ j
Through A draw a parallel to
X } OB ; this will be the tangent at A,
\ X /
and will be cut by any two conju-
D
gate diameters in two points and X
X' such that
AX.AX'=-OB 2
.
X f
and X( are pairs of conjugate points; therefore OP will be the
geometric mean between OX and 0X X , and OQ the geometric mean
between OX' and OX/ *.
Through the extremities A and A! (Fig. 201) of two
313.
conjugate semi-diameters OA and OA! of a conic draw any two
parallel chords AB and A'B'. To find
the points B and B' we have only to
join the poles of these chords; this
will give the diameter OX' which passes
through their middle points.
Let OX be the diameter conjugate
to OX', i.e. that diameter which is
Fi 20I
parallel to the chords AB, A'B'. The
pencils O(XX'AB) and 0(X'XA'B') are each harmonic (Art. 59),
and are therefore projective with one another consequently ;
the pairs of rays 0(XX', AA', BB') are in involution (Art. 123).
But the two pairs (XX', AA') determine the involution of
conjugate diameters (Arts. 1 27, 296); therefore also OB and OB'
are conjugate diameters. Thus
If through the extremities A and A! of two conjugate semi-diameters
parallel chords AB A'B' be drawn, the points and B' will be the
, B
extremities of two other conjugate semi-dia?neters.
Two diameters AA and BB determine four chords AB
which form a parallelogram (Arts. 260, 287). The diameters
conjugate respectively to them form in the same way another
parallelogram, which has its sides parallel to those of the first
that is, every chord AB is parallel to two chords A'B', and not
parallel to two other chords A'B'.
314. Let E,Kbe the points where AB is cut by OA', OB'
respectively. The diameter OX' which bisects A'B' will also
bisect UK therefore AB and IIK have the same middle point
;
* Chasles, Aperg>j, historique, pp. 45, 362; Sections coniques, Art. 205.
;
and since the triangles OMA and ONA' are equal in area (being
halves of the equal triangles OAB and OA'B'), we have (Euc.
VL 15),
OM.AM=±ON.NA'f.
Now project (Fig. 202) the points A,M,B,A', N, B' from
the point at infinity on OB as centre
upon the straight line B'B'. The
ratio of the parallel segments AM
and ON, OM and NA' is equal to
that of their projections ; we con-
clude therefore from the equality
just proved that the rectangle
contained by the projections of
OM and AM is equal to that
Fi S- 202 -
containedby the projections of
ONand NA'. As the projecting
rays are parallel to OB, the projections of OM and MA are
to half the sum of the projections of OA' and OB', and the
projection of NA' will be equal to half the projection of B'A',
that is, to half the difference between the projections of OA
and OB'. We have therefore
(proj. OA) 2 = + proj. (OA' + OB')
xproj. {OB'-OA'),
or (proj. OA') 2 ± (proj. OA) 2 = (proj. OB') 2 .
thereforeP and Q are the poles of the axes of the conic. Further,
the segment PQ is harmonically divided by either pair of opposite
sides of the quadrangle ABCC consequently P and Q are the
;
on the straight line (Fig. 204) which passes through the middle
points of the diagonals of tlhe quadrilateral*.
III.Suppose similarly in theorem I of the present Article
that the point 31 lies at infinity the polars of will become
; M
the diameters conjugate to those which have as their M
common point at infinity ; thus
In any conic circumscribing a given quadrangle, the diameter which
is conjugate to one drawn in a given fixed direction will pass through
a fixed point.
319. Newton's theorem (Art. 318, II) gives a simple method for
finding the centre of a conic deter-
mined by five tangents a,b, c, d, e
(Fig. 205). The four tangents
a,b,c,d form a quadrilateral;
join the middle points of its
Two curves C and C' such that each is the locus of the
poles of the tangents of the other, and at the same time also
the envelope of the polars of the points of the other, are said
to be polar reciprocals * one of the other with respect to the
auxiliary conic K.
321. An arbitrary straight line r meets one of the reciprocal
curves in n points say ; the polars of these points are n tan-
gents to the other curve all passing through the pole R f
of r.
and vice versa. In other words, the degree and class of a curve
are equal to the class and degree respectively of its polar reciprocal
tvith respect to a conic.
322. Now suppose the curve C to be a conic, and a , b two
tangents to they will be cut by all the other tangents
it;
c,d,e,... in corresponding points of two projective ranges
(Art. 149). In other words, C may be regarded as the curve
enveloped by the straight lines c,d ,e ... which connect the
,
a straight line of the other, and to every range in the one corre-
sponds a pencil in the other. They lie moreover in the same
plane their positions in this plane are determinate, but may
;
which shows that the two ranges in which the straight lines BC and
^respectively are cut by AB, CA, DE, FD are protectively related.
* Steiner, loc. cit., p. vii of the preface; Collected Works, vol. i. p. 234.
t Steiner, loc.308, § 60, Ex. 46
cit., p. ; Collected Works, vol. i. p. 448
Chasles, Sections coniqnes, Art. 215.
;
These six straight lines therefore, the six sides of the given triangles,
all touch a conic C (Art. 150, II).
The poles of these six sides are the six vertices of the triangles
these vertices therefore all lie on another conic C' which is the polar
reciprocal of C with regard to the conic K *.
328. If the point D is such that from it a pair of tangents e' and
f can be drawn to K, the four straight lines e,f, ef, will form a f
harmonic pencil (Art. 264), since e and / are conjugate straight lines
with respect to the conic K ; consequently the straight lines e' and f f
are conjugate to one another with respect to C.
The locus of D is the conic C ' which is the polar reciprocal of C
with regard to K ; therefore :
Or:
If two conies are such that a triangle can be inscribed in the one
so as to circumscribe the other, then there exist an infinite number of
the conic C, and the two pencils and ', which determine the
points of C'; the pencil is in perspective with the range u
* Brianchon, loc. cit., p. 35; Steiner, he. cit, p. 173, § 46, II; Collected
Works, vol. i. p. 356.
f PONCELET, loc. Cit., Art. 565.
334 POLAR RECIPROCAL FIGURES. 245
f
and the pencil O is in perspective with the range u'. If then
any tangent to C cut the bases u and u' of the two ranges in
A and A' respectively, the rays OA and O'A' will meet in a
point M
lying onC'; and, conversely, if any point on C' be M
joined to the centres and 0', the joining lines will cut u and
u' respectively in two points A and A! such that the straight
line joining them is a tangent to C. Therefore :
gate lines with respect to a conic, the two remaining sides also are
conjugate lines with respect to the same conic.
In order to obtain such a complete quadrangle, it is only
necessary to take the polar reciprocal of the quadrilateral con-
sidered in Hesse's theorem, i. e. the figure which is formed by
the polars of the six points A and X, B and Y, C and Z.
This being premised, it will be seen that the polar of any point P
and the pole of any straight line p can be constructed with the help
of the ruler only. For suppose P to be given it has been shown ;
that the pole^s of the straight lines PO, PA, PB, PC, PA', ... can
be constructed, and these all lie on a straight line which is the X
required polar of P. So again i f th e straight line p is given, the
polars of the points in which it meeVtfC, CA, ... can be constructed,
and will meet in a point which is the pole of p.
and polars
It will be noticed that all these determinations of poles
are linear (i. e. and independent of the construction
of the first degree)
(Art. 338) of the auxiliary conic, which is of the second degree,
since it depends on finding the double elements of an involution.
The construction of the poles and polars is therefore always possible,
even when the auxiliary conic does not exist. In other words the :
FOCI *,
340. It has been seen (Art. 263) that the pairs of straight
lines passing through a given point 8 and conjugate to one
another with respect to a given conic form an involution. Let
a plane figure be given, containing a conic C and let the figure ;
§ 35 ; Zech, Hohere Geometrie (Stuttgart, 1857), § 7 > R EYE > Geometrie der Lage
(2nd ed., Hannover, 1877), Vortrag 13.
250 FOCI. [341
341. For certain positions of the point S the conic C ' will
be a When S has one of these positions it is called a
circle.
formed by the poles of the rays of the first pencil, which range
is (Art. 291) projective with the first pencil itself. The two
pencils in question have three pairs of corresponding rays
which are mutually perpendicular for if A be the point at ;
Thus:
To every point P lying on an axis of the conic corresponds a point
P f
on the same axis such thai any two conjugate straight lines which
pass one through P and the other through Pr are perpendicular to
one another.
flie pairs of points analogous to P, P f
form an involution.
For let the ray r move parallel to itself the corresponding ;
Therefore the point at infinity on the axis has the same corre-
spondent whether it be regarded as a point P or as a point P':
viz. the centre of the conic. We
conclude that the pairs of
points P\P' constitute an involution of which the centre is the centre
of the conic,
343. formed by the points P, P r on the
If the involution
axis a has double points, each of them will be a focus of the
conic, since every straight line through such a double point
will be conjugate to the perpendicular drawn to it through
the point itself.
252 FOCI. [344
seen that in the hyperbola the focal axis is that one which
cuts the curve (the transverse axis).
Since the centre of the conic is the centre of the
involution PP', it bisects the distance between the two
foci.
of the angle made with one another ly the rays which join that point
to the foci*.
These rays are called the focal radii of the given poinlw
345. A pair of conjugate lines which intersect at ight
angles in a point 8 external to the conic are harmonically
conjugate with respect to the tangents from 8 to the conic
(Art. 264) as well as with respect to the rays joining 8 to the
foci (Art. 343); therefore:
The angle between two tangents and that included ly the straight
of the angle which the focal radius of the point makes with the
diameter passing through the point %.
The straight line which connects the focus with the point of inter-
section of two tangents to a parabola makes with 'either of the
tange?its the same angle that the axis makes with the other tangent.
347. From the last of these may be immediately deduced
the following theorem
The circle circumscribing a tria?igle formed by three tangents to a
parabola passes through the focus.
Let P QB (Fig. 2 1 z) be a triangle formed by three tangents
* Apollonius, loc. cit.y iii. 48.
f Ibid., iii. 46.
% De la Hire, loc. cif., lib. viii. prop. 2.
254 FOCI. [348
circle.
on the transverse axis and are internal to the conic (Art. 343).
In the case of the parabola, the straight line at infinity
is one directrix the other ;
OP:OQ=Q"M:Q"Q,\
and from the right-angled triangle Q'MQ
Q"M:Q"Q = Q'Q":Q"M;
.-. OP:OQ = Q'Q":Q"M
= Q'Q":OP",
or OP.OP"=OQ.Q'Q"
= OQ(Q'0+OQ"),
so that OP.OP"-OQ.OQ"=OQ.Q'0 (l)
OA 2 = OF.OD.
256 FOCI. [350
having its centre at F, it has been seen (Arts. 340, 341) that
FM'
or
FM FM' x constant,
MP
where MP (Figs. 214, 215) is the distance of M from the
vanishing line, that is from the polar of F, i. e. the correspond-
ing directrix. Now FM' is constant, because C' is a circle ;
therefore
The distance of any point on a conic from a focus bears a constant
ratio to its distance from the corresponding directrix.
Moreover, this ratio is the same for the two foci. For let
(Figs. 214, 215) be the centre of the conic, F, F' the foci, A A' ,
the vertices lying on the focal axis, D,l)' the points in which
this axis is cut by the directrices ; then (Art. 294)
OA2 = OA' 2 = 0F.0D = OF'. OB'.
But OF' = - OF, so that A'D' = - AD and F'A'= - FA,
and therefore FA:AD= F'A' A'D', :
which shows that the ratio is the same for F and for F'.
In the case of the parabola the ratio in question is unity,
352] FOCI. 257
FM'
equations show that FM is
f
These two constant ; thus the
locus of M ' is a circle, centre F. The locus of M is there-
fore a conic (Art. 23) having one focus at F (Art. 341). And
since the straight line at infinity is the polar of F with
respect to the circle, the straight line d is the polar of F with
that is to say
In any conic, half the latus is a harmonic mean between
the segments of any focal chord.
-
"X
X M
Tu
0' \ A.'
JP
K' -7^
N ID
3 L'
Fig. 2 1 6.
Corollary. If 31, M f
be taken at A', A respectively,
=i + FA')
FL (~AF
_^1_
~- i AF.FA'2
OA
= Tm (
by Art 349 )>-
353. Theorem. In the ellipse the sum, and in the hyperbola the
difference, of the focal radii of any point on the curve is constant*.
Let M be any point on a central conic (Figs. 314, 215) whose
foci are F, F' and directrices d, d'; and let (if, d) &c. denote
as usual the distance of M from d, &c. By Art. 351
FM F'M
€ '
(M,d)~(M,d')-
FM±F'M
•*'
(M,d)±(M )~ €
i
d
/ '
FM±F'M=*.JDD',
which proves the proposition.
Conversely : The locus of a point the sum (difference) of whose-
distances from two fixed points is constant is an ellipse (a hyperbola)
ofzvhich the given points are the foci.
354. If in the proposition of the last Article the point M be
taken at a vertex A,
e.DD'=FA±F'A
= zOA
= AA' )
so that the length of the focal axis is the constant value of the sum
or difference of the focal radii. It is seen also that the constant
e is equal to the ratio of the length of the focal axis to the
distance between the directrices.
355. Since by Art. 294
OA 2 = OF.OD,
or AA /2 = FF'.DI>',
A €
_ _ FF
AA'
-DD'-AA' ;
Take the case of the ellipse (Fig. 217). If F, F' are the foci,
and M
is any point on the curve, join F'M and produce it to G
357. If FU, FU' (Fig. 217) are the perpendiculars let fall
from a focus F on a pair of parallel tangents, U,F,U' will
evidently be collinear. And since U and U' both lie on the
circle described oh AA '
as diameter,
FU . FU' = FA FA' .
= + OW (Art. 349),
according as the conic is an ellipse or a hyperbola.
Thus the product of the distances of a pair of parallel tangents
from a focus is constant.
Since the perpendicular let fall from the other focus F' on
the tangent at M is equal to FU', it follows that
The product of the distances of any tangent to an ellipse (hyper-
bola) from the two foci is constant, and equal to the square of half
the minor (conjugate) axis.
distant focus I' (i. e. if NF' be drawn parallel to the axis), the
angles ANF FNM will
f
, be equal (Art. 346). But ANF' is a
right angle ,'therefore FNM
is a right angle also. Thus
The foot of the perpen-
dicular letfall from the focus
359. The theorem of Art. 356 may be put into the following form:
If a right angle move in its plane in such a way that its vertex
describes a fixed circle, while one of its arms passes always through a
fixed point, the envelope of its other arm will be a conic concentric with
the given circle, and having one focus at the fixed point. The conic is
an ellipse or a hyperbola according as the given point lies within or
without the given circle t.
So too the corresponding theorem (Art. 358) for the parabola may
be expressed in a similar form as follows :
If a right angle move in its plane in such a way that its vertex
describes a fixed straight line, while
one of its arms passes always through
a fixed point, the other arm will en-
velope a parabola having the fixed
point for focus and the fixed straight
line for tangent at its vertex.
axis AA'. Therefore (Art. 274) the straight lines drawn from
P and P' to any point on the axis will be conjugate to one
another with respect to the conic. Thus, in particular, the
straight lines joining P and P' to a focus will be conjugate
to one another; but conjugate lines which meet in a focus
are mutually perpendicular (Art. 343); consequently the circle
on PP' as diameter will cut the axis A A' at the foci*.
Let the tangent PMP' cut the axis A A' at N; then J^is
II.
M to the conic t-
.
Or the same thing may be stated in a different manner, thus :
* Apollonius, loc. tit., iii. 45. Desargues, (Euvr'es, i. pp. 209, 210.
t Apollonius, loc. tit, iii. 47.
* In this reasoning it is supposed that FM', FN', FT are all internal bisectors
that either the conic is an ellipse or a parabola, or that if it is a hyperbola,
4. e.
the three tangents all touch the same branch (Fig. 221). If on the contrary two
of the tangents, for example TM and TN, touch one branch and the third M'N'
the other branch (Fig. 222), then FM' and FN' will be external bisectors. In
that case,
N'FL = ± NFL-
LFM' = I2 LFM + -
a
(the angles being measured all in the same direction) ;
This theorem clearly holds good for the cases of the parabola and
its infinitely distant focus, and the circle and its centre. For the
parabola becomes the following
it :
Fig. 224.
which cuts the segment FF and for normal the other bisector t
f
,
through every point in the plane pass one ellipse and one hyperbola,
which cut one another there orthogonally and intersect in three other
points.
Two conies of the system which are of the same kind (both
ellipses or both hyperbolas) clearly do not intersect at all.
(Art. 363) only one conic can be drawn to have its foci at given
points and to touch a given straight line.
Any straight line in the plane will touch a determinate conic of
the system, and will be normal, at the same point, to another
conic of the system, belonging to the opposite kind. The first of
these conies is a hyperbola or an ellipse according as the given
straight line does or does not cut the finite segment FF'
366. If first point F' lies at infinity, the problem of Art. 364
becomes the following Given the axis of a parabola, the focus F, and
:
The tangents to the two parabolas at M cut the axis in two points
P, P' which lie at equal distances
on opposite sides of F; and if P" is
the foot of the perpendicular let fall
FP + FP'=o,
2FA = FP + FP",
2FA'=FP' + FP",
whence the following are easily deduced
FP"=FA +FA',f
FP = FA-FA'=A'A,
FP' = FA' -FA = AA'.
These last relations enable us at once to find the points P, P', P"
when A and A' are known. The point M (and the symmetrical point
in which the parabolas intersect again) can then be constructed by
observing that FM is equal to FP or FP'.
367. It has been seen that a conic is determined when the two
foci and a tangent are given. It can also be shown that a conic
is determined when one focus and three tangents are given', this follows
at once from the proposition at the end of Art. 362. For let LMN
(Fig. 227) be the triangle formed by the three given tangents, and F
the given focus. Then the conic is seen to be the envelope of the
base M'N' of a variable triangle
M'FN', which is such that the
vertex F is fixed, the angle
M'FN' is always equal to the
constant angle MFN, and the
vertices M ', N' move on the fixed
straight lines LM LN , respec-
tively.
In order to determine the
other focus F', we make use of
the theorem of Art. 345. At
the point M make the angle
LMF' equal to FMN ; and at
p.
227
"
(2) a hyperbola if F lies inside the circle but outside the triangle ;
368. Let TM
TN (Fig. 228) be a pair of tangents to an
,
therefore TU TU'= ± OB
.
2
. But since U and V both lie on
the circle described upon the focal axis AA' as diameter (Art.
356), the rectangle TV TV' is
. the power of the point T with
respect to this circle, and is equal to OT 2 — A 2 . Thus
OT 2 = OA 2 ± OB 2 = constant,
In the ellipse OT = OA + OB
2 2 2
, so that the director circle circum-
scribes the rectangle formed by the tangents at the extremities of
the major and minor axes. In the hyperbola OT = OA —OB so
2 2 2
,
1/
369. Consider now the case of the parabola (Fig. 229). Let
F be the focus, A the vertex, TH
and TK a pair of mutually
perpendicular tangents. If these meet the tangent at the
vertex in i^Tand irrespectively, the angles FHT FKT will be ,
to say
The locus of the point of intersection of two tangents to a para-
bola which cut at right angles is the directrix*.
the directrix.
OX 0X +OL.OL'=
.
F
OA' 2 + OB' 2
= OA + OB 2 2
,
OX.OX'+OL.OL'^OT 2 , (1)
where OT is the radius of the director circle.
X'Y.X'Z=X'X.X'U;
.-. ru = ^-rz
~ox xz '
Or in other words
The circle circumscribing any triangle which is self-conjugate with
regard to a conic is cut orthogonally by the director circle *,
and the straight line at infinity. Now the director circle breaks up
into two straight lines —
viz. the directrix and the line at infinity
are the centres of the two equilateral hyperbolas which satisfy the
conditions of the problem.
373. If five points are taken on a conic, five quadrangles may be
formed by taking these points four and four together and the ;
these five diagonal triangles be drawn, they will give, when taken
together in pairs, ten radical axes. These ten radical axes will all
meet in the same point, viz. the centre of the conic.
374. Consider again a quadrilateral circumscribing a conic ; let
P and P\ Q and Q\ R and IV be its three pairs of opposite vertices.
If these be joined to any arbitrary point S, and if moreover from this
f
point S the tangents t , t are drawn to the conic, it is known by the
theorem correlative to that of Desargues (Art. 183, right) that t and t',
SP and SP', SQ and SQ', SR and SR' are in involution. Now let
one of the sides of the quadrilateral (say P'Q'R') be taken to
be the straight line at infinity, so that the inscribed conic is a
parabola ; and let 8 be taken at the orthocentre (centre of perpen-
PQR formed by the other three sides of
diculars) of the triangle
Then each of the three pairs of rays SP and SP',
the quadrilateral.
SQ and SQ', SR and SR' cut orthogonally; therefore the same will
be the case with the fourth pair t and t'. But tangents to a
parabola which cut orthogonally intersect on the directrix (Art. 369)
therefore
The orthocentre of any triangle circumscribing a parabola lies on
the directrix.
375. If in the theorem of the last Article the triangle be supposed
to be fixed, and the parabola to vary, we obtain the theorem :
centres of these triangles must all lie on the directrix of the parabola.
It follows that
Given four straight lines, the orthocentres of the four triangles
formed by taking them three and three together are collinear.
FX.FL = FX'.FL'=k 2 ,
\X X=FX=^
,
FL
i
radius of the latter circle, it has been seen that the directrix
FD.FO'=k 2 .
FL = FO'
therefore (Art.
x
351), € = ^tft
tit p
2
OA
and whose radius p is equal to k .
jp^ , that is, (Art. 352 Cor.)
having its centre at a focus and its radius equal to half the minor
{conjugate) axis is the circle described on the major {transverse) axis as
diameter.
T 2
:
centre at the focus and its radius equal to half the latus rectum is a
circle of the same radius, having its centre at the point of intersection of
the axis with the directrix.
: : :
CHAPTEE XXIV.
If through the points where the asymptotes are cut by any tangent
to a hyperbola any two parallel straight lines be drawn, these will
be conjugate to one another with respect to the conic. Or
Two parallel straight lines which are conjugate to one another with
respect to a hyperbola cut the asymptotes in points, the straight lines
BC. Let F and G be two points lying on this diameter which are
conjugate with respect to the parabola, i.e. two points equidistant
from A (Art. 142) ; by the theorem of Art. 275, BF and CG, and
likewise BG and CF, will meet on the curve.
This enables us to construct by points a parabola which circum-
scribes a given triangle ABC and has the straight line joining A to
another with regard to the parabola, i.e. any two points dividing BC
harmonically. Since H
and H' are collinear with the pole of the
diameter passing through A, therefore by the theorem of Art. 275, a
point on the parabola will be found by constructing the point of
intersection of AH with the diameter passing through W and , another
will be found as the point where AW meets the diameter passing
through H.
383. In the theorem of Art. 274 suppose the tangent c to lie at
from the point ha and the parallel to h drawn from the point hra
will both be tangents to the required parabola.
384. If in the theorem of Art. 274 the straight line a be supposed
to lie at infinity, and b and c to be two tangents to a parabola, we
obtain the following
The parallels drawn to two tangents to a parabola, from any point
on their chord of contact, are conjugate lines with regard to tJie conic.
By another application of the same theorem we deduce a result
already proved in Art. 178, viz. that
385] COROLLARIES AND CONSTRUCTIONS. 279
Fig. 231.
cut by the transversals BE and B' E' in the points B and B',
i?and E', G and G'; by the theorem of Menelaus (Art. 139)
BBCJ^AG_
CB' AE'BG ~ T '
( '
De la Hire, loc. cit., lib. iii. prop. 21. + G&omitrie de position, p. 437.
: ;
* Carnot's theorem, being evidently true for the circle (since in this case
BD BD' = CD
. CD'> &c), may be proved without making use of involution
.
properties as follows
Let I J,
, K be the points at infinity on BO CA AB respectively,
, , and sup-
pose Fig. 231 to have been derived by projecting from any vertex on any plane a
triangle A B C whose sides are cut by a circle
X X X in D x
and D E
x
and E F and F'
',
x x
',
x
~~C D 1 1 ''C1 Il
'
So
BD' BD X X
'
B 1 I
1
CD' ~ C D{ X
BD .BD' B D B D ' B I 2
X X X X X X
x x
AE .AE'
and
AF .AF' B K*
X
BF.BF'-AKr
Multiplying these three equations together, and remembering that by the
theorem of Menelaus the product on the right-hand side is equal to unity, we
have the result required.
Carnot's theorem is true not only for a triangle but for a polygon of any num-
ber of sides the proof just given can clearly be extended so as to show this, the
;
387. If the point A pass off to infinity (Fig. 232) the ratios
AF: AE and AF' : AE /
become in the limit each equal to unity,
and the equation (1) of Art. 385 accordingly reduces to
BD BD' CF.CF' _
W
.
T
CD.CD'' BF.BF'" * •
*'
CE.CE'' QP.QP'~
Fig. 232.
that is to say
If through any point Q there be drawn in given directions two
transversals to cut a conic in P,P' and E,E' respectively, then the
then (Euc. iii. QP QP' = QE QE'. But if MOM', NCN' be the diameters
35) . .
of the conic parallel respectively to QPP' and QEE', we have, by the theorem
in the text,
QP.QP'-.QE. QE' = CM. CM': CN.CN'
= CM* : CN*.
Therefore CM = CN, and consequently CM and CN (and therefore also QPP'
and QEE') make equal angles with the axes.
: : :
rf.hf'Lke.ke',
that is to say
If through any point R
[or R') lying on an asymptote there be
bola in two points F and F' (B and B'), then the rectangle
FH. FL = - OT 2
or BR'. BL' = OS 2 ;
therefore
If a transversal drawn from any point (B) on a hyperbola F
cut the asymptotes in H
and L (in H' and L'), the rectangle
FH FL . (BR'. BL') is equal to + the square on the parallel
semidiameter ; the negative or positive sign being taken according as
the curve has or has not tangents parallel to the transversal.
391] COROLLARIES AND CONSTRUCTIONS. 283
BD CE AF_ _
cd'ae'bf~ l
'
If from any two points the vertices of a triangle are projected upon
on a conic.
the respectively opposite sides, the six points so obtained lie
For example, the middle points of the sides of a triangle and the
feet of the perpendiculars from the vertices on the opposite sides
are six points on a conic *.
* This conic is a circle (the nine-point circle). See Steiner, Annales de Mathe-
matiques (Montpellier, 1828), vol. xix. p. 42 ; or his Collected Works, vol. i. p. 195.
284 COROLLARIES AND CONSTRUCTIONS.
Fig. 234.
Join BE CD, and let them cut E'E" and D'D" in E and D
,
Let W
be the pole of UV with respect to the circle. Every
straight line passing through W
and cutting the circle determines
on it two points which are harmonically conjugate with regard to
Px and Px and these points, when projected from on MN, will
;
right angles to Dl and as these lines are parallel to the asymptotes of the conic
x ,
the curve.
Since the diagonal triangle of the quadrilateral formed by the
four tangents is self-conjugate with respect to the hyperbola,
the centre of the latter will lie on the circle circumscribing
this triangle (Art. 370, II). But the centre of the hyperbola
lies also on the straight line which joins the middle points of
the diagonals of the quadrilateral (Art. 318, II). Either of the
points of intersection of this straight line with the circle will
therefore give the centre of an equilateral hyperbola satisfying
the problem ; there are therefore two solutions. For another
method of solution see Art. 372.
VIII. The polar reciprocal of any conic with respect to a circle K
having its centre on the director circle is an equilateral hyperbola.
For since the tangents to the conic from the centre of the
circle K are mutually perpendicular, the conic which is the
polar reciprocal of the given one must cut the straight line at
infinity in two points subtending a right angle at 0. That is
to say, it must be an equilateral hyperbola.
396. Suppose given a conic, a point JS, and its polar s ; and let a
straight line passing through JS cut the conic in A and A'. Let the
figure he constructed which is homological with the given conic,
JSbeing taken as centre of homology, s as axis of homology, and A A' ,
For if AB
meets the axis s in P, then B', the point of intersection of
SB and A'P, is likewise a point on the conic (Art. 250). The curve
homological with the given conic will therefore be the conic itself.
Any two corresponding points (or straight lines) are separated har-
monically by JS and s ; this is, in fact, the case of harmonic homology
(Arts. 76, 298).
To the straight line at infinity will therefore correspond the
* These theorems are due to Brianchon and Poncelet they were enunciated ;
S and and the points in which j meets the conic will correspond
s ;
Fig. 238.
u
290 COROLLARIES AND CONSTRUCTIONS.
of conjugate points has a pair of double pointsA and A' (Art. 128);
that is to say, the diameter OP meets the curve. If, on the other
conic.
I. First solution (Fig. 239). Through M draw chords parallel to
each diameter, and such that their middle points lie on the respec-
tively conjugate diameters. The other extremities A^A B B
f
1 i
f
of
Fig. 239.
the four chords so drawn will be four points all of which lie on the
required conic.
II. Second solution (Fig. 240). Denoting the diameter MOM' by
c, if the ray c' be constructed which is conjugate to c in the in-
volution determined by the pairs of rays a and V,b and b', then c'
will be the diameter conjugate to c (Art. 296). Through M
draw
MP parallel and through M' draw M'P' parallel to a'; these
to a,
parallels will intersect on the conic (Art. 288) let them cut c' in P ;
and P' respectively. These last two points are conjugate with re-
spect to the conic (Art. 299); thus if on c' two other points be found
which correspond to one another in the involution determined by the
pair P, P and the central point 0, then MQ and M'Q' will intersect
f
tween OP and 0P\ they will be the extremities of the diameter c'
(Art. 290).
III. Third solution. Through the extremities M and M f
of the
diameter which passes through the given point draw parallels to a
and a''; they will meet in a point A lying on the conic. Through
the same points draw parallels to b and b' ; these will meet in another
point B also lying on the conic (Art. 288). Produce AO to A',
401] COROLLARIES AND CONSTRUCTIONS. 291
making OA' equal to AO; and similarly BO to B', making OB' equal
to BO; then will A' and B' be points also lying on the required
conic (Art. 281).
399. Problem. Given in position two pairs of conjugate diameters
a and a', b and V of a eonic, and a tangent f, to construct the conic.
I. First solution (Fig. 241). Let
be the point of intersection of the
given diameters, that is, the centre
of the conic. Draw parallel to t and
at a distance from equal to that
at which t lies, a straight line f\ this
will be the tangent parallel to t.Let
Fig. 241.
the points of intersection of t and if
with a and a' be joined this will give two other parallel tangents
;
u %
292 COROLLARIES AND CONSTRUCTIONS. [402
the tangent parallel to n.Join the points where m and mf meet a and
a'by the straight lines t and t', and the points where n and n' meet
a and a' by the straight lines u and vf. The four straight lines
t , tf, u , v! will all be tangents to the required conic (Art. 288).
402. Problem. Given jive points on a conic, to construct a 'pair of
conjugate diameters which shall make with one another a given angle *.
Construct first a diameter AA /
of the conic (Art. 285); and on it
will lie on the required conic (Art. 264). The same construction may
be repeated in the case of the other two sides of the triangle EFG.
If the point P lies within the triangle EFG, the points A',B' C
lie upon the sides FG GE EF respectively
, , (not produced %). The
straight line p may cut two of the sides of the triangle, or it may lie
entirely outside the triangle. In the first case the involutions lying
on the two sides of the triangle which are cut by p are both of the
non-overlapping (hyperbolic) kind, and therefore each possesses double
points (Art. 128); these give four points of the required curve, and
the problem reduces to that of describing a conic passing through four
given points and with respect to which two other given points are
conjugates (Art. 393). In the second case, on the other hand, the
pairs of conjugate points on each of the sides of the triangle EFG
overlap, and the involutions have no double points (Art. 128); in
this case the conic does not cut any of the sides of the self-
conjugate triangle ; therefore (Art. 262) it does not exist.
If the point P lies outside the triangle, one only of the three
points A', B', C lies on the corresponding side; the two others lie
on the respective sides produced. If these two other sides are cut by
p none of the involutions possesses double points, and the conic does
,
not exist. If on the other hand p cuts the first side, or if p lies
entirely outside the triangle, the conic exists, and may be constructed
as above.
In whether the conic has a real existence or not, the polar
all cases,
rig- 245.
of which the arc AB is a part, the angles AON and TBN f are equal
and opposite. If N
and N' vary their positions simultaneously, the
rays ON and BN' will describe two oppositely equal pencils, and the
locus of their point of intersection M
will therefore (Art. 395, II) be
an equilateral hyperbola passing through and B. The asymptotes
of this hyperbola are parallel to the bisectors of the angle made by
AO and i^with one another for these straight lines are correspond-
;
ing rays (being the positions of the variable rays ON and BN' for
which the arcs AN and BN' are each zero). The centre of the
hyperbola is the middle point of the straight line OB which joins the
centres of the two pencils.
The hyperbola having been constructed by help of Pascal's theorem,
the point P will have been found in which it cuts the arc AB. Two
corresponding points N
and N' coalesce in this point therefore ;
the arc AP is half of the arc PB, and P is that point of trisection
of the arc AB which is the nearer to A.
The hyperbola meets the circle in two other points E and Q. The
point R is one of the points of trisection of the arc which together
of tri section of the arc which together with AB makes up the cir-
cumference of the circle.
407. It has been seen (Art. 191) that if P', P", Q\ Q" (Fig. 246)
are four given collinear points, and if any conic be described to pass
through P r
and P", and then a tangent be drawn to this conic from
Q' and another from Q", the chord joining the points of contact
of these tangents passes through one of the double points ', N' of M
the involution which is determined by the two pairs of points
P f and P", Q' and Q". The two tangents which can be drawn from
Q', combined with the two from Q", give four such chords of contact,
of which two pass through M* and two through N'. From this may
Fig. 246.
Join P'P", and let it cut the three given tangents in Q , #', Q"
respectively (Fig. 246). Describe any circle through P', P" and
/f
draw to it tangents from Q, Q', Q .
'
The chords which join the
points of contact of the tangents from Q" to the points of contact of
the tangents from meet P'P" in two points
Q and N\ and simi- M
larly the tangents from Q" combined with those from- Q' determine
two points M
' and N'.
tangents q q" will pass through one of the points M', N\ The
f
,
the chords of contact of the two pairs of tangents q q" and q\ q" shall ,
SQ" and TR, meeting in TJ\ and join QU, meeting RQ" in V.
Join VM'\ it will meet q f and q" in A' and A" ; and finally if
MA" be joined, it will cut Q'Q" in A.
II. To
construct a conic qf which three points P P\ P" and
, two
tangents q qf are given.
,
Join PP', and let it meet q and q' in Q and Q' respectively; join
PP", and meet q and q / in R and R' respectively. Describe
let it
a circle round PP'P'\ and to it draw tangents from Q and Q'; the
chords of contact will meet PP' in two points and N. Similarly M
draw the tangents from R and R / ; the chords of contact will meet
M
PP" in two other points / and N'. Then each of the straight lines
MN\ NN\ M'N', MM' will meet the tangents q and q' in two of
the points of contact of these two tangents with a conic circumscribing
the triangle PP'P".
This construction from that given in Art. 221 (left) only in
differs
the method of finding the double points and N, f
M
and N'. M
409. Theorem. If two angles AOS and AO'S of given magnitude
turn about their respective vertices and 0' in such a way that the
point of intersection S qf one pair of arms lies always on a fixed straight
line u, the point of intersection of the other pair of arms will describe
a conic (Fig. 248).
—
The proof follows at once from the property that the pencils
traced out by the variable rays OA and
OS, OS and O'S O'^and O'A , are
projective two and two (Arts. 42,
108), and that consequently the
pencils traced out by OA and O'A
are projective. This theorem is due
to Newton, and was given by him
under the title of The Organic De-
scription of a conic *.
6. Examine the cases in which the two given angles are directly
equal, or oppositely equal, or supple-
mentary t.
411. Theokem. If a variable triangle
AMA' move in such a way that its sides turn
severally round three given points ,
' , S
(Fig. 249) while two of its vertices A A', slide
and A'B',A'C are drawn to a conic; then will the four points oj
contact B C B',C', and the two given points A A' all lie on a conic
, , ,
sides BC, CA, AB in A', B' C respectively, and to make with them
,
circle, so that the angles they subtend at the centre may be equal
(in sign and magnitude), then the three straight lines will meet in a
point J.
to find a point at which they all subtend equal angles (Art. 109).
In what case can these angles be right angles % (See Art.
128).
(2). Given two projective ranges lying on the same straight line ;
an d AB'\BA' = OA:OB;
whence by multiplication, paying attention to the signs of the segments,
BC .CA'.AB' = - CA . B'C A'B,
.
given one f.
419. It will be a useful exercise for the student to apply the
theory of pole and polar to the solution of problems of the first
and second degree, supposing given a ruler, and a fixed circle and
its centre. We give some examples of problems treated in this
manner
I. To draw through a given point P a straight Une parallel to a
given straight line q.
straight line OQ joining Q to the centre of the circle, then the polar
a of A will be the straight line required.
point B.
* This is the problem ' de sectione determinata of Apollonius. See Chasles, '
other negative. This determines which of the two given axes is the
one containing the foci. If now a circle be circumscribed about
the triangle formed by the two given conjugate lines and the non-
focal axis, it will cut the focal axis at the foci (Art. 343).
422. The following are left as exercises to the student.
1. Given the axes of a conic in position, and also a tangent and
\j
its point of contact, construct the foci, and determine the lengths of
consists of two conies having the centres of the given circles for foci.
INDEX.
Affinity, pp. 18, 19. Brianchon, x, xi, xii, 124, 125.
Angle of constant magnitude turning Brianchon's theorem, xi, 124.
round its vertex traces out two points, the sixty, 125.
directly equal pencils, 91.
bisection of an, 300. Carnot's theorem, xi, 279, 280.
trisection of an, 294. Centre of projection, 1, 3.
Angles, two, of given magnitude ; gene- of perspective or homology, 10, 12,
ration of a conic by means of, 297. 98.
Anharmonic ratio defined, 54, 57. of similitude, 18.
unaltered by projection, 54. of symmetry, 64.
of a harmonic form is —1, 57. of an involution, 102.
cannot have the values + I, o, or 00, Centre of a conic, the pole of the line at
62. infinity, 218.
of four points or tangents of a conic, bisects all chords, 219.
122. the point of intersection of the
Anharmonic ratios, the six, 60, 61. asymptotes, 219.
Apollonius, x, xi, xii. when external and when internal to
on the parabola, 127, 218. the conic, 219.
on the hyperbola, 130, 142, 156, locus of, given four tangents, 237.
158, 286. construction of the, given five points,
on the diameters of a conic, 217, 223, 220.
230, 232, 234, 235. construction of the, given five tan-
on focal properties of a conic, 253, gents, 238.
258, 259, 262. Ceva, theorem of six segments, ill.
section-problems, 300. Chasles, xi, xii.
Arc of a conic, determination of kind on homography, 34.
of conic to which it belongs, 289. method of generating conies, 127.
of a circle, trisection of, 294. correlative to the theorem ad qua-
of a circle, bisection of, 300. tuor lineas,' 159.
Asymptotes, tangents at infinity, 1 6, 1 2 9 on the geometric method of false
meet in the centre of the conic, 219. position, 194.
determination of the, given five solutions of problems of the second
points on the conic, 178, 179. degree, 200.
Auxiliary conic, 203, 239, 240. Circle, curve homologicalwith a, 14, 15.
circle of a conic, 260. generated by the intersection of two
Axes of a conic defined, 227, 228. directly equal pencils, 114.
case of the parabola, 228. harmonic points and tangents of a,
focal and non-focal, 252. 115, 116.
bisectors of the angle between its fundamental projective properties of
chords of intersection with any points and tangents of a, 115.
circle, 236, 281. of curvature at a point on a conic,
Axes of a conic, construction of the, 190.
given a pair of conjugate diameters, cutting a conic ; the chords of inter-
232, 283. section make equal angles with
given five points, 236, 292. the axes, 236, 281.
Axis of perspective or homology, 10. circumscribing triangle formed by
of affinity, 18. three tangents to a parabola, 253.
of symmetry, 64. auxiliary, of a conic, 260.
Class of a curve, 4.
Bellavitis, xi, 64, 161. is equal to the degree of its polar
Bisection of a given segment or angle reciprocal with regard to a conic,
by means of the ruler only, 300. 240.
v
304 INDEX.
Coefficient of homology, 63. a pair of conjugate diameters in posi-
Collinear projective ranges, 68. tion, and a tangent and its point
their self- corresponding points, 78, of contact, 289.
9 1 , 9 2 93-
.
two pairs of conjugate diameters in
construction for these, 1 70. position, and one point or tan-
Complementary operations, 33. gent, 290, 291.
Concentric pencils, 69. two reciprocal triangles, 247.
construction for their self-correspond- a self- conjugate triangle, and appoint
ing rays, 169. and its polar, 292.
Cone, sections of the, 14, 18. a self-conjugate pentagon, 293.
Confocal conies, 266. three points and the osculating circle
Congruent figures, 64. at one of them, 190.
Conic, homological with a circle, 15, 16. Conic, construction of a, homological
generated by two projective pencils, with itself, 228, 288.
119. passing through three points and
generated as an envelope from two determining a known involution
projective ranges, 120. on a given line, 284.
determined by five points or five passing through four points and di-
tangents, 123. viding a given segment harmoni-
fundamental projective property of cally, 284.
points and tangents, 118. passing through four points and
projective ranges of points and series through a pair of conjugate points
of tangents of a, 161. of a given involution, 285.
homological with itself, 228, 288. Conies, osculating, 189.
polar reciprocal of a, 240. having a common self-conjugate
homological with a given conic, and triangle, 213, 214.
having its centre at a given point, circumscribing the same quadrangle,
249. 150, 214, 237.
confocal with a given conic, and inscribed in the same quadrilateral,
passing through a given point, 266. 150, 213, 214, 237.
Conic, construction of a, having given Conjugate axis of a hyperbola, 228.
five points or tangents, 131, 149, 176, Conjugate diameters, defined, 219.
179, 180, 297. of a circle cut orthogonally, 222.
four points and the tangent at one form an involution, 227.
of them, 137, 177. parallelogram described on a pair as
three points and the tangents at two adjacent sides is of constant area,
of them, 139, 177. 234-
three tangents and the points of con- sum or difference of squares is con-
tact of two of them, 143, 177. stant, 235.
four tangents and the point of con- construction of, given two pairs, 232.
tact of one of them, 146, 177. construction of, given five points on
four points and a tangent, 180. the conic, 236. '
306 INDEX.
circumscribing a triangle passes Hesse, theorem, relating to the ex-
through the orthocentre, 287. tremities of the diagonals of a
is the polar reciprocal of a conic with complete quadrilateral, 245.
regard to a point on the director Hexagon, inscribed in a line-pair, 76.
circle, 288. circumscribed to a point-pair, 76.
construction of, given four tangents, inscribed in a conic, 124.
272, 288. circumscribed to a conic, 124.
Euclid, porisms of, x, 96. complete, contains sixty simple hexa-
External and internal points with re- gons, 125.
gard to a conic, 203. Homographic, the term, 34.
figures, construction of, 81.
False position, geometrical method of,
may be
figures placed in homology,
194. 84.
Focal axis of a conic, 252. Homological construction of,
figures,
radii of a point on a conic, 253.
13-20.
radii, their sum or difference is con- metrical relations between, 63-65.
stant, 258.
Homology, defined, 9, 10. •
X 2
308 INDEX.
harmonic, 40, 42. circumscribed to a conic, whose ver-
in involution, 101. tices slide on fixed lines, 152, 186.
in involution, orthogonal pair of whose sides pass through fixed points
rays of a, 172. and whose vertices lie on fixed
cut by a conic in pairs of points lines, 184.
forming an involution, 166. Poncelet, ix, x, xii.
Pentagon, inscribed in a conic, 136. on variable polygons inscribed in or
circumscribed to a conic, 145. circumscribed to a conic, 151, 184-
self- conjugate with regard to a conic, 187.
293- on ideal chords, 2 26.
Perpendiculars, centre of, see Ortho- on polar reciprocal figures, 240.
centre. on triangles inscribed in one conic
from a focus on tangents to a conic, and circumscribed about another,
the locus of their feet a circle, 259. 2 44-
.
from the foci of a conic on a tangent, Porisms, of Euclid and Pappus, 95, 96.
their product constant, 260. of in- and circumscribed triangle, 94,
from any point of the circumscribing 244.
circle of a triangle to the sides, of the inscribed and self-conjugate
their feet collinear, 261, 299. triangle, 243.
construction of, with the ruler only, of the circumscribed and self-con-
97, 3°°- jugate triangle, 243.
Perspective, figures in, 3. Power of a point with respect to a
triangles in, 7, 8, 246. circle, 58.
forms in, 35. Prime-forms, the six, 24.
plane, 10. Problems, solved with ruler only, 96-98.
relief, 20. of the second degree, 1 76-200.
Plane of points or lines, 22. solved by means of the ruler and a
Planes, harmonic, 42. fixed circle, 194, 300.
involution of, 101. solved by polar reciprocation, 301.
Points, harmonic, on a straight line, 40. Projection, operation of, 2, 22, 164.
harmonic, on a circle, 116. central, 3. .
Poles, range of, projective with the of two forms ABCD and BABC, 38.
pencil formed by their polars, 209, of harmonic forms, 41,-43.
224. of the anharmonic ratio, 54."^"
of a straight line with regard to all of any two plane quadrangles, 80.
conies inscribed in the same quad- of a range of poles and the pencil
lateral lie on a fixed straight line, formed by their polars, 209, 2 24.
THE END
n
SELECT WORKS
PUBLISHED BY THE CLARENDON PRESS.
Baynes.
LESSONS ON THERMODYNAMICS. By R. E.
Baynes, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church, Oxford, and Lee's
Reader in Physics. Crown 8vo. cloth, ys. 6d.
Chambers.
A HANDBOOK OF DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
By G. F. Chambers, F.R.A.S. Third Edition. Demy 8vo. cloth, 2%s.
Clarke.
GEODESY. By Colonel Alexander Ross Clarke, C.B.,
R.E. 8vo. cloth, 12s. 6d.
Donkin.
ACOUSTICS. By W. F. DonKin, M.A., F.R.S., late
Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford. Crown 8vo. cloth, ys. 6d.
Maxwell.
A TREATISE ON ELECTRICITY AND MAGNE-
TISM. By J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., F.R.S. Second Edition.
2 vols. Demy 8vo. cloth, \l. lis. 6d.
Minchin.
A TREA TISE ON STA TICS. By G. M. Minchin, M.A.,
Third Edition, Corrected and Enlarged. Vol. I. Equilibrium of
Coplanar Forces. 8vo. cloth, ys. Vol. II. In the Press.
Price.
TREATISE ON INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS. By
Bartholomew Price, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy, Oxford.
Vol. I. Differential Calculus. Second Edition, 8vo. cloth, x^s. 6d.
Vol. II. Integral Calculus, Calculus of Variations, and Differential
Equations. Second Edition. 8vo. cloth, \%s.
Vol. III. Statics, including Attractions Dynamics of a Material
;
Rigaud.
CORRESPONDENCE OF SCIENTIFIC MEN OF
THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, with Table of Contents by
A. de Morgan, and Index by the Rev. J. Rigaud, M.A., Fellow of
Magdalen College, Oxford. 2 vols. 8vo. cloth, \%s. 6d.
Stewart.
A TREATISE ON HEAT, with numerous Woodcuts and
Diagrams. By Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester. Fourth Edition.
Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, 7s. 6d.
LOAN DEPT.
This book due on the last date stamped below, or
is
on the date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.
W^ ?
IN STACKS
* APR 61964
REC'D LD
APR?fe'fi/|-4PI\ |
t'1